CASTELL6N (SPAIN)

DEVELOPMENT OF A DESIGN
MANAGEMENT AUDITING MODEL
FOR THE CERAMIC SECTOR

Amalia Dieguez (*); David Gobert (*); Ricardo Chiva (**)

(*) ALICER, Asociaci6n para la Promoci6n de Disefio Ceramico

(**) UNIVERSITAT JAUME I
Spain

ABSTRACT

Owing to the growing importance of product design and design managementfor enhancing
corporate competitiveness in the ceramic sector, the development was undertaken of an analysis
tool that would allow determining the situation of both aspects in ceramic companies. The tool is
a design managementaudit applied to the ceramic sector, whichfor its development required using
other audits and managementfeatures considered of importance, besides performing an empirical
verification at four sectoral companies, specifically involving ceramic floor and wall tile
manufacturing companies. This empirical study of the four cases yielded certain further
conclusions regarding design management in this branch. The four studied companies were
selected as being a priori representative of different ways of managing design in the Spanish
ceramic sector.

INTRODUCTION

Owing to the need for ceramic floor and wall tile manufacturers to achieve greater
effectiveness in introducing new product models in their target markets, product
design and design management are starting to playa determining role in the ceramic
sector. However, for companies to set about improving product design and design
management, it is first necessary to analyse their situation in this regard. The
development of an analysis tool termed a design management audit was therefore
undertaken for this purpose.
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The audit was developed in two contexts:

1) Theoretical. This has required studying and using other currently existing design
audits, besides incorporating new features considered of great importance, which
had not been analysed. On the other hand, all the excessively generic
requirements were fitted to the specific situation of the ceramic branch. The sector
is characterised amongst other aspects by the fact that certain companies leave
generating new models to suppliers of raw materials and other products, which
offer ceramic product design free, incorporating the cost in the price of their
products.

2) Empirical. In this context empirical verification was required of the auditing

model at four ceramic floor and wall tile manufacturing companies, on
considering them producers of the ceramic end product. This verification
concurrently involved performing case studies. Furthermore, the case studies
revealed processes and problems in design generation and management in the
end ceramic product relating to corporate organisational and directive features.

The design management audit aims to provide an in-depth analysis of design

processes and management for ceramic products and models. Using this, companies can
obtain a detailed view of the method that they are presently following, with its
weaknesses and strengths, based on the existing theoretical framework. With this
knowledge, companies can programme courses of action for improvement to achieve
greater success of the models developed by each company.

DESIGN MANAGEMENT

With a view to defining the theoretical framework, product management design,

this section sets out the theoretical concepts and the associated ideas that were developed.

Considering innovation as the process through which new ideas, objects and
practices are created, developed or invented, the process will include an essential, prior
design stage, followed by other stages of development, adoption, implementation and
dissemination (Slappendel, 1996, pp. 107-108). Aubert (1982, in Walsh, 1996, p.513) takes
design to be the essence of innovation, the moment at which a new object is imagined,
materialised and formed as a prototype. Design is thus closely related to innovation, as
the act of designing itself always introduces something new (Felip and Gimmy, 1995, p.
94). Moreover, the corporate innovation process is conceived as a process of individual
and collective learning, which responds to a pattern of constant search for problem-
solving approaches (Garcia, 1995, p. 28), which ties innovation to organisational learning.

Amongst the various types of innovation, product innovation (activity) involves

prior product design, which could be defined as the product formalising process with
regard to its functional, use, manufacturing and communication requirements. This
process would not only involve a creative act, but the concurrence of technical and
market aspects, amongst others (Walsh, 1996, p.50). Thus, design not only manifests an
activity in the process of developing new products, but the conjunction of all the activities
that affect the performance and appearance of the product (Mintzberg and Dumas, 1991,
p. 31). Gorb and Dumas (1987) define design as a process to develop an artefact or thing,
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which includes the various organisational activities required to achieve this process.
Hence "design is crucial to innovation, as it involves the part of creativity where ideas are
materialised, but also where technical possibilities and market demands or opportunities
merge"(Freeman, 1982, in Walsh, 1996, p. 514).

According to Bennet et al. (1988 in Bruce and Cooper, 1997, p.65-66) and Cooper and
Press (1995, p. 38-39), the product design process involves four stages, which determine
design as a wide-ranging process that goes beyond the simple creation of a projection:

1) Planning, formulation or origins of design: the need is investigated and the

required idea or concept is defined in accordance with the situation and trends of
technology and the market.

2) Specification of the idea and concept; projecting and generating the prototype or
design.

3) Developing product design and manufacture. Launching and distributing the

product with the corresponding communication thereof.

4) Analysis of the reaction or results of the created design.

To carry out the design process, correct management is required together with the
existence of a series of aspects and knowledge that facilitate the unfolding of this process.
Rothwell and Gardiner (1989) consider that design management includes various
features:

(1) Knowing and situating the company, its products and main technologies in
relation to competing products and companies.
(2) Defining where the company wishes to act and where not, in terms of
technologies, products and markets.
(3) Defining options and paths, from a rational standpoint, based on its weakness
and strengths.
(4) Stimulating the dialogue between product development, production, marketing
and financial staff to discover and assess potential product markets and the
possibilities of new products for present markets.
(5) Making the idea of design and innovation part of corporate culture, something
absolutely necessary for the company to be profitable in the long term.

If product design is linked to a "network" or social and technical structure, this will
involve relations, connections, teamwork, conflicts, ambiguity, etc., from different
perspectives and agent approaches. Design management needs to ensure that the
dialogue takes place between persons interested in the use of design, including the end
user (Walsh, 1996, p.515).

Based on Porter's (1985) value chain concept, Borja de Mozota (1998) establishes the
guidelines for measuring design performance. He sets three types of design for each
company activity:
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Types ofdesig n Types of Guidelines or key features

activities
Operative Design : Value-creating design for Design as Market positioning
Primary activities. De sign creates added value Primary acti vit y Corporate image
for the customer through differentiation. Design Product strategy
is an econom ic competence. (1 ) (2) (3): Rothwell and Gardiner
(1989)
F unctiona l d esign : Value-creating design for Design as Project management
supporting acti vities . Design creates va lue Supporting Team management
through function co-ordination (especially if the activity Relation wit h other departments
new product design process is improved). De sign Technological change
is a managem en t compet en ce. (4): Rothwell and Gardiner
( 1989)
A ntici pating Design : Vision-creating design for Design as Vision. Overall marketing
the whol e value chain system. Design add s value Design as Competitive en vironment
by anticipating internal and external changes in Acti vity that (5): Rothwell and Gardiner
the company en vironment. Design becomes an affects the whol e (1989)
esse nt ia l competence. corporate
environment.

Table 1. Types of design. Adapted from Borja de M020ta (1998).

The existence of all these types of design involves correct design management.

DESIGN MANAGEMENT AUDIT

As design and design management have acquired greater importance for

companies, tools have been developed for analysing these. The design audit is one su ch
efficient tool (Cooper and Press, 1995, p. 187; Bruce and Cooper, 1997, p.60) .

Although the term audit is for many a synonym for financial analysis, it is currently
used for any type of business analysis (Cooper y Press, 1995, p.189). It generally involves
the objective analysis of the present situation in the organisation, with regard to a given
topic, in this case design management. However, design audits have not been developed
to any great extent, so that they are not very consistent.

Design audits have been approached in different ways . The following are
particularly noteworthy:

• Kotler and Rath, (1990), which is a brief questionnaire on company sensitivity to

design and its efficiency in design management.

• Topalian (1984) developed a framework in which the various features to be

analysed for conducting design audits were related.

• Morton, as director of the "Design Council" (Cooper and Press, 1995, p.207)
created a questionnaire model based on three levels: general management, project
management and design team, and five topics: objectives, plans, communication,
implementation and evaluation. This formed the basis for the following model.

• State Society for Design Development and Innovation (DDI) . This audit
approaches analysis through interviews and data collection in the company on
the following aspects:
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A. Corporate Audit: general analysis of the company and its environment.

Internal analysis: description of the company, production resources, financial eco-

nomic resources, customer portfolio analysis.

External analysis: industrial sector, competition, market.

B. Product Audit: analysis of the current product portfolio with regard to lines and marks,
together their economic results.

Product portfolio profitability, ABC products, sales evolution analysis, product

portfolio analysis, product configuration, production capacity, applied technolo-
gies.

C. Design Audit: product portfolio analysis, with regard to those aspects in which design
can act directly.

Analysis of the product concept, descriptive aspects of the line (formal pro-
duct, broadening and evolution of the company product), industrial design
audit (functional features, use, production, and shape / image), packaging
audit, mark and logotype audit, and analysis of corporate image and culture.

According to Cooper and Press (1995), to develop a design audit model, the features
to be dealt with shall be clear. These authors set four levels, which could be taken into
account in a design audit:

(1) The environment, market, design trends, legislation, etc.

(2) The organisational culture, design role and values, design strategies, degree of
design integration with other organisational functions, etc.

(3) Management of resources, skills, processes, etc., in project development.

(4) Physical manifestations of design: products, work environment, marks, etc.

The Alicer design audit focuses particularly on features (2) and (3), without
however disregarding points (1) and (4), therefore terming it a design management audit.
The audit is based on the DDI model, outlined above, though it also includes ideas from
other auditing models, as well as analysing other particularly relevant organisational
features. Furthermore, an essential feature was to adapt each type of framework or
questionnaire to the ceramic sector to achieve a fully fitted model, which will be used on
eventually providing this service.

The following features, considered to be lacking in other models, have been

incorporated in our model:

- Analysis of the various different competencies in different functional areas of the

company such as marketing, production, finance, human resources, R&D, general
management and design, with a view to having a better view of the strengths and
weaknesses of the company from its point of view.
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- Analysis of company organisational learning, which studies company flexibility

and capacity for innovation, adaptation and change. This analysis is closely related
to the type of functional design mentioned above.

- Determination and evaluation of organisational performance with regard to

different aspects: economic profitability, product quality, etc.

On the other hand:

- Special attention has been paid to product design, leaving aside for the moment
features regarding image, mark, packaging or environment.

- Nor was it considered a priority to study each company model in detail, as process
and management are considered essential to this audit.

- Environment and market analysis were initially disregarded.

Our audit uses various techniques: interviews, questionnaires and documentation,

gathering qualitative and quantitative data. The final theoretical version of this audit was
thus found.

I} Study of the Organisational and Directive Environment. This analyses company reality from a gene-
ral perspective. To do so requires:

• Strategic data analysis (general and product strategies, competitive differences), and descriptive
organisational data on the company. Analysis of the customer portfolio (without nominal data on the
customers, just general and percent data). General vision of design. Minimum analysis of production
resources and economic-financial resources.
• Measurement of competitive differences in Marketing, Technology and R&D, Production, Finance,
Design, Organisation and Human Resources and General Management.
• Measurement of Organisational Performance (business performance).

2} The Questionnaire on Organisational Learning. This analyses the company's flexibility, and ability
to adapt and change.

3}Study of the Product Design Environment. This part is designed to determine and analyse present
product portfolio structure, besides studying the product design management process. The follo-
wing tasks are thus performed:

• Analysis of the latest general investments in products, product ABC, analysis of sales evolution,
analysis of the product portfolio.
• Study of the product development process and its design management.
• Analysis of the most important series, especially focussing on design aspects and sources.

The Alicer Design management audit thus aims to provide a general analysis of the
organisation, particularly focussing on the product design process and product
management, distinctive company competences, and company level of organisational
learning.
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The audit there has the following objectives:

• Discerning the organisation's capacity for change and innovation through an

analysis of organisational learning.
• Obtaining a more complete view of the organisational system, by an internal
company audit.
• Establishing the different competences of each company area.
• Setting the company in its environment.
• Analysing company product portfolio.
• Analysing product de sign management.

CASE STUDIES

With a view to developing this model from an empirical stand p oin t and thus
valid ating it, case stu d ies w ere undertaken in th e ceramic floor and wall til e
manufacturing business, which simultaneously enabled going more deeply into the
design management situation in this branch.

Ca se stu d ies were conducted at four companies, chosen theoretically on the basis of
two dimen sions related to product design, which characterise thi s ceramic business: the
existen ce of a design department and the degree of use of product d esign provided by
su p p liers of raw materials and other products. The first dimension determined a first
strategy regarding the w ay the company managed design. The se cond dimension is a
characteri stic of th e business: su p p liers give away or include product design w ith the
sa les of th eir raw materials. It w as thus attempted with these four companies to achieve
th e greates t possibl e branch representativity with regard to design. Th e case stu d ies were
carried out by intervie w s, questionnaires, data gathering and process ob servation.

Use of designs provided by

Existence of a design department suppliers of raw materials and COMPANY
other products
Yes
Company A
YE S
No
Company B
Yes
Company C
NO
No
Company D

Table 2. Selection criteria of representatioe companies 011 the design sphere.

On w ritin g thi s paper the case studies have not been completely finali sed, owing to
the extent of the work involved in completing the audits. However, all the firm s have
been analysed with regard to design management, besides other aspects, so that we sh all
focu s particularly on this point in our analysis. It is certainly the mo st important issue in
our stu dy. We sh all first describe each company and subsequently set out some of th e
relations found.
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Company A

This company has a design department, which uses or is supplied to a certain

degree with designs from the suppliers of raw materials and other products, though they
also prepare designs in their department, as well as co-operating with third parties such
as design studios or centres for innovation and technology. The company targets upscale
and medium market segments in price and quality. In company opinion, their
competitive differences lie in product design, existence of a quality centre and a
marketing department as a market watcher, participation and co-operation with other
sectoral institutions and a professional direction or management. The image sought is
that of an innovative, dynamic company.

The purpose of design in this company is to create products demanded by the

customers, providing the products with the appropriate aesthetics. The design
department only prepares product projections and does some work on trend analysis in
a very minor way, based on company experience at trade fairs. Product planning,
development and communication are not performed by this department but by others
such as marketing, development or communication.

The sales department decides which product is to be manufactured and has the
greatest say in this matter. This department commissions the type of product to be
designed by the design department. The design department is subordinate to the sales
department.

Product meetings are held with different departments linked to the product:
marketing, production, sales, communication and design, though the sales staff hold
sway.

The first five series sold in 1998 involved 27.3% of that year's turnover. The first ten
accounted for 39.5% of the 1998 turnover. The best-sold series was designed in co-
operation with a centre for innovation and technology. The second and third series were
completely designed in-company. The fourth was again designed in co-operation with
the centre. The fifth was designed in-company. The sixth, seventh and eighth came from
a design provided by the suppliers of raw materials and other products. Series nine and
ten were in-company designs. Summing up, the five best-sold series were designed in-
company or with the centre for innovation and technology.

The ideas thus came basically from the sales staff, who take the decisions.
Marketing and design advance a few ideas. The sales staff are the administrators of
their markets: they decide product issues, logistics, etc. Hence, with a processed idea,
the sales department asks the design department for the design, which is either
internally designed or externally acquired, be it from suppliers of raw materials and
other products, design studios or other sources. If the idea originally came from
design, the proposal was obviously more concrete than when it came from the sales
department.

As the design departments is quite large and has a high capacity, only 40 or 50% of
the designs come from outside. Of these about 30% come from suppliers of raw materials
and other products and 10% from design studios, etc.
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Company B

This company has a design department that designs most of its products, called the
design and development department, as it also develops the products. It also acquires
designs from design studios but never uses designs from suppliers of raw materials and
other products, as the company feels that their use and designs are too widespread. The
firm considers that these designs will be similar in most companies, making the product
unoriginal.

The company targets a medium-high market segment. Strategy is based on high

quality, products that are innovative in technology and design at lower prices than those
of the competition to enable penetrating different markets. The lower price does not stop
the company achieving the same or higher profitability as investments in technology cut
down average product price.

It distinguishes itself from its competitors by product design, quality and high level
of technology. The company has a dynamic, innovating, modern image.

The purpose of design is to differentiate company products from those of the

competition. Solutions are sought based on market needs, adding a creative, original touch.

Management sets out sales, marketing and administrative strategies. The other
departments do their work based on these criteria. There is an intense, good relationship
between the design and development department and production, which is considered
essential by the design manager for the success of new product projects.

With regard to the product design process, there is a first meeting with
Management, the sales, production and design department to establish priorities in
creating new products, based on available products in the catalogue, in accordance with
company commercial and marketing policy. These priorities are restricted to aspects
relating to size or product families (marbling, rustic, etc.) or ideas from the market
screened by the sales staff or designers. On the basis of these very general conclusions,
the design department prepares concrete ideas based on trends or purchases the design
outside. It prepares a product projection and submits it at a second meeting with the same
interlocutors, who discard or select some of the proposals. Design then starts working on
the chosen proposals with development, to develop the product itself: glazes, relief, etc.
After developing the product, a third meeting is held at which the prospective product is
presented and its manufacture is discussed. As a result of this meeting a semi-industrial
trial is run to verify the end product. At a final meeting all the participants decide
whether to go ahead with the product or not.

At this company the design and development manager has a similar position to that
of the sales manager. For this reason the latter is not on above of him and does not impose
the product to be made.

The design department carries out the following tasks:

• Planning: trend analysis; CAD projection, scale models, presentations etc.

• Development: preparation of glazes, bodies, printing, etc., everything but
processing the printing screens.

• Communication: displays and catalogues, though the later are prepared together
with marketing, etc. A product test is often run or the product is shown to some
distributors and customers, though not to the end user, to verify its success.
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The design manager considers design to be an element of the greatest profitability

for the company. The average product price rises because the product is different from
that of the competition (it is possible to compete in the upscale segment) and mark image
also rises: the added value is higher.

Company B designers are concerned with product quality, durability, margins, etc.,
without restricting themselves to purely stylistic matters. This is perhaps all tied to a
company slogan: "make faithful customers" in the medium-high market segment; price
and quality: seeking their satisfaction. It does not appear to be matter of selling at any price.

Company C

This company has no design department and obtains all its designs from suppliers
of raw materials and other products.

It targets the medium segment with regard to price and quality. According to the
company its competitive differences lie in product variety, quality control, logistics and
perhaps greater customer service. For this company design involves giving the customers
what they want or ask for. Design is run by the marketing manager, who mainly acts on
company communication. This person obtains the designs from the suppliers of raw
materials and other products, with whom he gets into touch when sales staff or catalogue
needs become known, to have all types of products. No meetings are held with
production or with any other department in this respect. Besides Management, the sales
staff ultimately decide if a product is to be developed.

Company D

This company has no design department, though it does not obtain designs from
suppliers of raw materials and other products. Its sources are design studios and centres
for innovation and technology. Though there is no design department, there is a
department that designs and develops products using the outside designs.

The company targets the medium and high market segments in price and quality.
According to company opinion, its competitive differences lie in being product innovators,
i.e., always ahead of what the market offers; doing market research; having consolidated
distribution and sales networks, with company staff in different countries; investing
highly in technology; having managers and sales staff with a high level of training.

Design plays a key role in the company, as it drives or is the basis of its innovating
capability. Its function is furthermore to contribute quality to the product by the selection
of materials and components and through product aesthetics.

Design is run by the general manager and assistant director. Both seek high product
quality and aesthetics, taking into account market trends. These two persons have the
first idea for a design, based on information from studies of market tendencies in design,
fashion, etc., as well as from. watching fashion and design centres all over the world:
museums, galleries, shops in new York, Paris, London, Milan, etc. They then observe the
colours, shapes, ideas, etc., which they suggest to outside designers. They then design
products based on these global ideas: they create product ideas and design the product,
which after being approved by both managers is passed on to the product design
development department, which transforms the design into a ceramic reality.
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Both managers are contin ually in touch w ith sales staff, production and other
technicians who contribute their knowledge and ideas to the product. The ideas of the
sales staff are heard but they do not decide on th e product, as according to the general
manager, their view is a partial, biased one: they would only create what is already
available on the market. On the other hand, production tends to be very prudent and
cautious when the issue of making a new product is raised. Customer opinion is also
heard on the new product but is not conclusive, owing to their restricted vision of the
market in space and time.

Besides providing the design, design studios are sometimes also involved in
product communication though this is also done in-company by the development group.

The company mentioned that they h ad tried different ways of running product
design, but the best and easiest was still the current system. They had initially had a
product committee, made up of production, development and sales, besides the general
manager and assistant director. However, these meetings did not allow the company to
present truly innovative products, as it meant a brake owing to the individual interests of
the departments involved. ow the departments voice their ideas through reports to
Management or at meetings with Management, but do not decide on the product.

All the information produced by the four companies can be summed up as follows:

Company A Company B Company C Company D

Design department Yes Yes No No

Use of design s fro m Yes No Yes No
suppliers of raw
mat erials and other
produ cts
Target market seg me nt Me dium - high , high Medium high Medium Medium - high , high
Meaning of design Gi ving customers what Di fferentiating the Gi vin g custom ers what It is the ba sis for its
they ask for product from competin g they ask for innov ating capabili ty
products
Role of design Design has a lim ited Broad design vision: Design has a limit ed Design is everything :
ro le: proj ection proj ection , ro le: projection Man agem ent is
developmen t, involved. Grea t
communication and emphas is on planning
some planning
Product meetings Yes Yes No No (mee tings of
Managem ent with the
va rious inte rloc uto rs on
the product)
Role of sales staff Product design is Sal es staff are on the Produ ct de sign is Sal es sta ff in form the
ultim atel y dec ided by same level as the ultimately decided by design manager of the
sa les staff designers in decision sale s staff mark et situation.
takin g
Design manager Sa les sta ff, designer Designer Marketing manager Managem ent (des ign
plann ing)
Imp ortance of design Th e five best sold se ries Internal , design studios Suppliers of raw Design studios and
so urces were designed in- and centres for materials and other centres for inno vation
company and with the innovation and products and technology
co-op erat ion of a centre technology
for innovation and
technol ogy
Ma rket research No No No Yes
Design type (Bo rja de - Op erati ve design , - Op erati ve design ,
Mozot a, 1998) Functional design Functional design ,
Anti cip atory design

Table 3. Compans] characteristics.

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CONCLUSIONS

As the study has shown, the auditing model appears to contain features that
determine the situation of product design and design management, besides other
directive, organisational information needed to draw up a diagnostics on these features
in the company. The model would therefore be validated.

The conclusions of the case studies, by means of the auditing model, are not meant
to be generalised to all the companies, but are restricted to the four companies involved,
though the conclusions attempt to stress the relations that exist between the various
concepts or directive and organisational types of behaviour linked to design.

On the other hand, these conclusions focus on product design and design
management, so that they relate to associated behaviour. That is, a company can consider
its strategy to lie beyond these aspects and therefore disregard them. This does not mean
an entrepreneurial or managerial error. However, if a company wishes to focus on
product design, it needs to adhere to these conclusions or requirements of the design
process and design management.

The following statements may be made regarding the four companies, based on the
case studies conducted with the audit model:

• For good design management or to obtain economic, managerial or essential

competences from design management, it does not appear necessary to have a
internal design department: Company D manages this without a design
department, although it requires directive emphasis on design.
• The large-scale dependence on the design provided by suppliers of raw materials
and other products (companies A and C) appears to be related to the design
process and design management such as: limited role of design (just projection),
a conception of design as being able to give the customers what they ask for, and
a power situation in which sales staff largely take the design decisions.
• In companies A and C, as sales staff playa large part in product design decisions,
the possibilities of offering innovating or original products is limited, as they tend
to defend rather conservative positions.
• The existence of product meetings does not appear to be decisive to good or
efficient design management. However, the transfer of knowledge and
information between areas or departments appears to be very important
(company D).
• Good design management appears to involve an overall role of the designer or
design manager in all the aspects relating to product design: planning, projection,
development and communication (companies B and D).
• If design is not conceived as a differentiating or innovating element (companies A
and C), it does not appear to contribute added value to the company or economic
competence. The idea of design meaning being able to give the customers what
they ask for stems from the preponderance of the sales department.
• In the companies that do not use designs provided by suppliers of raw materials
and other products, Band D, the design managers and design playa pivotal role
in the company: either the directors of the design department play an important
role in the company or they are the company directors.
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In subsequent communications we intend to set out the conclusions drawn from

these case studies in detail, highlighting every feature of the auditing model, which it has
sometimes not been possible to deal with owing to the extent of the work involved in the
audits.

On the other hand, on the basis of these conclusions, it would be interesting in a

future study to conduct a quantitative analysis to establish frequencies and determine the
percent situation of these aspects in the Spanish ceramic sector.

REFERENCES

[1] BORJA DE MOZOTA, B., Structuring Strategic Design Management: Michael Porter's Value Chain. Design Management
Journal, Vol.9, N. 2, (1998).
[2] BRUCE, M; COOPER, R, Marketing and Design Management. Primera edici6n, London, Thomson Business Press, (1997).
[3] COOPER, R; PRESS, M., The Design Agenda. Cuarta edici6n 1999. Chichester, John Wiley and sons, (1995).
[4] FELlP, M.; GIMMY, G., El papel del Disefio en el proceso de innooacion. Economfa Industrial, Vol 301, pp. 93-104, (1995).
[5] GARCIA, C.E., El proceso de innouacion en la company, competencias y aprendizaje organizatioo en la produccion de conocimiento
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