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Contents vii
We are delighted to introduce the fifth edition of this book, which was first
published in 1965 and has been in press continuously since then. In the
Preface to the first edition it was noted that “Although many aspects of the
application of dislocation ideas are still in a state of flux a body of knowledge, based
on theoretical analysis and experimental observation, has now been established
which forms a basis for most of the ideas and theories which are proposed”. Today
the subject is a well-established discipline and is a powerful and essential
aspect in understanding of the properties and behavior of crystalline solids.
Much of the basis of the subject, set out in relatively simple terms in the first
edition, has been retained in later editions. In each subsequent edition new
material has been included to broaden the detail and introduce some key
aspects, which have emerged from research, without turning the book into a
research monograph. In this latest edition we have taken advantage of recent
research, using advanced computer modeling and very high resolution elec-
tron microscopy, to provide a better understanding of the arrangement of
atoms close to the centre or core of dislocations. It is now clear that the
atomic arrangement in the core has a fundamental effect on the behavior of
dislocations and thereby on the properties of solids.
The development of this edition has benefited from a worldwide consulta-
tion, by the publishers, with leading authorities in the teaching and research-
ing of dislocations. This consultation established that the fourth edition is
still widely used in undergraduate and post-graduate university science and
engineering courses and research schools. In preparing the fifth edition we
have attempted to maintain a balance between a description of the basic
properties of dislocations that are taught in introductory undergraduate
courses and a more detailed treatment that is required for scientific research.
This distinction depends on the nature of courses and research although we
have not attempted to make any delineation within the body of the text.
Thus, for example, in Chapter 2, on the observation of dislocations, the sim-
ple methods, first developed in early studies, are set alongside the ix
x Preface
Defects in Crystals
c
α
β y
O B
γ a
A b
x
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.1
(a) A space lattice, (b) unit cell showing positions of principal axes.
z
take the reciprocals of the ratios of the inter-
cepts to the corresponding unit cell dimen-
sions. Thus A0 B0 C0 is represented by
C′
OA OB OC
; ;
OA0 OB0 OC0
and the numbers are then reduced to the three
smallest integers in these ratios.
C Thus from Fig. 1.2 OA0 5 2a, OB0 5 3a, and
a OC0 5 3a, the reciprocal intercepts are
B′ y a a a
O a B
a ; ;
2a 3a 3a
A
and so the Miller indices of the A0 B0 C0 plane
A′ are (322). Curved brackets are used for planes.
A″ A plane with intercepts OA, OB, and OC has
x Miller indices
a a a
; ;
FIGURE 1.2 a a a
Cubic cell illustrating or, more simply, (111). Similarly, a plane DFBA in Fig. 1.3 is
method of describing the a a a
orientation of planes. ; ;
a a N
or (110); a plane DEGA is
a a a
; ;
a N N
1.1 Crystalline Materials 3
or ½112. The rule that brackets [ ] and ( ) imply specific directions and
planes respectively, and that h i and { } refer respectively to directions and
planes of the same type, will be used throughout this text.
In cubic crystals the Miller indices of a plane are the same as the indices of
the direction normal to that plane. Thus in Fig. 1.3 the indices of the plane
EFBG are (010) and the indices of the direction AG which is normal to
EFBG are [010]. Similarly, direction OE [111] is normal to plane CBA (111).
The coordinates of any point in a crystal relative to a chosen origin site are
described by the fractional displacements of the point along the three princi-
pal axes divided by the corresponding lattice parameters of the unit cell. The
FIGURE 1.4 center of the cell in Fig. 1.3 is 12, 12, 12 relative to the origin O; and the points
Simple cubic structure: (a) F, E, H and I are 0, 1, 1; 1, 1, 1; 12, 12, 1; and 1, 12, 1 respectively.
unit cell, (b) arrangement
of atoms in (100) layers,
(c) arrangement of atoms 1.2 SIMPLE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
in (110) layers.
In this section the atoms are considered as hard spheres
[001] which vary in size from element to element. From the
hard sphere model the parameters of the unit cell can
be described directly in terms of the radius of the
atomic sphere, r. In the diagrams illustrating the crystal
structures the atoms are shown as small circles in the
a [010] three-dimensional drawings and as large circles repre-
(a) senting the full hard sphere sizes in the two-dimensional
diagrams. It will be shown that crystal structures can be
[100] described as a stack of lattice planes in which the
[001]
arrangement of lattice sites within each layer is identical.
[010] To see this clearly in two-dimensional figures, the atoms
in one layer represented by the plane of the paper are
shown as full circles, whereas those in layers above and
a
below the first are shown as small shaded circles. The
(b) order or sequence of the atom layers in the stack, i.e. the
a stacking sequence, is described by labeling one layer as an
A layer and all other layers with atoms in identical posi-
a 2 tions above the first as A layers also. Layers of atoms in
[001]
other positions in the stack are referred to as B, C, D
[110] layers, etc.
a
In the simple cubic structure with one atom at each lattice
site, illustrated in Fig. 1.4, the atoms are situated at the
(c)
corners of the unit cell. (Note that no real crystals have
such a simple atomic arrangement.) Figures 1.4(b) and
a 2 (c) show the arrangements of atoms in the (100) and
1.2 Simple Crystal Structures 5
[001] [001]
[110]
[011]
(III) plane
a [010]
[100] [101]
(a) (b)
B
C
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.7
Face-centered cubic structure: (a) unit cell, (b) principal directions, (c) arrangement of atoms in a (111)
close-packed plane, (d) stacking sequence of {111} planes.
a
a a2
120°
a1 –a3
(a)
A
(b)
B
FIGURE 1.8
Close-packed hexagonal structure: (a) the unit cell of the lattice and the hexagonal cell showing the
arrangement of atoms, (b) ABAB. . . stacking sequence of the atomic planes perpendicular to the c axis.
FIGURE 1.9
Determination of direction
Some of these planes are indicated in Fig. 6.1. Direction indices in hexagonal
indices in the basal plane structures are defined by the components of the direction parallel to the four
of an hexagonal crystal. axes. The numbers must be reduced to the smallest integers and the third
The translations giving rise index is the negative of the sum of the first two. To satisfy this condition the
to 1210 are shown directions along axes a1, a2 and a3 are of the type h1210i as illustrated in
explicitly. Fig. 1.9.
Point Defects
All the atoms in a perfect crystal are at specific atomic sites (ignoring thermal
vibrations). In a pure metal two types of point defect are possible, namely a
vacant atomic site or vacancy, and a self-interstitial atom. These intrinsic defects
are illustrated for a simple cubic structure in Fig. 1.10. The vacancy has been
formed by the removal of an atom from an atomic site (labeled v) and the
interstitial by the introduction of an atom into a non-lattice site at a 12, 12, 0
position (labeled i). It is known that vacancies and interstitials can be pro-
duced in materials by plastic deformation and high-energy particle irradia-
tion. The latter process is particularly important in materials in nuclear
reactor installations. Furthermore, intrinsic point defects are introduced
into crystals simply by virtue of temperature, for at all temperatures above
0 K there is a thermodynamically stable concentration. The change in
Helmholtz free energy ΔF associated with the introduction of n vacancies or
self-interstitials in the crystal is
1.3 Defects in Crystalline Materials 9
Előszó 1 l.
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Első fejezet. – A tömegek nézeteinek és
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