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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS v

CHAPTER ONE
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Electric Charge 1
1.3 Conductors and Insulators 3
1.4 Basic Properties of Electric Charge 4
1.5 Coulomb’s Law 6
1.6 Forces between Multiple Charges 11
1.7 Electric Field 14
1.8 Electric Field Lines 19
1.9 Electric Flux 21
1.10 Electric Dipole 23
1.11 Dipole in a Uniform External Field 27
1.12 Continuous Charge Distribution 28
1.13 Gauss’s Law 29
1.14 Applications of Gauss’s Law 33

CHAPTER TWO
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
2.1 Introduction 45
2.2 Electrostatic Potential 47
2.3 Potential due to a Point Charge 48
2.4 Potential due to an Electric Dipole 49
2.5 Potential due to a System of Charges 51
2.6 Equipotential Surfaces 54
2.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges 55
2.8 Potential Energy in an External Field 58
2.9 Electrostatics of Conductors 61
2.10 Dielectrics and Polarisation 65
2.11 Capacitors and Capacitance 67
2.12 The Parallel Plate Capacitor 68
2.13 Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance 69
2.14 Combination of Capacitors 71
2.15 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 73

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CHAPTER THREE
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Electric Current 81
3.3 Electric Currents in Conductors 82
3.4 Ohm’s law 83
3.5 Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity 85
3.6 Limitations of Ohm’s Law 89
3.7 Resistivity of Various Materials 89
3.8 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity 90
3.9 Electrical Energy, Power 92
3.10 Cells, emf, Internal Resistance 93
3.11 Cells in Series and in Parallel 95
3.12 Kirchhoff’s Rules 97
3.13 Wheatstone Bridge 100

CHAPTER FOUR
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Magnetic Force 108
4.3 Motion in a Magnetic Field 112
4.4 Magnetic Field due to a Current Element, Biot-Savart Law 113
4.5 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop 115
4.6 Ampere’s Circuital Law 117
4.7 The Solenoid 121
4.8 Force between Two Parallel Currents, the Ampere 122
4.9 Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole 124
4.10 The Moving Coil Galvanometer 129

CHAPTER FIVE
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
5.1 Introduction 136
5.2 The Bar Magnet 137
5.3 Magnetism and Gauss’s Law 142
5.4 Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity 145
5.5 Magnetic Properties of Materials 147

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CHAPTER SIX
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
6.1 Introduction 154
6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and Henry 155
6.3 Magnetic Flux 156
6.4 Faraday’s Law of Induction 157
6.5 Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy 160
6.6 Motional Electromotive Force 162
6.7 Inductance 165
6.8 AC Generator 170

CHAPTER SEVEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT
7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor 178
7.3 Representation of AC Current and Voltage by
Rotating Vectors — Phasors 181
7.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor 181
7.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor 184
7.6 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit 186
7.7 Power in AC Circuit: The Power Factor 190
7.8 Transformers 194

CHAPTER EIGHT
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
8.1 Introduction 201
8.2 Displacement Current 202
8.3 Electromagnetic Waves 205
8.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum 208

ANSWERS 215

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD v
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOK vii
PREFACE ix

CHAPTER NINE
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
9.1 Introduction 221
9.2 Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors 222
9.3 Refraction 228
9.4 Total Internal Reflection 229
9.5 Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses 232
9.6 Refraction through a Prism 239
9.7 Optical Instruments 240

CHAPTER TEN
WAVE OPTICS
10.1 Introduction 255
10.2 Huygens Principle 257
10.3 Refraction and Reflection of Plane Waves using Huygens Principle 258
10.4 Coherent and Incoherent Addition of Waves 262
10.5 Interference of Light Waves and Young’s Experiment 265
10.6 Diffraction 266
10.7 Polarisation 269

CHAPTER ELEVEN
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
11.1 Introduction 274
11.2 Electron Emission 275

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11.3 Photoelectric Effect 276

11.4 Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect 277
11.5 Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light 280
11.6 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation 281
11.7 Particle Nature of Light: The Photon 283
11.8 Wave Nature of Matter 284

CHAPTER TWELVE
ATOMS
12.1 Introduction 290
12.2 Alpha-particle Scattering and Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom 291
12.3 Atomic Spectra 296
12.4 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 297
12.5 The Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom 300
12.6 DE Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of Quantisation 301

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
NUCLEI
13.1 Introduction 306
13.2 Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus 306
13.3 Size of the Nucleus 309
13.4 Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy 310
13.5 Nuclear Force 313
13.6 Radioactivity 314
13.7 Nuclear Energy 314

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
14.1 Introduction 323
14.2 Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors 324
14.3 Intrinsic Semiconductor 327
14.4 Extrinsic Semiconductor 329

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14.5 p-n Junction 333

14.6 Semiconductor Diode 334
14.7 Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier 338

APPENDICES 344

ANSWERS 346

BIBLIOGRAPHY 353

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CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOK v
PREFACE vii

U NIT VI
REPRODUCTION 1-50
Chapter 1 : Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 3
Chapter 2 : Human Reproduction 26
Chapter 3 : Reproductive Health 41

U NIT VII
G ENETICS AND EVOLUTION 51-126
Chapter 4 : Principles of Inheritance and Variation 53
Chapter 5 : Molecular Basis of Inheritance 79
Chapter 6 : Evolution 110

U NIT VIII
B IOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE 127-160
Chapter 7 : Human Health and Disease 129
Chapter 8 : Microbes in Human Welfare 149

U NIT IX
B IOTECHNOLOGY 161-187
Chapter 9 : Biotechnology : Principles and Processes 163
Chapter 10 : Biotechnology and its Applications 177

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U NIT X
ECOLOGY 188-227

Chapter 11 : Organisms and Populations 189

Chapter 12 : Ecosystem 205
Chapter 13 : Biodiversity and Conservation 216

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS v
PREFACE vii

Unit 1 Solutions 1
1.1 Types of Solutions 1
1.2 Expressing Concentration of Solutions 2
1.3 Solubility 5
1.4 Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions 9
1.5 Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions 13
1.6 Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass 15
1.7 Abnormal Molar Masses 23

Unit 2 Electrochemistry 31
2.1 Electrochemical Cells 32
2.2 Galvanic Cells 33
2.3 Nernst Equation 36
2.4 Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions 41
2.5 Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis 51
2.6 Batteries 54
2.7 Fuel Cells 56
2.8 Corrosion 57

Unit 3 Chemical Kinetics 61

3.1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction 62
3.2 Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction 66
3.3 Integrated Rate Equations 71
3.4 Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction 78
3.5 Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 82

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Unit 4 The d-and f-Block Elements 89

4.1 Position in the Periodic Table 90
4.2 Electronic Configurations of the d-Block Elements 90
4.3 General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-Block) 92
4.4 Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements 105
4.5 The Lanthanoids 108
4.6 The Actinoids 111
4.7 Some Applications of d- and f-Block Elements 113

Unit 5 Coordination Compounds 118

5.1 Werner's Theory of Coordination Compounds 118
5.2 Definitions of Some Important Terms Pertaining to 121
Coordination Compounds
5.3 Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds 122
5.4 Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 125
5.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds 128
5.6 Bonding in Metal Carbonyls 135
5.7 Importance and Applications of Coordination 136
Compounds

Appendices 141
Answers to Some Questions in Exercises 154

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
PREFACE V

Unit 10 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 289

10.1 Classification 290
10.2 Nomenclature 291
10.3 Nature of C–X Bond 293
10.4 Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes 294
10.5 Preparation of Haloarenes 296
10.6 Physical Properties 297
10.7 Chemical Reactions 299
10.8 Polyhalogen Compounds 317

Unit 11 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 323

11.1 Classification 324
11.2 Nomenclature 325
11.3 Structures of Functional Groups 328
11.4 Alcohols and Phenols 329
11.5 Some Commercially Important Alcohols 344
11.6 Ethers 345

Unit 12 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 357

12.1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group 358
12.2 Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones 361
12.3 Physical Properties 365
12.4 Chemical Reactions 366
12.5 Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones 373
12.6 Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group 374
12.7 Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids 375
12.8 Physical Properties 379
12.9 Chemical Reactions 379
12.10 Uses of Carboxylic Acids 384

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Unit 13 Amines 389

13.1 Structure of Amines 389
13.2 Classification 390
13.3 Nomenclature 390
13.4 Preparation of Amines 392
13.5 Physical Properties 395
13.6 Chemical Reactions 396
13.7 Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts 404
13.8 Physical Properties 405
13.9 Chemical Reactions 405
13.10 Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of 406
Aromatic Compounds

Unit 14 Biomolecules 411

14.1 Carbohydrates 411
14.2 Proteins 420
14.3 Enzymes 425
14.4 Vitamins 425
14.5 Nucleic Acids 427
14.6 Hormones 430

Unit 15 Polymers 433

15.1 Classification of Polymers 433
15.2 Types of Polymerisation Reactions 434
15.3 Molecular Mass of Polymers 442
15.4 Biodegradable Polymers 442
15.5 Polymers of Commercial Importance 443

Unit 16 Chemistry in Everyday Life 447

16.1 Drugs and their Classification 447
16.2 Drug-Target Interaction 448
16.3 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs 451
16.4 Chemicals in Food 457
16.5 Cleansing Agents 458

Answers to Some Questions in Exercises 464

Index 469

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