3.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

Earlier classifications
1) Dobereiner’s classification:
Johann Dobereiner classified elements into small groups each containing three elements. These small
groups were called triads.
7 23
E.g. for triads are: i) Li Na 39K
40
ii) Ca 88Sr 137Ba
In triads, the atomic mass of the middle element is approximately the average of the other two
elements. This is known as Law of Triads. This classification was applicable to very few elements and so it
was rejected.
2) Newlands classification:
Newland arranged elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses. The properties of every
eighth element are similar to that of the first element. The relationship is just like the resemblance of first
and eighth musical notes. He named this as law of octaves.
It was rejected since the law of octaves was applicable to elements upto calcium.

Mandeleev’s Periodic Law:-

The periodic law states that “The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic
weights.” That is, when elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights, their
properties repeat after a regular interval.
Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table
i 1It was the first comprehensive classification of elements.
ii 2.He corrected the wrong atomic weights of some elements and placed them in correct position in the
periodic table.
iii 3.He left vacant places for undiscovered elements and predicted some of their properties. 4)Elements with
similar properties are placed in the same group.
Demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic table
1) 1.Elements with dissimilar properties are found in same group.
2) 2.He could not give an exact position for hydrogen.
3) 3.He could not give exact position for Lanthanoids and Actinoids and also for isotopes.
4) 4.Mendeleev’s periodic table did not strictly obey the increasing order of atomic weights.
Modern Periodic table (Henry Moseley)
Modern Periodic lawstates that“the physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic
functions of their atomic numbers”.
In this periodic table, the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic number. It
contains 7 horizontal rows called periods and 18 vertical columns called groups. Elements having similar
outer electronic configurations are arranged in same group or family and have similar properties.
The blocks in the Modern periodic table
The Modern periodic table is divided into 4 blocks based on the subshell in which the last electron
enters. They are s block, p block, d block and f block.
1. The s block elements
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the outer most s sub shell. They include elements
of the groups 1 and 2. Their general outer electronic configuration is ns1 or ns2.
1. They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.
2. They lose their outer most electrons readily to form +1 and +2 ions.
3. Their metallic character and reactivity increases down the group.
4. They mainly form ionic compounds (except Li and Be).
2. The p block elements
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the outer most p sub shell. They include elements

34
 of the groups 13 to 18. They are also called Representative elements.
Their general outer electronic configuration is ns2 np1 to 6. The 18th group elements are called Noble
gases.
3. The d block elements
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the penultimate d sub shell. They include
elements of the groups 3 to 12. They are also called Transition elements, since they show a transition
(change) from the most electropositive s block elements to the least electropositive p block elements. Their
general outer electronic configuration is (n-1)d1 to 10 ns0 to 2.
1. They are all metals, form-coloured compounds or ions,
2. They show variable oxidation states and valencies,
3. They show paramagnetism and catalytic properties.
4. The f block elements
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the anti-penultimate f sub shell. They include
lanthanides of 6th period and actinides of 7th period. They are also called Inner transition elements. Their
general outer electronic configuration is (n-2)f1 to 14(n-1)d0 to 1 ns2. They are all metals.
Periodic properties of Elements
The properties which repeat after a regular interval are called periodic properties. Some of the
important periodic properties of elements are atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain
enthalpy, electro positivity, electronegativity etc.
1. Atomic Radius
It is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell having electrons. Atomic
radius of individual atoms cannot be determined. So it is expressed in any of the following methods:
a) Covalent radius: It is half of the inter nuclear distance between two covalently bonded (single
bonded)atoms. It is used to express the atomic radius of non-metal atoms. For e.g. the bond distance of Cl2
molecule is 198 pm. So the covalent radius is 99 pm.

b) Metallic radius: It is the half of the inter nuclear distance between two metallic ions in a metal
crystal.
c) van der Waal’s radius: It is defined as the half of the inter nuclear distance between two non
bonded atoms of separate molecules in the solid state.

Atomic radius is commonly expressed in picometre (pm) or angstrom (A0).it is measured by x-ray
diffraction method or by spectroscopic methods.
Variation of atomic radius along a group and period
The atomic size decreases from left to right in a period. This is because in a period, the electrons are
added to the same valence shell. Thus the number of shells remains same, but the effective nuclear charge
increases. So the atomic radius decreases.
Down a group, the atomic radius increases from top to bottom. This is because of the increase in no.
of shells and shielding effect.

Atomic radius of noble gases is larger than that of halogens. This is because noble gases are
monoatomic . So van der Waal’s radius is used to express the atomic radius which is greater than covalent
radius or metallic radius.

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 2. Ionic radius
It is defined as the half of the inter nuclear distance between cations and anions of an ionic crystal. The
variation of ionic radius is same as that of atomic radius.
Generally a cation is smaller than its parent atom (e.g. Na+is smaller than Na atom). This is because a
cation has fewer electrons, but its nuclear charge remains the same as that of the parent atom.
An anion is larger than its parent atom (e.g. Cl-is larger than Cl atom). This is because the addition of
one or more electrons would result in an increased electronic repulsion and a decrease in effective nuclear
charge.
Isoelectronic species:
Atoms2+and ions having the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species. E.g. O2-, F-,
+
Ne, Na , Mg etc. (All these contain 10 electrons)
Among isoelectronic species, the cation with greater positive charge will have the smaller radius.
This is because of the greater attraction of electrons to the nucleus. The anion with greater negative charge
will have the larger radius. Here the repulsion between electrons is greater than the attraction of the
nucleus. So the ion will expand in size.
3. Ionisation enthalpy (∆iH)
It is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from the outer most shell of an isolated
gaseous atom in its ground state. It may be represented as: X(g)+ ∆iH → X+(g)+ e–
Its unit is kJ/mol or J/mol.
The energy required to remove the first electron from the outer most shell of a neutral atom is called
first ionisation enthalpy+ (∆iH1–)
X(g)+ ∆iH1→ X (g)+ e
IonizaSecond ionization+enthalpy (∆iH2) 2+
is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a
unipositive ion.X (g) + ∆iH2 → X (g) + e–
The second ionisation enthalpy is always higher than first ionization enthalpy. This is because it is
more difficult to remove an electron from a positive charged ion than from a neutral atom.
Similarly third ionisation enthalpy is higher than second ionisation enthalpy and so on. i.e. ∆iH1< ∆iH2<
∆iH3…………
As the ease of removal of electron increases, the ionisation enthalpy decreases.
Factors affecting ionisation enthalpy
The important factors which affect ionisation enthalpy are:
a) Atomic size: Greater the atomic size (atomic radius), smaller will be the ionisation enthalpy.
b) Nuclear charge: The value of ionisation enthalpy increases with nuclear charge.
c) Shielding effect: As the shielding effect increases, the electrons can easily be removed and so
theionisation enthalpy decreases.
d) Presence of half filled or completely filled orbitals increases ionisation enthalpy.
Variation of ∆iH along a period and a group
Along a period, ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right. This is because of the decrease in
atomicradius and increase in nuclear charge. Thus alkali metals have the least ∆iH and noble gases have
the most.
Down a group, ∆iH decreases due to increase in atomic radius and shielding effect. Thus among
alkali metals, lithium has the least ∆iH and francium has the most.

In the second period of modern periodic table, the first ionisation enthalpy of Boron is slightly less
thanthat of Beryllium. This is because of the completely filled orbitals in Be (1s22s2).
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 Similarly the first ionisation enthalpy of N is greater than that of Oxygen. This is because N has half
filled electronic configuration (1s22s22p3), which is more stable and so more energy is required to remove
an electron.

4. Electron gain enthalpy (∆egH)

It is the heat change (enthalpy change) when an electron is added to the outer most shell of an
isolated gaseous atom. It can be represented as X(g)+ e–→ X-(g)
For most of the elements, energy is released when electron is added to their atoms. So ∆egH is
negative. Noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpy because of their completely filled (stable)
electronic configuration.
Electron gain enthalpy also depends on atomic size, nuclear charge, shielding effect etc. As the
atomic size increases ∆egH decreases.
1.When nuclear charge increases, electron gain enthalpy increases and become more negative.
2.Shielding effect decreases ∆egH.
3.Presence of half filled or completely filled orbitals makes ∆egH less negative.
Periodic variation of ∆egH
1.From left to right across a period, ∆egH become more negative. This is because of decrease in
atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge. So the ease of addition of electron increases and hence the
∆egH.
2.Down a group, ∆egH becomes less negative. This is due to increase in atomic radius and shielding
effect.
3.Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative than chlorine. This is because, when an electron
is added to F,it enters into the smaller 2nd shell. Due to the smaller size, the electron suffers more repulsion
from the other electrons. But for Cl, the incoming electron goes to the larger 3rd shell. So the electronic
repulsion is low and hence Cl adds electron more easily than F. Due to the same reason ∆egH of Oxygen is
less negative than S.
4.Thus in modern periodic table, alkali metals have the least –ve ∆egH and halogens have the most –
ve ∆egH. Among halogens, the negative ∆egH decreases as follows.
Cl> F > Br > I
The negative electron gain enthalpy is also called electron affinity.

5. Electronegativity
Electronegativity of an atom in a compound is the ability of the atom to attract shared pair of
electron of electrons.
Electronegativity depends on atomic size and nuclear charge. As the atomic radius increases,
electronegativity decreases. Greater the nuclear charge, greater will be the electronegativity.

37
Periodicity:
(i) In period- The electro-negativity increases from left to right in a period.
(ii) In group- The electro-negativity decreases from top to bottom in a group.

6. Electropositivity
It is the tendency of an atom to lose the most loosely bound electron (valence electron). It is directly
related to the metallic character of elements. It depends on atomic size and nuclear charge. As the atomic
radius increases, electropositivity increases.
Along a period, electro positivity decreases from left to right. But down a group, it increases. So
francium is the most electropositive element and fluorine is the least electropositive element.
7. Valency
It is the combining capacity of an element. Or, it is the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom
during a chemical reaction.
Along a period, valency first increases upto the middle and then decreases (for s and p block elements
only). In a group, valency remains constant. Transition elements can show variable valency.
REACTIVITY OF METALS:
Periodicity:
(i) In period- The tendency of an element to lose electrons decreases in a period. So the reactivity of metals
decreases from left to right in a period.
(ii) In group- The tendency of an element to lose electrons increases in a period. So the reactivity of metals
increases from top to bottom in a group.

REACTIVITY OF NON- METALS:

(i) In period- The tendency of an element to gain electrons increases in a period. So the reactivity of non-
metals increases from left to right in a period.
(ii) In group- The tendency of an element to gain electrons decreases in a group. So the reactivity of non-
metals increases from top to bottom in a group.

1. The solubility of alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates in water increases down the group (From
Lithium to Caesium).
2.The solubility of alkaline earth metal hydroxide and sulphates in water increases down the group (From
Beryllium to Barium).
3.The basic strength of alkaline earth metal hydroxide in water increases down the group (From Beryllium
to Barium), i.e.,
Be(OH)2< Mg(OH)2< Ca(OH)2< Sr(OH)2< Ba(OH)2
Basic strength increases

The periodic trends of elements in the periodic table

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 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)

1. The screening effect of d - electrons is -

(A) equal to the p - electrons (B) much more than p - electron
(C) same as f – electrons (D) less than p – electrons ANSWER- D

2. The increasing order of effective nuclear charge in Na, Al, Mg and Si atoms
(A) Na < Mg < Si <Al (B) Na < Mg <Al < Si
(C) Mg < Na <Al< Si (D) Na = Mg =Al = Si ANSWER- B

3.The Vander Waal’s radii of O, N, Cl, F and Ne increase in the order

(A) F, O, N, Ne, Cl (B) N, O, F, Ne, Cl
(C) Ne, F, O, N, Cl (D) F, Cl, O, N, Ne ANSWER- C

4. Whenever a list of radii is given, we find that the size of the noble gases is larger than the size of their
adjacent halogens. The reason is
(A) Noble gases have a complete octet
(B) They have a higher inter electronic repulsion
(C) In halogens it is covalent radii and in noble gases it is Vander walls radii (D)Noble gases cannot be
liquefied ANSWER- B

5. Which of the following has the largest size

(A) N–3 (B) O–2 (C) K+1 (D) Ca+2 ANSWER- A

6. Which one of the following is correct order of the size of iodine species?
(A) I > I– > I+ (B) I > I+ > I– (C) I+ > I– > I (D) I– > I > I+ ANSWER- D

7. Which of the following should be the order of increasing values of second ionisation potential of C6, N7,
O8 and F9.
(A) C > N > F > O (B) C < F < N < O (C) C < F < N < O (D) C < N < F< O ANSWER- D

8. One mole of magnesium in the vapour state absorbed 1200 kJ of energy. If the first and second
ionization enthalpies of magnesium are 750 and 1450 kJ mole–1 respectively, the final composition of the
mixture is
(A) 69% Mg+, 31% Mg2+ (B) 59% Mg+, 41% Mg2+
(C) 49% Mg+, 51% Mg2+ (D) 29% Mg+, 71% Mg2+ ANSWER- A

9.The incorrect statement in the following is

(A) The third ionisation potential of Mg is greater than the third ionisation potential of Al
(B) The first ionisation potential of Na is less than first I.P of Mg
(C) The first I.P. of Al is less than the first I.P. of Mg
(D) The second I.P. of Mg is greater than the second I.P. of Na ANSWER- D

10. O(g) + 2e– O–2(g) –E = + 744.7

The reason for the positive value of E is
(A) endothermic reaction (B) exothermic reaction
(C) both 1 and 2 (D) All of the above are wrong ANSWER- A

11.The increasing order of electron affinity values of O, S and Se is

(A) O < S < Se (B) S < O < Se (C) O < Se < S (D) Se < O > S ANSWER- C

12.The least electron affinity is found in

(A) Kr (B) O (C) N (D) B ANSWER- C

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13.Of the following element of which electronic configuration will have the highest electron affinity
(A) 1s2 2s2 2p3 (B) 1s2 2s2 2p5 (C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 (D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 ANSWER- C

14. Which oxide of N is isoelectronic with CO2 -

(A) NO2 (B) NO (C) N2O (D) N2O3 ANSWER- A

15.The correct order of ionic radius is -

(A) Ce > Sm > Tb > Lu (B) Lu > Tb > Sm > Ce
(C) Tb > Lu > Sm > Ce (D) Sm > Tb > Lu > Ce ANSWER- A

16. According to the Modern Periodic Law of elements, the Variation in properties of elements is related to
them?
(A)Nuclear masses (B)Atomic numbers
(C)Nuclear neutron-proton number ratio (D)Atomic masses ANSWER- B

17. Atomic radius decreases in a period, but after halogens, the atomic radius suddenly increases. Thus,
inert gases have almost highest radius in a period. The explanation for such an increase is-
(A) Inert gases have most stable configuration.
(B) Inert gases do not take part in bonding.
(C) Vander Wall’s radius is reported in case of inert gases.
(D)None of these. ANSWER- C
18. Which one of the following groups represent a collection of isoelectronic species?
(At. no. Cs = 55, Br = 35)
(A) N 3–, F–, Na+ (B) Be, Al3+, Cl– (C) Ca2+, Cs+, Br ( D) Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ ANSWER- A

19. Consider the following statements:

I. The radius of an anion is larger than that of parent atom
II. The I.E. increases from left to right in a period generally
III. The electronegativity of an element is the tendency of an isolated atom to attract an electron
The correct statements are -
(A)I alone (B) II alone (C) I and II (D) II and III ANSWER- C

20. For the same value of n, the penetration power of orbital follows the order
(a) s = p = d = f (b) p > s > d > f (c) f < d < p < s (d) s < p < d < f ANSWER- C

REASONING AND ASSERTION TYPE QUESTIONS

The following questions consist of two statements, one labelled as Assertion A and the other labelled as
Reason R. Examine both the statements and mark the correct choice according to the instructions given
below:
(a) if both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason of A
(b) if both A and R are correct but R is not the correct reason of A
(c) if A is correct and R is wrong
(d) if A is wrong and R is correct.
1. Assertion A: Noble gases have highest ionization energies in their respective periods.
Reason R.: Noble gases have stable electronic configurations. ANSWER: (a)
2.Assertion A: Nitrogen has higher I.E. than that of oxygen.
Reason R: Nitrogen atom has smaller atomic size than that of oxygen. ANSWER: (c)
3.Assertion A: Chlorine has higher greater negative electron gain enthalpy than that of fluorine.
Reason R: Fluorine is stronger oxidizing agent than chlorine. ANSWER: (b)
4.Assertion A: Helium has the highest value of ionization enthalpy among all the elements.
Reason R: Helium has the highest value of electron affinity among all the elements. ANSWER: (c)
5.Assertion A: Sixth period is the longest period of the periodic table.
Reason R: Sixth period involves the filling of all the orbitals of sixth energy level.
ANSWER: (c)
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6.Assertion A: F atom has a less negative electron affinity than Cl atom.
Reason R: Additional electrons are repelled more effectively by 3p electron in Cl atom than by 2p electrons
in F atom. ANSWER: (c)
7.Assertion A: Alkali metals impart characteristic flame colourations to the flame.
Reason R: Alkali metals have low ionization enthalpies and hence their electrons can be excited to higher
levels easily. ANSWER: (a)
8.Assertion A: Noble gases have highest first ionization enthalpies in their respective periods.
Reason R: Noble gases have stable electronic configurations. ANSWER: (a)

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

Q.1. Describe the two merits of long form periodic table over the Mendeleev’s periodic table?
Ans- 1. It removed the anomalies about the position of isotopes which existed in the Mendeleev’s table. 2.
It relates the position of an element in the periodic table with its electronic configuration.

Q.2. What is meant by periodicity in properties of elements? What is the reason behind this?
Ans- The repetition of similar properties after regular intervals is called as periodicity. It is due to the
similarity in the outer electronic configurations which gives rise to the periodic properties of the elements.

Q.3. How do atomic radii vary in a group and a period?

Ans- In group- Atomic size increases on moving from top to bottom. In period- Atomic size decreases on
moving left to right in a period.

Q.4. Name the factors which affect the ionisation enthalpy of an element.
Ans- (i) Size of atom or ion (ii) Nuclear charge (iii) Electronic configuration (iv) Screening effect (v)
Penetration effect of the electrons

Q.5. Noble gases have zero electron gain enthalpy values. Explain.
Ans- Because the outer most shell of noble gases is completely filled and no more electrons can be added.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

Q.1. The first ionisation enthalpy of magnesium is higher than that of sodium. On the other hand, the
second ionisation enthalpy of sodium is very much higher than that of magnesium. Explain.
Ans- The 1st ionisation enthalpy of magnesium is higher than that of Na due to higher nuclear charge and
slightly smaller atomic radius of Mg than Na. After the loss of first electron, Na+ formed has the electronic
configuration of neon (2,8). The higher stability of the completely filled noble gas configuration leads to
very high second ionisation enthalpy for sodium. On the other hand, Mg+ formed after losing first electron
still has one more electron in its outermost (3s) orbital. As a result, the second ionisation enthalpy of
magnesium is much smaller than that of sodium.

Q.2. Among the elements of the second period Li to Ne pick out the element:
(i) with the highest first ionisation energy
(ii) with the highest electronegativity
(iii) with the largest atomic radius Give the reason for your choice.
Ans- (i) Ne .due to higher nuclear charge.
(ii) F. due to small size
(iii) Li .due to less nuclear charge.

Q.3. Arrange the following as stated:

(i) N2, O2, F2, Cl2 (Increasing order of bond dissociation energy)
(ii) F, Cl, Br, I (Increasing order of electron gain enthalpy)
(iii) F2, N2, Cl2, O2 (Increasing order of bond length)
41
Ans- (i) F2 < Cl2 < O2 < N2
(ii) I < Br < F < Cl
(iii) N2 < O2 < F2 < Cl2

Q.4. Explain why are cations smaller and anions larger in size than their parent atoms?
Ans- (a) The cations are smaller than their parent atoms due to the following reasons:
(i) Disappearance of the valence shell.
(ii) Increase of effective nuclear charge

(b) The anions are larger than their parent atoms due to the following reason: An increase in the number of
electrons in the valence shell reduces the effective nuclear charge due to greater mutual shielding by the
electrons. As a result, electron cloud expands, i.e., the ionic radius increases.

Q.5. Consider the following species: N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+
(a) What is common in them?
(b) Arrange them in the order of increasing ionic radii.
Ans- (a) the same number of electrons (10 electrons). Hence, the given species are isoelectronic.
(b) Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F– < O2– < N3–

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

PASSAGE II
Read the passage given below and answer the following questions:
In the periodic table electronegativity increases from left to right in a period and decreases from top to
bottom in a group. The non-metallic character of an element is directly related to the electronegativity
while the metallic character is inversely related to it.
1. The element with maximum electronegativity belongs to
(a) Period-1, Group-18 (b) Period-2, Group-17
(c) Period-3, Group-17 (d) Period-2, Group-1.
ANSWER: (b)
2. Which of the following groups contains metals, non-metals as well as metalloids?
(a) Group-1 (b) Group-17 (c) Group-14 (d) Group-2.
ANSWER: (c)
3. The least, metallic element of group-13 is
(a) Aluminium (b) Boron (c) Gallium (d) Indium.
ANSWER: (b)
4. The electronegativity increases with
(a) decrease in nuclear charge (b) increase in atomic mass
(c) decrease in atomic size (d) increase in atomic number.
ANSWER: (c)

FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is the cause of the periodicity in the properties of the elements? How do the following properties
vary in (a) a group and (b)in a period
(i) electronegativity
(ii) ionisation enthalpy
(iii) Atomic size
Ans- It is due to the similarity in the outer electronic configurations which gives rise to the periodic
properties of the elements.
(a) In a group:
(i) Electronegativity- It decreases down the group.
(ii) Ionisation enthalpy- It decreases down the group.
(iii) Atomic size- It increases down the group.
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(b) In a period:
(i) Electronegativity- Increases
(ii) Ionisation enthalpy- Increases
(iii) Atomic size- Decreases.

4.CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

CHEMICAL BOND

The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together in different
chemical species is called a chemical bond.

KÖSSEL-LEWIS APPROACH TO CHEMICAL BONDING

Kossel and Lewis developed the electronic theory of valence to explain the formation of chemical
bonds between the two atoms. According to this theory, every atom tries to attain octet configuration
(presence of eight electrons) in its valence shell by losing or gaining or by sharing of electrons.

Lewis Symbols:

A Lewis Symbol is constructed by placing dots representing electrons in the outer energy
around the symbol for the element.

Octet Rule

The tendency of atoms to have eight electrons in the valence shell is known as the "Octet rule.

Formal Charge

The formal charge is the difference in the number of valence electrons in the atom and the number
of valence electrons in the Lewis structure.

43