Lecture: 01

Introduction to Cross cultural psychology

scientific study of human behavior and

mental processes, including both their
variability and invariance, under diverse
cultural conditions.

study of similarities and differences in

behavior among individuals who have
developed in different cultures.

Gustav Jahoda, father of cross-cultural

psychology

measures constructs with cultural

sensitivity

Major Components of Cross cultural studies

cross cultural
studies
cultural Cross-cultural
Acculturation & inter-cultural
dimensions & research
values Enculturation communication.
methods

Cross cultural psychology provides deep insights about

Cultural Comparison

diverse perspectives

inter-cultural interactions

cultural influence

cultural norms

ethno-centrism

behavioral differences

cultural Relativism
 History of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Early Beginnings:

 Ancient Philosophers
o Contributions of philosophers like Herodotus and Ibn Khaldun.
 Early Anthropologists
o Influence of early anthropological studies on culture and behavior.

Roots in Anthropology and Psychology:

 Anthropologists:

o Anthropologists like Franz Boas emphasized the importance of culture in shaping human behavior,
influencing early psychological theories.
o emphasized the importance of culture in understanding human differences.
o They studied various societies and noted that behavior varies widely across cultures.

Developments in 19th Century:

 Charles Darwin
o Evolutionary theories impacting thoughts on human behavior.
 Sir Francis Galton
o Pioneer in studying the impact of heredity on human traits.

 Wilhelm Wundt
o who is often considered the father of experimental psychology, believed that culture plays a significant
role in shaping human behavior.
o He explored how culture impacts human thought and behavior.

Cultural Relativism:

 Franz Boas
o Father of American Anthropology and proponent of cultural relativism.
 Margaret Mead
o Studied cultural variations in child-rearing practices.

Developments in 20th Century:

 Emergence of Psychology as a Science

o Establishment of psychology as an independent discipline.
 Behaviorism and Culture
o The influence of behaviorist perspectives on understanding culture.

Developments in Mid-20th Century:

 Emergence as a Field:

o Cross-cultural psychology started gaining recognition as a distinct field in the 1960s and 1970s.
o Psychologists began conducting systematic research on how cultural factors influence psychological
processes.

 Pioneering Research:

o Scholars like John Berry, Harry Triandis, and Geert Hofstede made significant contributions by studying
cultural differences in perception, cognition, and social behavior.
Recent Developments:

Globalization and Cultural Exchange:

 21st Century:

o With increasing globalization, the study of cross-cultural psychology has become more important than
ever.
o Researchers are now focusing on how cultures interact and influence each other in a rapidly changing
world.

 Technology and Communication:

o The rise of digital communication has also opened new avenues for cross-cultural research, as people
from different cultures interact more frequently online.

Pioneering Cross-Cultural Psychologists:

 Gustav Jahoda
o Contributions to cross-cultural research.
 John Berry
o Development of the concept of acculturation.

Institutionalization:

 International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP)

Formation of Societies:

o The establishment of organizations like the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
(IACCP) in 1972 helped institutionalize the field.
 Key Publications

o Important journals and books that shaped the discipline.

Journals and Conferences:
o The launch of journals such as the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology and regular international
conferences facilitated the dissemination of research findings.

Development as a Field:

Post-World War II:

o Cultural Context:
o After World War II, there was a growing interest in understanding different cultures due to increased
global interactions and migrations.
o Key Figures:
o Psychologists like Harry Triandis, Geert Hofstede, and John Berry began to systematically study cultural
influences on behavior.
o They compared psychological processes across different cultures to identify both differences and
similarities.

Emergence of Cross-Cultural Psychology:

1960s and 1970s:

o The field began to take shape as a distinct area of study.

o Researchers started conducting comparative studies across cultures to understand how cultural
contexts influence behavior.

Methodological Advances:

o New research methods were developed to study cultures systematically.

o This included using surveys, experiments, and observational studies in diverse cultural settings.
Important Contributions:

Key Theories and Models:

Theory of Individualism vs. Collectivism:

o Cultures are often categorized based on how they value the individual versus the group.
o Western cultures (e.g., the United States) tend to be more individualistic, emphasizing personal goals and
independence.
o Eastern cultures (e.g., Japan) are more collectivistic, emphasizing group harmony and interdependence.

Cultural Dimensions Theory:

o Geert Hofstede developed a model identifying several dimensions of culture, such as power distance (the
extent to which less powerful members expect and accept unequal power distribution) and uncertainty
avoidance (how comfortable a culture is with uncertainty and ambiguity).

Research and Applications:

 Diverse Topics:

 Cross-cultural psychologists study a wide range of topics, including personality, emotions,

communication styles, and social behaviors.
 Their aim is to understand how cultural factors influence these aspects of human life.

 Practical Applications:

 insights from cross-cultural psychology are applied in various fields, including international business,
education, healthcare, and counseling.
 For example, understanding cultural differences can improve communication and collaboration in
multi-cultural workplaces.

Applications of Cross-Cultural Psychology

1- Social Policy and Community Development

 Policy Formulation: Policymakers can use insights from cross-cultural psychology to design policies that
address the needs and preferences of diverse cultural groups, promoting social equity and cohesion.
 Community Programs: Developing community programs that respect and integrate cultural traditions
and values can enhance community engagement and the effectiveness of social interventions.
 Conflict Resolution: Cross-cultural psychology can inform strategies for resolving cultural conflicts and
fostering intercultural understanding and cooperation.

2- Global Issues

 Migration and Acculturation: Studying the psychological impact of migration and acculturation helps in
developing support systems for immigrants and refugees to adapt to new cultural environments.
 Global Health: Cross-cultural psychology contributes to understanding how cultural factors influence
health behaviors and outcomes on a global scale, aiding in the development of international health
initiatives.

3- Healthcare

 Cultural Competence in Medical Practice: Healthcare providers trained in cross-cultural psychology can
better understand and respect patients' cultural beliefs and practices, leading to improved patient
satisfaction and adherence to treatment.
 Mental Health Services: Culturally sensitive mental health services can address the unique stressors and
coping mechanisms of individuals from different cultural backgrounds, improving the effectiveness of
interventions.
 Health Communication: Tailoring health communication strategies to fit the cultural context of target
populations enhances the effectiveness of public health campaigns and educational programs.

4- Interpersonal Relationships

 Intercultural Relationships: Understanding cultural differences in communication styles, values, and

social norms can improve relationships between individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
 Family Dynamics: Cross-cultural psychology can help families navigate cultural differences, whether they
are multicultural families or families adapting to a new cultural environment.

5- Business and Management

 International Business Operations: Understanding cultural differences in business practices, negotiation

styles, and communication can enhance the effectiveness of international business operations and
partnerships.
 Diversity and Inclusion: Implementing culturally informed diversity and inclusion initiatives can create a
more inclusive workplace, improve employee satisfaction, and boost organizational performance.
 Consumer Behavior: Marketers can design culturally relevant advertising and product strategies that
resonate with diverse consumer groups, increasing market reach and customer loyalty.

6- Research Methodology

 Comparative Studies: Cross-cultural psychology provides frameworks for conducting comparative

studies that highlight universal and culture-specific aspects of psychological phenomena.
 Ethical Considerations: Researchers can design studies that are ethically sound and respectful of
participants' cultural contexts, ensuring the validity and reliability of their findings.

7- Education

 Curriculum Development: Incorporating diverse cultural perspectives into educational materials helps
students appreciate and understand different cultures, fostering a more inclusive environment.
 Teaching Strategies: Teachers can adopt culturally responsive teaching methods that align with the
learning styles and cultural backgrounds of their students, improving engagement and academic
performance.
 Student Assessment: Developing culturally fair assessment tools ensures that students from different
cultural backgrounds are evaluated equitably, reducing bias and improving educational outcomes.

8- Understanding Cultural Differences:

 Cognition and Perception: Researchers study how people from different cultures perceive the world,
think, and solve problems. For example, Western cultures often emphasize analytical thinking, while
Eastern cultures may focus on holistic thinking.
 Emotions: Cultural norms influence how emotions are expressed and understood. For instance, in some
cultures, displaying strong emotions in public may be discouraged, while in others, it may be more
acceptable.

9- Improving Intercultural Communication:

 Workplace Diversity: Cross-cultural psychology helps organizations manage and leverage cultural
diversity, improving teamwork and communication among employees from different backgrounds.
 Globalization: In an increasingly globalized world, understanding cultural differences is crucial for
effective communication and collaboration across borders.

10- Clinical and Counseling Psychology:

 Culturally Competent Therapy: Therapists apply cross-cultural psychology principles to provide effective
counseling and therapy to clients from diverse cultural backgrounds, considering cultural influences on
mental health.
 Acculturation and Adaptation: Psychologists assist immigrants and refugees in adapting to new cultures,
addressing the psychological challenges associated with acculturation.
Enhancing Education:

 Culturally Responsive Teaching: Educators use insights from cross-cultural psychology to develop
teaching methods that are sensitive to the cultural backgrounds of students, promoting better learning
outcomes.
 Multicultural Education: Schools incorporate multicultural curricula to help students appreciate and
understand different cultures, fostering tolerance and inclusivity.

Policy Making:

 Public Health Campaigns: Cross-cultural psychology informs the design of public health campaigns that
are culturally sensitive, ensuring they resonate with diverse populations.
 Social Programs: Policymakers use insights from cross-cultural psychology to create social programs that
consider cultural factors, improving their effectiveness in different communities.

Pillars of Cross cultural

psychology
Recognizing and being Being considerate and
aware of different cultures respectful towards cultural Having the skills and
and their practices. differences knowledge to interact
effectively with people
from different cultures.

cultural cultural cultural

awareness sensitivity competence

Gaining knowledge about Combining aspects of Adjusting and adapting

the customs, values, and different cultures into a behavior to interact
beliefs of other cultures. cohesive whole. appropriately with different
cultures.

cultural cultural cultural

understanding Integration adaptability

 Culture: The shared beliefs, practices, customs, and behaviors of a group of people.

 Cultural Relativism: Understanding and respecting other cultures without judging them by your own
culture's standards.

 Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture.

 Anthropology: The study of humans, their societies, and their cultural practices throughout history.

 According to Tylor:
culture is the complex whole of knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and other abilities and
habits acquired by people as members of society.
 Intellectual colonialism:
when one group forces its ideas and ways of thinking onto another group, making their own ideas seem less
important.

 Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory:

Examines cultural differences through dimensions like individualism vs. collectivism and power distance.
 Individualism is when people prioritize their own goals and independence
 collectivism is when people prioritize the goals and well-being of their group or community.
 Ethnic affirmation: Celebrating and valuing one's ethnic background and identity.
 Cultural pluralism: Recognizing and respecting a variety of different cultures within a society.

aims of cross-cultural psychology:

 Understand Differences: Learn how people from different cultures think and behave differently.
 Find Similarities: Discover what is common among people from various cultures.
 Promote Tolerance: Encourage understanding and acceptance of cultural differences.
 Enhance Relationships: Improve relationships between people from diverse cultural backgrounds.
 Support Adaptation: Help people adjust when they move to a new culture.
 Support Diversity: Encourage appreciation and acceptance of cultural diversity in all areas of life.
 Influence Policies: Help create fair laws and policies that respect cultural differences.
 Boost Global Understanding: Increase awareness and knowledge about how cultures influence human
behavior around the world.

 Conduct Research: Study and gather information about how different cultures affect the way people live
and think.

 Educate and Train: Teach people about the importance of cultural differences and how to respect them.

objectives of cross-cultural psychology:

1. Understand Different Cultures: Learn about how people from different cultures think, feel, and behave.
2. Compare Cultures: See how cultures are similar and different from each other.
3. Improve Communication: Help people from different cultures talk and understand each other better.
4. Reduce Prejudice: Work on ways to decrease negative stereotypes and biases between cultures.
5. Promote Cultural Awareness: Make people more aware of and sensitive to cultural differences.
6. Enhance Social Harmony: Encourage peaceful and respectful interactions between people of different
cultures.
7. Study Cultural Impact on Behavior: Explore how culture shapes the way people act in different
situations.
8. Support Multicultural Societies: Help diverse communities live together successfully and harmoniously.
 9. Adapt Psychological Practices: Modify psychological methods and treatments to fit different cultural
backgrounds.
10. Foster Global Understanding: Contribute to a better understanding of the global human
experience by studying diverse cultural perspectives.

scope of cross-cultural psychology:

 Cultural Differences in Behavior: Understanding how people from different cultures behave differently in
various situations, such as in social interactions, work, or family life.

 Cultural Influences on Mental Processes: Exploring how culture affects the way people perceive the world,
think, and make decisions.

 Development Across Cultures: Studying how people grow and develop in different cultural settings,
including childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

 Health and Well-being: Investigating how cultural factors impact physical and mental health, and how
different cultures approach healthcare and healing.

 Communication Across Cultures: Examining how people from different cultures communicate and
understand each other, including language differences and non-verbal communication.

 Cultural Adaptation: Looking at how individuals adjust to new cultures, such as immigrants, and the
challenges and strategies involved in this process.

 Intercultural Relationships: Studying how people from different cultural backgrounds interact and form
relationships, including friendships, romantic relationships, and work relationships.

Lecture: 02
Anthropology & cross-culture
 George peter Murdock: complied work of many ethnographic studies under 1 database known as human
relation area files

 George peter Murdock: complied data from over 300 cultures and organized under 700 different cultural
subjects headings collected from ethnographies
edward burnet tylor proposed 03 basic stages of culture:
 Civilization: Advanced societies with complex institutions and technologies.
 Savagery: Early human societies relying on basic survival skills and simple tools.
 Barbarism: Societies in between savagery and civilization, with some development in agriculture and
craftsmanship.
louis henry morgan divided savagery and barbarism in to upper, middle, lower periods.

Louis Henry Morgan's stages of cultural development suggest: Human societies evolve through specific
stages from simple to complex.

Louis Henry Morgan's work "Systems of Consanguinity" states: Different societies have unique systems for
classifying family relationships.
 stages of cultural development posed by louis henry morgan in ancient society were:
 Upper Savagery: Advanced hunting and fishing skills.
 Middle Savagery: Basic use of fire.
 Lower Savagery: Early humans using simple tools for gathering food.
 Upper Barbarism: Development of metalworking and advanced agriculture.
 Middle Barbarism: Use of domesticated animals and irrigation.
 Lower Barbarism: Basic farming and pottery making.

Tribe: A small group of people who live and work together and share the same culture, language,
traditions.
Society: A large group of people living together with shared laws, norms, institutions.

David Levinson argues that holo-cultural studies have 6 major advantages in the realm of theory testing
concerning human culture and behavior.

1) Broad Perspective: These studies look at cultures from all around the world, giving a wide view of human
behavior.

2) Comparative Analysis: They allow researchers to compare different cultures directly, which helps in
understanding cultural differences and similarities.

3) Generalization: Findings from holocultural studies can often be applied to a broad range of cultures,
making theories more universal.

4) Diverse Data: They use data from a variety of cultures, reducing the chance that results are biased by the
idiosyncrasies of just one culture.

5) Theory Testing: These studies help test theories across different cultural settings to see if they hold up
universally.

6) Rich Insights: They provide a deep understanding of cultural phenomena by looking at patterns and
variations across many different societies.

David Levinson points out 04 major dis-advantages of holocultural studies (which look at all human cultures as
a whole) when it comes to testing theories about human culture and behavior:

David Levinson argues that holocultural studies have 4 major dis-advantages:

1) Lack of Context: Holo-cultural studies may overlook the historical and social contexts that shape
cultures, which can lead to incomplete or misleading conclusions.

2) Inadequate Evidence: They might rely on limited or outdated evidence, making their findings less
reliable or relevant.
 3) Overgeneralization: These studies might make broad statements that don't apply to every culture,
ignoring important differences between them.

4) Static View: They might present a fixed view of cultures, failing to account for how cultures change and
evolve over time.

 Lack of Depth: They often look at cultures in a very general way without going into the specific details that
might be crucial for understanding unique cultural behaviors.

 Cultural Bias:

 The studies might reflect the biases of the researchers, who may have their own cultural perspectives
influencing their interpretations.

 They can reflect the biases of the researchers, leading to skewed or inaccurate representations of cultures.

 Oversimplification: These studies often generalize about cultures, ignoring the unique differences within
them.
issues in cross cultural comparisons

 Language Barriers: Different cultures speak different languages, so it can be hard to accurately understand
and translate ideas.

 Different Values: Cultures have different values and priorities, which can lead to misunderstandings or
disagreements.

 Varied Norms: Social norms and behaviors that are acceptable in one culture might not be in another,
causing confusion.

 Different Beliefs: Cultures have different religious or spiritual beliefs, which can impact perspectives and
interactions.

 Diverse Customs: Everyday customs and traditions vary widely, and what’s normal in one culture might be
unusual in another.

 Varying Communication Styles: Cultures communicate in different ways—some are direct while others are
more indirect or subtle.

 Different Approaches to Authority: Cultures have varying attitudes towards authority and hierarchy,
affecting how people interact and make decisions.

 Economic Differences: Economic conditions and practices can differ, impacting how people view and handle
financial matters.

 Different Educational Systems: Educational practices and values vary, which can affect how people learn
and work together.

 Disparate Social Structures: Family roles, gender expectations, and social hierarchies can differ greatly
between cultures, influencing behavior and relationships.

 Stereotyping - Oversimplified views of cultures.

 Bias - Personal prejudices influencing interpretations.
 Language - Misunderstandings due to translation differences.
 Ethnocentrism - Viewing one's culture as superior.
 Assumptions - Incorrect generalizations about cultures.
 Practices - Diverse traditions and customs misunderstood.

Lecture: 03
Challenges of cultural adaptation and translations of test

Test Translation Test Adaptation:

Define: Define:
 Directly converting a test from one language to  changing a test so it makes sense and fits well
another. in another culture.
 Focuses on words.  Focuses on meaning and culture.
Goal: Goal:
 To convert the text to another language.  To make sure the test works well in another
culture.
Complexity: Complexity:
 Easier and faster.  More complicated & slower.
Needs: Needs:
 good translator.  both a translator + cultural expert.
Cultural Relevance: Cultural Relevance:
 Might ignore cultural differences.  Adjusts to cultural differences.
Accuracy: Accuracy:
 Accurate in words but might miss the meaning.  Accurate in meaning and context.
Local Relevance: Local Relevance:
 May not be locally relevant  Aims to be locally relevant.
Understanding: Understanding:
 May be harder to understand in the new  Easier to understand in the new culture.
culture.
Language Style: Language Style:
 Keeps the original language style.  May change the style to fit the culture.
Content: Content:
 remains same.  may change to be more appropriate.

Types of Adaptation
1) Construct Adaptation:
Adjusting a test to measure the same concept across different cultures, even if the concept has different
meanings.
Example:
Consider a happiness survey that includes questions about "going to the movies" as a source of joy.
If this survey is adapted for a community where movie theaters are rare, the question might be
changed to "spending time with family" instead. This adjustment keeps the survey meaningful in
the new cultural context, showing construct adaptation. This change ensures the test is relevant to
the new context, demonstrating construct adaptation. hanging certain words or references in a
questionnaire to match the local language and culture.
2) Language Adaptation:
Translating a test into another language so that the meaning remains same in another language.
Example:
Translating an English math test to Spanish, ensuring that word problems are still clear and
understandable in the new language.
3) Cultural Adaptation:
Modifying a test to fit cultural norms and values of the target population.
 Example:
Emma, a Canadian teacher, moves to Brazil and notices that people greet each other with close
hugs and cheek kisses. She adapts by embracing these warm greetings, which helps her connect
better with her new colleagues and students.
John, an American engineer, moves to India for work and initially struggles with the concept of "Indian
Standard Time," where meetings often start later than scheduled. Instead of getting frustrated, he adapts by
adjusting his expectations and using the extra time for informal conversations with colleagues, which helps
him build stronger relationships. This adaptation enhances his work experience and improves team
collaboration.
4) Familiarity Adaptation:
Making a test more relatable by using examples and content familiar to the test-taker's life.
It happens when you get used to something over time.
Example:
Alex, who loves running in the evenings, moves to a new city with a hot climate. He adapts by switching his
runs to early mornings when it’s cooler, helping him stay active and enjoy his routine.

Example:

at first, you might find a new city overwhelming, but after living there for a while, it starts to feel like home.

Example: Scenario: Meeting New People

Imagine you’re attending a series of networking events for work. At the first event, you meet several people,
and it feels overwhelming to remember everyone’s names and details. You might feel anxious or uncertain
about how to interact.

First Event:

 Initial Reaction: You struggle to remember names and might be nervous about making a good impression.
You’re hyper-aware of your surroundings and self-conscious about your interactions.

As you continue attending these events, you start recognizing faces and remembering names more easily. You
become more comfortable with the format and the types of conversations that typically happen.

Subsequent Events:

 Adaptation: You start to feel more at ease in these situations. Remembering names and engaging in
conversations become more natural. You also develop a better sense of which topics or questions work well
in these settings.

Stages of Translation Process and the Adaptation of Instruments:

 Stages of Translation Process:

 Preparation: Setting up by understanding the original text and audience.

 Translation: Converting the text into the target language.
 Editing: Revising the translated text for accuracy and clarity.
 Review: Checking the translation for errors and making improvements.
 Finalization: Completing the translation and preparing it for use.

 Adaptation of Instruments:

 Conceptualization: Defining the purpose and content of the instrument.

 Translation: Converting the instrument into the target language.
  Adaptation: Changing the instrument to suit cultural differences and context.
 Validation: Checking if the adapted instrument works well and gives accurate results.
 Implementation: Using the adapted instrument in real settings.

Back-Translation
process of translating a text back to its original language to check the accuracy of the translation.

Example:
Original Text (English): "She enjoys reading novels."

Translated Text (French): "Elle aime lire des romans."

Back-Translated Text (English): "She likes to read novels."

components of Back-Translation:
 Original Text: source text in the original language that needs to be translated.
 Forward Translation: process of translating the original text into a target language.
 Back Translation: Translating the target language text back into the original language by a different
translator.

 Comparison: Analyzing the back-translated text & comparing it with the original text to identify
discrepancies, errors, or changes in meaning.

 Reconciliation: Making necessary adjustments to the forward translation based on the findings from the
comparison to ensure consistency & accuracy.

 Final Review: Conducting a thorough review of the revised translation to confirm that it accurately reflects
the meaning & purpose of the original text.

Pilot Study
 Pilot Study: it is a small-scale test run of a research project to check if it works as planned.
 Purpose: to identify and fix problems before starting the full research.
 Example: Before launching a new drug, researchers test it on a small group to see if it's safe. If
successful, they proceed with larger trials.

06 Components:

 Objectives: What the study aims to achieve.

 Participants: The small group being tested.
 Methods: How the study is conducted.
 Measurements: The data being collected.
 Analysis: How the data will be reviewed.
 Feedback: Insights gained from the pilot.

06 Features:

 Small Scale: Conducted on a limited number of participants.

 Preliminary: Done before the main study.
 Exploratory: Helps to explore feasibility.
  Adjustable: Allows for changes based on findings.
 Cost-Effective: Less expensive than the full study.
 Risk Reduction: Helps identify potential issues early.

06 Advantages:

 Identifies Issues Early: Finds problems before full-scale research.

 Refines Methods: Helps improve research procedures.
 Saves Money: Avoids costly mistakes in the main study.
 Improves Design: Enhances the study's design and planning.
 Increases Accuracy: Ensures more accurate results in the main study.
 Builds Confidence: Provides reassurance that the study will work.

Importance/Advantages of Cultural Adaptation of Tests

1) Accuracy: Ensures test results reflect true abilities.
2) Relevance: Matches test content to local contexts and norms.
3) Fairness: Reduces bias against different cultures.
4) Validity: Maintains the test's purpose and goals.
5) Engagement: Increases test-taker's interest and motivation.
6) Understanding: Clarifies test questions and instructions.
7) Consistency: Provides reliable results across cultures.
8) Equity: Gives all groups equal opportunities to succeed.
9) Acceptance: Encourages acceptance of test results.
10) Quality: Enhances the overall effectiveness of the test.

Challenges of Cultural adaptation and translations of test

1) Misinterpretation: Incorrectly understanding cultural nuances or context.

2) Bias: Inherent prejudices affecting test fairness.
3) Context: Lack of cultural relevance in questions or scenarios.
4) Terminology: Difficulty translating specific terms accurately.
5) Idioms: Translating idiomatic expressions can be misleading.
6) Values: Different cultural values influencing responses.
7) Norms: Varying social norms affecting test behavior.
8) Concepts: Different cultural concepts may be unfamiliar.
9) Symbols: Misunderstanding of culturally specific symbols or references.
10) Content: Adapting content to fit diverse cultural backgrounds.

Extra material
Cultural Bias: Tests might include cultural references or idioms that are specific to one culture but not
understood by individuals from other cultures, leading to biased results.
 Language Nuances: Differences in language structure, idiomatic expressions, and connotations can affect
the accuracy of translation. What makes sense in one language might not in another.

Test Content Relevance: Some test items might be culturally specific or irrelevant to certain populations,
making it difficult to assess the intended constructs across cultures.

Norms and Standards: Establishing equivalent norms and standards for different cultural groups can be
challenging, as what is considered a high or low score might differ between cultures.

Conceptual Equivalence: Ensuring that the concepts being tested are understood in the same way across
cultures. Some concepts might not have direct equivalents or might be interpreted differently.

Cultural Sensitivity: Avoiding content that might be offensive or inappropriate in different cultural contexts.
What is acceptable in one culture might be considered taboo in another.

Cognitive Styles: Different cultures may have varying cognitive styles and problem-solving approaches,
which can impact how test items are perceived and answered.

Response Styles: Cultural differences in response styles, such as the tendency to give socially desirable
answers or the use of extreme response options, can affect test validity.

Translation Quality: Maintaining the integrity of the test content during translation. Poor translation can
lead to misunderstandings and inaccurate assessment of abilities.

Pilot Testing: Properly piloting the adapted test in the target cultural group is essential to identify and
address issues before the test is widely administered, which can be logistically and financially challenging.

Role of Equivalence in cultural adaptation and translation of test:

 means making sure the translated test measures the same thing as the original test.

When a test is considered equivalent with another, two important implications arise.
Cultural Appropriateness
Consistency in Measurement

Lack of equivalence can lead to bias in test.

sources of biases: 03
• Item bias:

 When a test question favors one group over another due to differences in language, culture, or
experience.
 Refers: to threats that affect specific items of the test.
 common cause is poor item translation.

sources of item biases are: 03

1- Linguistic bias : This type of bias can result from mistranslation, inappropriate use of wording, or even
mistakes in the translation of idioms.

2- Psychological bias: This type of bias relates to situations in which the psychological impact of item is
not same in 2 or more target cultures.
 For example, emotions could have different intensity across cultures, which make respondents in
different cultures exhibit stronger or weaker psychological reactions towards an item

3- Conceptual bias

 when a concept in a test doesn't have the same meaning across different cultures.
 known as cultural bias.
 occurs when the conceptual framework or assumptions underlying a study, theory, or interpretation
influence the outcome or conclusions in a biased way.

Example:

A teacher assumes that boys are better at math than girls. They give more attention and harder problems to
the boys in class, leading to better math scores for the boys and reinforcing the teacher's original belief. This
bias affects both teaching and learning outcomes.

Example:

A journalist believes that video games cause violence. They only interview experts and find stories that
support this idea, ignoring studies that show no link. This bias leads to a one-sided article that doesn't present
the full picture.

Example:

A researcher is studying the impact of social media on mental health. They begin with the assumption that
social media use is inherently harmful and frame their research questions accordingly. Their study focuses
primarily on finding negative outcomes, such as anxiety and depression, without considering the possibility of
positive effects, like improved social connections or support networks.

Due to this conceptual bias, the researcher might:

 Design surveys that emphasize negative experiences related to social media, leading participants to focus
on those aspects.
 Interpret ambiguous data in a way that supports their preconceived notion of social media being
harmful.
 Overlook or downplay findings that suggest positive or neutral effects of social media.

As a result, the study may conclude that social media is detrimental to mental health, not because the
evidence overwhelmingly supports this conclusion, but because the research was conceptually biased from
the start. This can lead to a skewed understanding of the issue and influence public opinion or policy based on
incomplete or biased evidence.

Method bias:

 When the way a test is administered or scored unfairly affects the results for different groups.
 Method bias is related not to the conceptual development of the questionnaire but to the instrument itself,
the data collection process, or the characteristics of the sample.

Sources of Method bias: 03

instrument bias:
is associated with characteristics that can affect candidates' scores but that relate to the measurement tool
rather than the characteristic being measured.

Sources of Instrument bias include:

 1. Translation errors: When test items are poorly translated, leading to different meanings.
2. Cultural differences: When the test content is more familiar or relevant to one culture than another.
3. Format issues: When the layout or design of the test is confusing or inappropriate for certain groups.
4. Response style differences: When people from different cultures tend to respond to questions in
systematically different ways.

administration bias:
is associated with environmental or communicational differences in administering the tests that affect the
scores of the comparison groups differently.

Sources of administration bias include:

 Personal Biases: Individual preferences, beliefs, and prejudices of administrators can impact their decisions.
This includes favoritism, discrimination, and unconscious biases related to race, gender, age, etc.

 Institutional Bias: The policies and practices within an organization or institution that perpetuate inequality
or unfairness. This might include outdated practices or systemic structures that disadvantage certain groups.

 Cultural Bias: The influence of dominant cultural norms and values that shape how administrators view and
treat different groups. This can affect decision-making and policy implementation.

 Political Bias: The influence of political ideologies or pressures that can affect administrative decisions and
priorities. This is particularly relevant in public administration and government settings.

 Economic Bias: The impact of financial interests and economic considerations on administrative decisions.
This can include prioritizing certain projects or policies based on economic benefits rather than fairness or
need.

 Social Bias: The impact of societal attitudes and stereotypes on administrative practices. This can include
biases related to social class, education, or community background.

 Confirmation Bias: The tendency to favor information or viewpoints that confirm pre-existing beliefs or
decisions, leading to skewed decision-making.

 Procedural Bias: Biases that arise from the processes and procedures used in decision-making, which can
disadvantage certain groups if not designed inclusively.

Test instructions : Tests typically include a set of standardised instructions to be read during administration,
as well as advice on best practices in administration situations
• Differences in language: The test is given in a language that the participants do not speak very well, or
the test administrator does not speak the language of the participants very well.
• Differences in the observance of target culture: The test administrator does not possess enough
knowledge of the target culture
• Differences in technological administration conditions : The technology used in the target culture for
administration is different than in the source culture or unfamiliar for the test takers
• Differential expertise of test administrators. The professionals administering the test in the source and
target cultures have different levels of expertise in test administration.

Sampling bias:
when the group of people chosen for a study doesn't represent the larger population correctly.

Sources of sampling bias include:

 Selection Bias: Occurs when certain groups are systematically excluded or overrepresented in the sample.
This can happen if the sampling method favors certain individuals or groups.

 Non-Response Bias: Arises when certain individuals chosen for the sample do not respond or participate. If
the non-respondents differ in significant ways from those who do respond, it can skew the results.

 Self-Selection Bias: Happens when individuals choose to participate in the study based on their own
preferences or characteristics. This can lead to a sample that is not representative of the general population.

 Undercoverage Bias: Occurs when certain segments of the population are inadequately represented in the
sample. This can happen if the sampling frame does not include all relevant groups.

 Overcoverage Bias: Arises when the sample includes individuals who should not be part of the target
population. This can happen if the sampling frame includes more than just the target population.

 Exclusion Bias: Results from excluding certain groups or individuals from the sampling frame, leading to a
sample that does not accurately reflect the entire population.

 Convenience Sampling Bias: Occurs when the sample is selected based on ease of access rather than
randomization or representativeness. This can lead to a sample that is not diverse or representative.

 Volunteer Bias: When individuals volunteer to participate in a study, they may have different characteristics
or motivations compared to those who do not volunteer, leading to skewed results.

 Timing Bias: Happens when the timing of the sample collection influences the results. For example,
collecting data at a specific time of day or year might not capture the full variability of the population.

 Geographic Bias: Arises when the sample is limited to a specific geographic area that does not represent the
entire population.

construct bias:

When a test doesn’t measure the same thing for everyone, making comparisons invalid.

Sources of construct bias include:

 Cultural Differences:
 Variations in beliefs and practices between different cultures.
 Variations in cultural understanding and experiences that affect how people interpret and respond to
test items.
 Language Differences:
 Differences in how words and phrases are understood across languages.
 Differences in how certain words or phrases are understood or interpreted in different languages.
 Context Differences:
 Variations in the setting or situation that affect how test questions are interpreted.
 Variations in the social or environmental context that influence how test items are perceived and
answered.

Lecture: 04
methodological issues in cross cultural research

Important substantive questions for researchers and managers include the following:
1) Are the constructs or theories investigated relevant in each research context?
2) How should the instrument used to collect the data (for example, a questionnaire) be translated?
 3) What samples should be selected?
4) How should the data be collected?
5) Are the measures used in the study are consistent (constant / fixed) in each unit of analysis investigated?

The main aim when conducting research across different cultures and/or countries is to:
 establish comparability / equivalence at each stage of the research process.
 Understand cultural differences and similarities.
 Ensure accuracy and relevance of findings in diverse contexts.
 Gather diverse perspectives to enrich findings.
 Avoid cultural bias and stereotypes in analysis.
 Validate findings across different cultural settings.
 Foster respect for cultural diversity in the research process.
 Improve the global applicability of research outcomes.
 Promote collaboration and knowledge exchange between cultures.
 Build cross-cultural communication and collaboration skills.
 Recognize and address ethical issues specific to different cultural contexts.
 Improve the generalizability of research by including diverse populations.

o A failure to establish this may bias results.

o interpretations of findings may be inconclusive, meaningless or misguiding.

reasons for lack of improvement in the methodology of research:

 lack of knowledge between researchers,
 difficulty of setting and achieving equivalence at each stage of research process,
 methodological complexities involved in some procedures
 lack of clarity in literature.

 Lack of Awareness: Researchers might not know about new methods or tools that could improve their
work.

 Resistance to Change: Some researchers prefer to stick to familiar methods rather than trying something
new.

 Limited Resources: Improving research methods often requires time, money, and training, which may not
always be available.

 Complexity: New methods can be complicated and hard to understand, making them difficult to adopt.

 Insufficient Training: Researchers might not have enough training in advanced or innovative research
techniques.

 Fear of Failure: There’s a concern that trying new methods might lead to mistakes or unreliable results.

 Pressure to Publish: Researchers often feel pressured to publish quickly, which can discourage them from
experimenting with new methods.
 Institutional Barriers: Universities or organizations may have strict guidelines that limit the use of new
research methods.

 Lack of Collaboration: Research often requires collaboration, and if not everyone is on board with new
methods, it’s hard to make changes.

 Unclear Benefits: Researchers might not see the clear advantages of adopting new methods, especially if
the current ones seem to work well enough.

 Inertia: Resistance to change in established practices.

 Cost: High expenses for new methodologies.
 Training: Lack of expertise in new techniques.
 Time: Limited time for adopting innovations.
 Complexity: New methods are often complicated.
 Bias: Preference for familiar approaches.
 Resources: Insufficient tools for advanced methodologies.
 Funding: Inadequate financial support for innovation.
 Risk: Fear of unproven methods failing.
 Tradition: Reliance on historical practices.

Data equivalence
 Means data that have same meaning, same interpretation, same level of accuracy, precision of
measurement, validity and reliability in all countries and cultures

 means that two sets of data are considered equal if they contain the same information, even if presented in
different formats or structures.
02 approaches to equivalence are generally identified in the literature
 1st approach refers to those forms of equivalence that have to be addressed before and during data
collection.
2nd approach focuses on the analysis of the data + examines the measurement equivalence or invariance
of data already collected.

PROBLEM DEFINITION
02 relevant methodological issues at this stage are:
 selection of unit of analysis
 relevance of research topic:

Craig and Douglas propose 03 aspects that need to be considered in defining the unit:

 geographic scope of unit (for example, country, region)

 criteria for membership in the unit (for example, demographic or socio-economic characteristics)
 situational context (for example, specific socio-cultural settings, climate context).

RESEARCH APPROACH
02 main approaches used in cross-cultural research in social sciences:
emic approach
 examines the phenomenon studied from within a specific context (for example, culture, country).
 It holds that theory, constructs are specific to this context.
 offers more reliability + internal validity
etic approach:
 examines the phenomenon analyzed from outside a specific context (for example, culture, country).
 It is concerned with assessing universal constructs, theories
 allows for developing universal measures that can be applied to all contexts.
 It is more practical, in terms of time and cost.
 it makes comparisons easier
 increases external validity.
 researchers often use etic approach.

Etic approach Emic approach

1) define  focuses on studying how different  focuses on studying the differences
cultures are similar between the cultures
2) Perspective  Outsider's view (external)  Insider's view (internal)
3) Focus  Universal principles + comparisons  Specific cultural details + meanings
4) Data  Surveys,  Interviews,
Collection
 experiments,  Observations
 qualitative data
5) Views culture  as a set of variables  as a lived experience
6) Adaptability  less flexible,  More flexible
7) Objectivity  Aims to be neutral and detached  Aims to be involved and subjective
8) Generalization  Aims for broader conclusions  Focuses on specific, unique cultural
 applicable across cultures insights

CONSTRUCT EQUIVALENCE
 means two different ways of measuring or defining the same thing.

03 distinct aspects:

1- Functional equivalence:

 Making sure two things serve same purpose / function even if they look different.

Examples:

 bicycle is considered a means of transport in the Netherlands but for recreational purposes in the United
States.
 Using "elevator" in place of "lift" in American English.
 In the US, a "check" is used to pay bills, while in the UK, you use a "cheque." Both serve the same
purpose in financial transactions.
 In the US, people use a "treadmill" for exercise indoors, while in the UK, they use the term "running
machine" for the same equipment.

2- Conceptual equivalence:

 Making sure that two ideas or concepts have same meaning

Examples:

 The idea of "community service" means helping others in both the US and India, even if the specific
activities might differ.
 In both Japan and Italy, "family dinners" are important gatherings, even though the specific dishes and
customs may vary.

3- category equivalence:

 Making sure that two items belong to same category or class, even if they aren’t exactly the same.

Examples:

 a beer can be considered as a soft drink in the south of Europe and as an alcoholic beverage in the north.
 In the US, "cookies" are sweet baked goods, while in the UK, "biscuits" serve the same role in daily life
and tea time.
 The term "smartphone" in the US is similar to "mobile phone" in the UK; both refer to the same type of
device used for communication and apps.
 Translating "holiday" in the UK to "vacation" in the US, both meaning time off from work.

MEASURE EQUIVALENCE
 Different tools or methods giving consistent results when measuring the same thing.
 03 additional issues / 03 distinct aspects:

1- Translation equivalence
 It is concerned with the translation of the research instrument into another language so it can be
understood by respondents in different countries and has the same meaning in each context.

 The goal of translation equivalence is commonality in understanding the instrument.

 equivalence of meaning, rather than literal translation, is most important.
 Example: "Hello" in English is equivalent to "Hola" in Spanish.

2- Calibration equivalence:
 refers to the equivalence in monetary units, measures of weight, distance, volume, and other perceptual
cues, such as color and shapes.
 Different measurement tools being adjusted to give the same result under the same conditions.
Example:
 Two thermometers showing 100°C when placed in boiling water.
 Two rulers measure the same length accurately after being adjusted to match.

 if the distance between two points is measured in kilometers in one country and miles in another, then
questionnaire items relating to this measure should be converted.

3- Metric equivalence
 means a measurement scale works the same way for different groups of people using the same metric.
Example:
 A survey asks people from different countries how satisfied they are with life on a scale of 1 to 10. If
people in all countries understand and use the scale the same way, that's an example of metric
equivalence.
 A 5-point rating scale meaning "very satisfied" across different cultures.

SAMPLING EQUIVALENCE
 means that different samples from the same population should give similar results.

02 main levels of sampling can be identified:

sampling of cultures or countries

sampling of individual respondents

03 Problems regarding sampling:

 choice of respondents,
 conflict between comparability & representativeness (conflict between the need for representativeness
and comparability of the samples)
 sampling methods.

sampling methods information

  use of probabilistic methods (for example, random and stratified sampling) enhances the likelihood of
obtaining a representative sample.
 In cross-cultural research, non-probabilistic methods, such as quota sampling and judgmental sampling,
are used.
 Researchers use these procedures to draw matched samples, in terms of some relevant variables (sex,
age, education).
 These procedures facilitate the control of extraneous variables that could potentially confound the
results.

Example:

If you survey two groups of students from the same school about their favorite subject, both groups should
give similar answers.

DATA COLLECTION EQUIVALENCE

 means collecting data in the same way for everyone so that the results can be fairly compared.
 gathering data in a way that ensures consistency and comparability across different groups or settings.
Example:
 If you measure the height of plants in two different gardens using the same ruler and at the same time of
day, you're ensuring data collection equivalence. This way, the heights can be compared accurately.

To enhance the comparability of collected data, pay attention to the following aspects:
 equivalence of administration: means giving the same test or survey in the same way to
everyone.
 Response equivalence: means making sure people understand and answer the questions
in the same way.
 status and authority of researcher
 timing of data collection

DATA ANALYSIS
Measurement equivalence or invariance (ME/I):
 means that a test measures the same thing for everyone in the same way across different groups.

Example:
 a survey on job satisfaction should be understood similarly by people from different cultures.
how data is Analyzed in cross cultural research?
1) Comparative Analysis - Comparing data across different cultures.
2) Factor Analysis - Checking if similar factors show up in different cultures.
3) Descriptive Statistics - Summarizing data using averages and other basic measures.
4) Multivariate Analysis - Analyzing data with multiple variables to see how they interact.
5) Regression Analysis - Examining how variables influence each other.
6) Cluster Analysis - Grouping similar data points to find patterns across cultures.

Lecture# 05
 Culture and cognition
 Culture: The shared beliefs, practices, customs, and behaviors of a group of people.

Human culture depends upon:

 Language
 Traditions
 Religion
 Social norms
 Values
 Art
 Technology
 Education
 Economy
 Government
 Symbols
 Beliefs
 Customs
 Social Institutions
 Laws

Bradley Franks about culture

 Bradley Franks proposed a cognitive approach to understanding culture.
 Bradley Franks stated that culture shapes how people think and understand the world.
 Bradley Franks defined culture as shared beliefs, practices, and knowledge that influence thought and
behavior.

 Bradley Franks' alternative evolutionary approach to culture suggests that culture evolves through human
interactions and mental processes, not just through biological evolution.

 Cognition: process of thinking, understanding, learning, and remembering things.

factors that affect cognitions

 Attention
 Memory
 Perception
 Language
 Intelligence
 Emotions
 Experience
 Sleep
 Stress
 Nutrition
Role of Culture in Cognitive Development
 Language Development: Culture shapes the language children learn and how they use it to think.
 Problem-Solving Skills: Cultural tools and practices influence how children approach and solve problems.
 Social Learning: Children learn by observing and imitating behaviors within their cultural group.
 Values and Beliefs: Culture teaches children what is important and influences their decision-making.

 Reasoning Styles: Different cultures emphasize different ways of thinking, like logical or creative
reasoning.
 Social Roles: Culture defines the roles children learn to play in their community.
 Moral Development: Culture teaches children what is right and wrong, shaping their moral understanding.
Sociocultural Perspective/theory:
 It is a theory that explains how our thinking and learning are shaped by social interactions and the
culture we live in.

1) Culture plays a big role in cognitive development by shaping how we think, learn, and solve problems.
2) It influences the tools and language we use, the values we hold, and the way we interact with others.
3) Children learn through social interactions, observing adults, and participating in cultural practices.
4) These experiences help develop their thinking skills.
5) Different cultures emphasize different ways of thinking, such as creativity, logical reasoning, or social
understanding.
6) culture provides the environment and resources that guide and support cognitive growth.

Piaget’s Sociocultural Perspective: Piaget believed kids learn and grow by exploring and interacting with their
surroundings.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective: Vygotsky emphasized that social interaction and culture play a key role
in shaping cognitive development.

Vygotsky - Genetic Method / “genetic” domains:

1) Onto-genesis: Development by an individual over life time
2) Socio-historical: Development of the society
3) Phylo-genesis: Development of the (human) species
4) Micro-genesis: Creation of ideas & concept learning

Tools of Intellectual Adaptation:

Elementary mental functions:

 Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for intellectual development
called “elementary mental functions”
 develop during 1st two years of life due to direct environmental contact
 Elementary mental functions include:

 Attention
 Sensation
 Perception
 Memory

 young children learn from:

new discoveries,
new understanding
new schemas

mental processes—higher mental functions:

 Attention
 Memory
 Language
 Reasoning
 Problem-solving
 Planning
 Perception
 Executive functions
 Decision-making
 Cognitive control

Dual Nature of Cognitive Development:

 means that cognitive growth involves both individual and social factors.
 It is the idea that cognitive development is influenced by personal understanding and social interactions.

1- inter-psychological category: refers to knowledge and skills learned through social interactions with others.

2- intra-psychological category: refers to knowledge and skills that are internalized and understood by an
individual on their own.

Ro-goff: believed that children’s cognitions are shaped from these routine day-to-day activities more so than
in formal education setting.
Ro-goff: states that adults guide children in learning by working together, like a mentor teaching a skill.
 Improving skills and understanding through participation with more skilled partners.

Context-independent learning means learning something that you can apply in any situation.

Symbolic play:
it is when children use objects or actions to represent something else, like using a stick as a sword.

Advantages of symbolic play:

 It boosts creativity by encouraging imagination.

 It helps children understand and express their emotions.
 It improves problem-solving skills through inventive scenarios.
 It enhances social skills by practicing interactions with others.
 It supports language development by expanding vocabulary and sentence structure.

Different types of symbolic play include:

 Pretend play
 Role play
 Fantasy play
 Dramatic play
 Constructive play

Cooperative Learning Environment is a classroom setup where students work together in small
groups to help each other learn and solve problems.

Components
1) Positive interdependence
 2) Individual accountability
3) Group processing
4) Social skills
5) Face-to-face interaction

advantages
 Encourages teamwork: Students learn to work well with others.
 Boosts understanding: Explaining ideas to peers deepens knowledge.
 Builds communication skills: Students practice speaking and listening.
 Increases engagement: Working in groups keeps students more involved.
 Promotes responsibility: Everyone must contribute to the group's success.
 Develops problem-solving skills: Students tackle challenges together.
 Enhances social skills: Interaction with peers improves social behavior.
 Supports diverse learning: Different perspectives help students learn in various ways.
 Reduces anxiety: Working with peers can make learning less stressful.
 Improves academic performance: Collaborative efforts often lead to better results.

Sociocultural Theory

Zone of Proximal Development:

 difference between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with
assistance of more capable peers.

Tasks that are:

achieved with guidance
encouragement of skilled partner
attainable with the help of MKO

 It represents tasks beyond the learner’s current abilities

 “proximal” refers to skills the learner is “close” to mastering

 gap between actual and potential learning

 ZPD connects the gap between current & potential ability.

 To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are
encouraged to focus on 3 important components which aid in learning process:

1) presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (MKO)
 2) Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice their
skills.

3) Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator.

Scaffolding

 instructional concept
 It provides support
 Provides direction
 Aids in accomplish tasks
 teacher /MKO helps to structure & arrange a task so that a learner can work on it successfully.
 teacher’s role is to identify each individual’s current level of development
 teacher’s role is to provide learners with opportunities to cross their ZPD.
 Includes:
o new skills
o competencies
o understandings
 describes the conditions that support the child’s learning, to move from what they already
know to new knowledge and abilities.

Example:

1. Remembering: The teacher provides the basic definition.

2. Understanding: Students explain the process in their own words.

3. Application: They might conduct an experiment on plants.

4. Analysis: Dive deeper into how different variables affect the process.

5. Creation: Design an optimal environment for plant growth.

Key features of Scaffolding:

1) Adaptability:

o Scaffolding adjusts to individual needs.

o different people learn at different rates,
o scaffolding can be customized to provide the right amount of support for each learner.

2) Fading Assistance:

o support in scaffolding decreases over time.

 o you won't need as much help
o because you've gained the skills to do it independently.
3) Interactive Learning:

o Scaffolding encourages interaction and collaboration.

o interactive process enhances understanding
o interactive process makes learning more engaging.

  Step-by-step support: Help is given in small, manageable steps.

  Guided learning: Teachers guide students as they learn new skills.
  Temporary aid: Support is provided until students can do it on their own.
  Focus on key tasks: Help is given where students need it most.
  Active participation: Students are involved in their own learning process.
  Encouragement: Teachers motivate students to keep trying.
  Customized support: Assistance is tailored to each student’s needs.
  Gradual independence: Support is slowly removed as students improve.
  Building confidence: Scaffolding boosts students' confidence in their abilities.
  Feedback: Teachers provide regular feedback to help students progress.

Application of Scaffolding:

In the Classroom
 In classroom settings, teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level.
 Educators can then offer instruction that stretches the limits of each child's capabilities.
 1stlt, the student may need assistance from an adult / more knowledgeable peer.
 Eventually, their zone of proximal development will expand.
 Teachers can help promote this expansion by:

 Planning and organizing classroom instruction and lessons.

For example, the teacher might organize the class into groups where less-skilled children are
paired with students who have a higher skill level.

 Using: hints, prompts, direct instruction

to help kids improve their ability levels.

 Scaffolding:

where the teacher provides specific prompts to move the child progressively towards a goal.

According to Vygotsky:

 Vygotsky believed that through playing and imagining, children are able to further stretch
their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world.
  provides plenty of opportunities for learning

 Types of play in learning include:

 imaginary play,
 role-playing,
 games,
 re-creating past events,
 re-creating actual events

 Such activities helps to promote the growth of abstract thought.

For Educational Purposes:

Reen-act-ments:
 can serve as educational tools
 help people for better understand
 Such activities help promote the growth of abstract thought.

Social Influences On Cognitive Development

 social interaction involves cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive
development
 The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor.

Internalization:
 process of acquiring and incorporating external information or skills into one's own cognitive
structure through social interactions and learning experiences.
Language:
 aids in cognitive development
 mode of transmitting information
 powerful tool for intellectual adaptation / communication

forms of language: 03
Social speech: 5 points
 (age of 2)
 Known as external speech
 It is external communication used to talk with others
  when we talk loud to communicate with others.
 It involves using language to share their thoughts, ideas, and information with people around
us. / to convey our needs.
 Example: parents, teachers, peers

Private speech 9 points

 (age of 3)
 Known as ego-centric speech
 it is directed to the self
 works as intellectual function
 it is when we talk to ourselves, either in loud or in low voice.
 It serves as a tool for self-guidance
 it transitions from being external (social) to internal (silent inner speech) as a child develops.
 Common in early childhood.
 private speech diminishes as cognitive functions mature.
 Private speech is a way for children to externalize their thoughts, making it easier for them
to process and understand information.

Silent Inner Speech: 6 points

 (Age 7)
 Known as introspective speech.
 it is when we talk to ourselves mentally, without actually vocalizing the words.
 It involves using language internally for thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
 As children grow, Vygotsky believed that private speech transforms into silent inner speech,
becoming more internalized and less audible.
 helps individuals regulate their behavior and thoughts independently.
 linked with higher cognitive functions / complex mental processes.

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

 Parents
 Teachers
 Technology
 media

Lecture# 06
Individualism Vs collectivism
Individualism collectivism
 Focus on personal goals.  Focus on group goals.
  Examples: U.S., Western Europe.  Examples: Japan, China.
 In-dependence is highly valued.  Inter-dependence is highly valued.
 Responsibility is personal.  Responsibility is shared.
 Self-reliance is encouraged.  Cooperation within the group is
emphasized.
 Success is seen as individual  Success is shared among the group.
achievement.
 Freedom and autonomy are key.  Loyalty and conformity are key.
 People prioritize their own needs.  People prioritize the needs of the
group.
 Decisions are based on individual  Decisions are often made to benefit
choice. the group.
 Competition is common.  Harmony and teamwork are
important.

Geert Hofstede's theory:

 explains how different cultures influence behavior and values through dimensions like:

He noticed key differences between countries and identified trends , which he categorized into

06 dimensions:

1) Power Distance Index: Shows how much people accept that some have more power than others in
society.

2) Individualism Versus Collectivism: Focuses on whether people prioritize personal goals (individualism)
or group goals (collectivism).

3) Masculinity Versus Femininity: Looks at whether a society values competitiveness and achievement
(masculinity) or care and quality of life (femininity).

4) Uncertainty Avoidance Index: Describes how comfortable a society is with uncertainty and taking risks.

5) Pragmatic Versus Normative: Examines whether people focus on the future with flexibility (pragmatic)
or hold to traditional values and norms (normative).

6) Indulgence Versus Restraint: Refers to whether a culture allows free gratification of desires
(indulgence) or controls it with strict social norms (restraint).

Role of life events stress & i/c in predicting job satisfaction:

 High individualist managers having higher job satisfaction than collectivist managers .

Understanding the relationship between individualism and word of mouth

1- high individualism consumers are more willing than low individualism consumers to transmit WOM in real
and online worlds.
2- high individualism consumers participate more in satisfactory WOM experience.
3- high individualism consumers more likely to engage in high social risk WOM conditions .
4- high individualism consumers participate more in unsolicited WOM condition
 i/c and power distance cultural dimensions case:
1) Fatalistic culture: belief that events are controlled by fate and people have little control over their lives.
2) Egalitarian culture: society where everyone is treated equally, considering no 1 superior.
3) Hierarchical culture: society where people are ranked in levels of power or status, with some having more
authority than others.
4) Individualistic culture: society that values personal independence and the rights of individuals over group
needs.

How can cooperation be fostered the cultural effects of Individualism & collectivism?
 Find common goals: Whether people are individualistic or collectivist, everyone can work together if they
share a goal that benefits both the individual and the group.

 Encourage mutual respect: balance is important so Individualists can learn to appreciate teamwork, and
collectivists can respect personal contributions.

 Create flexible systems: Set up environments where both independence and teamwork are valued. For
example, allow individuals to shine in their tasks but also reward collaboration.

 Build trust: Trust helps overcome cultural differences. By showing understanding and respecting each
other's cultural values, people can cooperate better.

 Respect Differences: Recognize that individualistic cultures value personal goals, while collectivist cultures
focus on group success. Respect both views.

 Set Common Goals: Create shared goals that everyone can contribute to, encouraging both individual effort
and teamwork.

 Encourage Open Communication: Foster environments where people feel safe to share their opinions,
understanding that individualists might be more direct and collectivists may be more reserved.

 Build Trust: Trust grows when people understand and appreciate cultural differences. Create opportunities
for team bonding and mutual support.

 Acknowledge Contributions: Praise individual achievements in individualistic cultures and group efforts in
collectivist cultures. This shows everyone that their work matters.

 Promote Shared Values: Highlight values that both cultures appreciate, like respect, honesty, and kindness,
to strengthen team unity.

 Adapt Leadership Styles: In individualistic cultures, leaders should give people autonomy. In collectivist
cultures, leaders should focus on team harmony and collaboration.

 Create Balanced Workflows: Make sure that both independent tasks (for individualists) and group projects
(for collectivists) are part of the work.

 Foster Empathy: Encourage people to understand the perspectives of their team members, helping bridge
the gap between individualist and collectivist thinking.

 Celebrate Diversity: Celebrate both cultural approaches. This helps everyone feel valued and promotes a
cooperative spirit across cultural lines.

Lecture# 07
Motivation across cultures
  Motivation is a psychological process
 It is a drive or reason that makes you want to do something.

Content theories: 03
1- maslows hierarchy of needs:

2)

3) Achievement motivation theory:

  It is about how much people want to reach their goals and succeed.
Components:
 Need for Achievement
 Need for Power
 Need for Affiliation
major features:

1. Goal setting
2. Persistence
3. Feed-back seeking
4. Consistency
5. Focus
6. Punctuality
7. Competitiveness
8. Self-Efficacy

Process theories: 03

1- Equity Theory: People are motivated by fairness; they compare their input-output ratio to others.
Example:

 If you work as hard as your friend but get less pay, you might feel unfairly treated.
 If you and a coworker put in the same effort but you both get different rewards, you might feel
demotivated.

2- Goal Setting Theory: People are motivated by specific and challenging goals that are clear and attainable.
Example:

 Deciding to run 5 miles every day can make you more motivated to exercise.
 Setting a goal to improve sales by 10% in the next quarter can drive you to work harder.

3- Expectancy Theory:

 People are motivated if they believe their effort will lead to good performance and that performance will
lead to desirable rewards.
Example:
 If you think working extra hours will lead to a promotion and higher pay, you're more likely to put in that
effort.
Job design: The process of organizing tasks and responsibilities to make a job more effective
and satisfying.

Work centrality: The degree to which work is a central part of someone's life and identity.

Socio-technical job design: Organizing work to balance and integrate social and technical
aspects for better performance and employee satisfaction.
Lecture# 08
Sex and Gender: A Cross-Cultural Perspective
sex Gender
 Biological characteristics  Socially constructed roles
 Determined by anatomy + genetics:  Influenced by culture and society
 chromosomes,
 reproductive organs
 secondary sexual characteristics:
(body hair + voice pitch)
 Binary Classification:  Exists on a spectrum
 sex have 2 categories:  Gender-orientation
 XX chromosomes (female)  Masculine
 XY chromosomes (male).  faminine

there are 02 main biological differences that are useful in a comparative study of sex and gender
cross-culturally
1- sexual dimorphism
 physical differences based on genetic differences between males and females
 ex: differences in size and strength
2- reproductive physiology
 women's ability to become pregnant, carry and birth children, and produce milk to nurse them
 men's contribution of sperm

1) To what extent does biology influence maleness and femaleness?

 Biology plays a big role in shaping whether someone is male or female. This includes things like hormones
and chromosomes that affect physical traits and sometimes behaviors.

 how we express these traits can also be influenced by culture and personal experiences.

 Males have higher levels of testosterone. Testosterone is associated with traits like increased muscle mass
and facial hair.
 Females have higher levels of estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen helps with the development of female
characteristics and regulates the menstrual cycle, while progesterone plays a role in pregnancy and menstrual
cycle regulation.

 females may have higher levels of serotonin compared to males.

2) Are males dominant over females in all societies?

 No, males are not dominant in all societies.

 in many cultures men have more power, there are societies where women have significant roles of power
and influence.
 The level of dominance varies widely depending on cultural and social structures.

3) How similar are gender roles throughout the world?

Gender role attitudes

o beliefs or expectations that how we're expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct
ourselves based upon our assigned sex
women are: polite, sensitive, emotionally weak, accommodating, nurturing, warm (attentive
to others), apprehensive.
men are: more dominant, forceful, aggressive, emotionally stable

 Gender roles can be quite different around the world.

 Some cultures have very distinct roles for men and women, while others have more flexible or equal
roles.
 male” or “female” behavior can vary from culture to culture.

4) Do women and men in the same culture communicate differently?

 Yes, often men and women do communicate differently within the same culture.
 This can include differences in how they use language, express emotions, and interact with others.
 These differences can be influenced by cultural norms and expectations.

5) How can extreme gender ideology lead to the exploitation of women?

 Extreme gender ideology can lead to the exploitation of women by enforcing rigid and unfair roles that
limit their opportunities and rights.

 For example, if a culture strongly believes that women should only be homemakers, it might deny them
access to education or jobs, which can lead to economic and social disadvantage.

Anthropology & Feminism

Anthropology:
 The study of humans, their societies, and their cultural practices throughout history.
Sexism:
 o Discrimination based on a person's sex or gender, usually against women.
Feminism:
o Belief in and working towards fairness and equal opportunities for all genders.
o advocating for the rights and empowerment of women.
 Economic right
 Political right
 Employment right
 Freedom of speech
 Equal Ownership: equal right over property
 Equal right of social privileges
 Educational right
 reproductive rights

feminist movement:
o Mary Wollstonecraft worked for feminist movement who wrote "A Vindication of the Rights
of Woman" in 1792
o suffragists: who campaigned for women's voting rights in late 19th & early 20th centuries.
o Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Lucretia Mott organized Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.
o 1st feminist movement was started mid-19th century
The main purpose of the feminist movement was:
to achieve gender equality
dismantle oppressive systems and attitudes that limit women's rights and opportunities.
1st wave of feminism emerged in late 19th & early 20th centuries,

 focusing on legal issues and inequalities, concerning women's suffrage (right to vote).

2nd wave of feminism began in 1960s & lasted till 1980s.

 focus upon issues like: gender roles, sexual liberation, and workplace equality.

3rd wave of feminism started in 1990s & lasted till 2000s.

 emphasized diversity + intersectionality.

 addressing the experiences of women from various races, classes, and sexual orientations, and critiquing
the perceived limitations of the 2nd wave's focus.

feminism is broken into 03 waves

 1st wave: late 19th, early 20th century

 women's suffrage, property rights in the UK and US

 2nd wave: late 20th century

 equality + ending discrimination

 3rd wave: late 20th, early 21st century

 challenged concepts of the feminine

  focus to gender and identity

 critiqued lack of attention paid to working class women and women from different ethnic
backgrounds in 2nd wave feminism.

1- Hege-monic masculinity:
o dominant cultural expectations and norms associated with being a man, emphasizing traits
like strength, aggression, control.
2- Hege-monic femininity:
o dominant cultural expectations and norms associated with being a woman, emphasizing
traits like nurturing, submissiveness, beauty, sensitivity.

Cultural Construction of Gender

personality traits
 females as: caring, emotional, social, physically fragile, and family oriented
 males as: rational, physically strong, selfish, rational/non-emotional, individualistic
careers
 females as: teacher, waitress, nurse, homemaker, secretary, receptionist, nanny, representative
 males as: professor, chef, doctor, CEO, construction worker, truck driver, President, oil field worker,
coach.

how culture plays a key role in the development of a gender?

Cultural norms define roles: Cultures set specific roles for men and women, shaping how society expects
them to behave.

Traditions influence gender: Cultural traditions often pass down ideas of what is "masculine" or "feminine"
from generation to generation.

Language shapes identity: The way we talk about men and women in a culture can influence how people see
themselves and others.

Media and representation: TV, movies, and ads often reflect and reinforce cultural ideas about gender,
showing certain behaviors as "normal" for men or women.

Family expectations: Families teach children what is expected of them based on their gender, influenced by
their cultural background.

Religious beliefs: Many cultures link gender roles to religious teachings, which can shape people's
understanding of gender.

Work and gender roles: Culture often dictates what types of jobs are seen as "appropriate" for men or women,
affecting career choices.

Education and gender: Schools and teachers, influenced by culture, might encourage boys and girls to study
different subjects based on their gender.

Rituals and ceremonies: Cultural rituals, like coming-of-age ceremonies, often emphasize specific gender roles
and expectations.

1. Social norms
2. Gender roles
3. Family influences
4. Media and representation
5. Education and schooling
 6. Religion and traditions
7. Peer interactions
8. Language and communication
9. Laws and policies
10. Historical context

factors that effect development of a gender?

1. Biology (genetics and hormones)

2. Family upbringing
3. Culture
4. Education
5. Media influence
6. Peer groups
7. Religion
8. Socioeconomic status
9. Laws and policies
10. Historical and social context

Multiple Gender Identities

 people can identify as more than just male or female, with many different ways to express their gender.

 refer to the idea that people can identify with different genders beyond just male or female, including:
 non-binary,
 gender-fluid
 other diverse identities.
 LGBTQ+
Binary Gender Identity Non-Binary Gender Identity
Definition  Identifying strictly as male or female  Identifying outside the traditional
male/female categories
Categories  Male or Female  LGBTQ+
 Genderqueer
Pronouns  he/him  they/them,
 she/her
 socially accepted  Not socially accepted
 Gender identity remains stable  Gender identity may change over time
 Face less gender-based discrimination  face more gender-based discrimination
 No need to change gender on  May need to change gender on documents
documents
 comfortable with birth-assigned gender  Un-comfortable with birth-assigned gender

Native American Two-Spirits

 Two Spirits is derived from the Sioux term for people with both male and female spirits
 categorize men who act like women

04 of Nanda's widespread themes with-in gender variants, good analytic tools:

occupation or work roles: often characterized by adopting the work of the opposite sex
transvestism: wearing clothing of same or opposite sex depending on situation in some tribes.
Spirituality:
 two-spirited peoples were often seen as highly connected to spiritual realm
  thought to have special powers
 plays role of shamans, healers, medicine persons, spiritual leaders
examples:
 fortune tellers – Winnebago and Lakota
 matchmaking – Cheyenne, Omaha, Lakota
 special ceremonial functions, Sun Dance – Crow, Hidatsa, Lakota

relationships: some engaged in “homosexual” relationships.

Gendered Division of Labor

 males: hunt large animals, conduct warfare, work wood, stone, metal;
 women: care for children, collect water, gather and prepare foods, make clothes

Patterns in the Division of Labor:

males:
 metal work
 fishing
 clearing land,
 preparing soil
 tending large animals
 house building
 making rope, cordage, nets
females:
 gathering shellfish + wild plant foods
 caring for small animals
 gathering fuel
 fetching water
 processing + preparing plant foods
 making clothing
 mat making,
 loom weaving
 making pottery

both males and females:

 gathering small animals
 planting tending and harvesting crops
 milking animals
 preparing skins
 making leather products

Theories for Division of Labor

 men have greater body mass and strength and thus are better equipped at engaging in highly physical
activities such as hunting and clearing land
 East African women who routinely carry enormous loads of firewood on their backs for long distances
 the Agta of the Philippines; hunting is both a male and female activity
role of women in childbirth
 suggests that women do certain tasks because they are compatible with pregnancy, breast-feeding, and
childcare; women's tasks do not require them to leave the area near their homes.
 Even though having a baby and taking care of a child can limit work options, women's financial
responsibilities sometimes come first.
 in these situations, women rely on others for childcare needs
 examples: in preindustrial societies, women leave children with older siblings or other family members; in
the West, we often leave children at day-cares or schools and use formula instead of breast-feeding

Gender stratification:
 it is the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities between men and women in a society.

major components:
1. Income
2. Education
3. Occupation
4. Power
5. Prestige

factors that affect Gender Stratification:

1) Culture
2) Laws
3) Workplace policies
4) Education
5) Family roles

Gender ideology:
 refers to beliefs and attitudes about the roles and behaviors that are appropriate for men and women in
society.

Major Components of Gender Ideology:

1. Beliefs
2. Values
3. Norms
4. Roles
5. Expectations

Factors that Affect Gender Ideology:

 1. Culture
2. Religion
3. Media
4. Family
5. Education

o Femi-cide: killing of a woman because of her gender

o Patri-monial violence (violation of woman's property rights)

o honor killing is when someone is killed by a family member because they believe the person has brought
shame or dishonor to the family.

o dowry death: killing of a wife by her in-laws if the wife’s parents fail to pay additional dowry

Lecture# 09
Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory (PART):
 suggests that how children perceive love or rejection from their parents affects their emotional and social
development.

 Parental acceptance refers to love, affection, care, comfort, support, or nurturance that parents can feel
and express toward their children.

 Parental rejection refers to absence of warmth, love, affection, care, comfort, support, or nurturance by
parents toward their children.

 parental rejection can be subjectively experienced by individuals in the form of un-differentiated rejection.

 Un-differentiated rejection is when someone feels rejected by a parent without being able to
identify specific reason or behavior causing that feeling.

PART theory is divided into 03 sub-theories:

PART theory's Personality Sub-theory: It explains how our personality develops through internal traits
and behaviors over time.

PART theory's Sociocultural Systems Sub-theory: It highlights how society and culture shape our
thoughts, actions, and development.
PART theory's Coping Sub-theory: It focuses on how we handle stress and challenges using different
coping mechanisms.

Affective Copers Instrumental Copers

 Focus on emotions and feelings  Focus on solving problems + taking action
 Deal with stress by managing emotions  Deal with stress by finding solutions
 Aim to feel better emotionally  Aim to fix the issue causing the stress
Example: Example:
 Talking to a friend to release the suppressed emotions  Creating a plan to overcome the problem
 Less focus on logic,  More focus on logic + rational thinking
 Focus on immediate emotional relief  Focus on long-term problem resolution

troubled individuals: who struggle significantly with life challenges.

PART theory attempts to answer 05 classes of questions concerning parental acceptance and rejection.
These questions are divided into the theory's 03 sub-theories:

1. What happens to children who perceive themselves to be loved (accepted) or unloved (rejected) by their
parents? (personality subtheory)?
2. To what extent do the effects of childhood rejection extend into adulthood and old age?
(personality subtheory)?
3. Why do some children and adults cope more effectively than others with the experiences of childhood
rejection? (coping subtheory)?
4. Why are some parents warm, loving, and accepting, and others cold, aggressive, neglecting, and rejecting?
(sociocultural systems subtheory)
5. How is the total fabric of a society, as well as the behavior and beliefs of people within the society, affected
by the fact that most parents in that society tend to either accept or reject their children
(sociocultural systems subtheory)?

 What happens to children and adults who experience parental acceptance or rejection?

 This question is related to the personality subtheory and explores the psychological and emotional
outcomes of experiencing acceptance or rejection.

 Why do some parents tend to accept, while others reject, their children?

 This question is also linked to the personality subtheory and seeks to understand the factors that influence
parental behavior.

 How do individuals cope with parental rejection?

 This falls under the coping subtheory and focuses on how people manage and adapt to feelings of
rejection.

 Why do some individuals within the same family or cultural group experience rejection differently?

 This is related to the coping subtheory and investigates variations in how rejection is perceived and
processed.

 How is parental acceptance-rejection related to other aspects of the sociocultural environment?

 This is part of the sociocultural systems subtheory, which examines the broader cultural, social, and
economic factors that influence acceptance and rejection.

PARTheory has several unique features attempt to answer these questions.

 it draws from major ethnic groups in United States as well as from worldwide, cross-cultural evidence.
 it draws from literary + historic materials. (going as far back as 2,000 years).
  it draws from nearly 2000 empirical studies

Consequences of Parental Acceptance-Rejection:

 Low self-esteem
 Anxiety
 Depression
 Behavioral issues
 Poor social skills:
 poor academic performance:
 Insecure attachment
 Emotional instability
 Difficulty in trusting others
 Relationship problems
 Substance abuse
 Self-Doubt: They might question their worth and abilities.

Measuring Parental Acceptance and Rejection Cross-Culturally

 Anthroponomy: study of human behavior and development based on social, cultural, and biological factors.

 Universalist Approach: belief that certain psychological traits and behaviors are same across all human
cultures.

 Holo-cultural study of 101 well described nonindustrial societies distributed widely throughout the major
geographic regions and culture areas of the world

 controlled comparison of three sociocultural groups in the Pacific:

Maori community of New Zealand,

traditional highland community of Bali
Alorese of Indonesia

where-as described by anthropologists children tended to be rejected by their parents.

 an 18-month ethnographic and psychological community study in West Bengal, India.

 50 intra-cultural psychological studies by more than 02 dozen researchers in United States and
internationally.
28 nations (i.e., Asian Americans, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans)

how Parental Acceptance and Rejection is measured Cross-Culturally?

 Self-Report Questionnaires: Surveys where individuals rate their perceptions of parental acceptance and
rejection.

 Interviews: Structured or semi-structured interviews to gather detailed personal accounts of parental

behavior and its impact.
 Behavioral Observations: Observing parent-child interactions to assess acceptance and rejection behaviors.

 Cultural Adaptation: Ensuring measurement tools are culturally relevant and appropriately translated to
reflect different cultural contexts.

Questions:

1. What practical (e.g., prevention, intervention, or treatment) implications do you see of the fact that perceived
parental acceptance-rejection appears to have consistent effects on humans in all societies and ethnic groups?
Ans)
parental acceptance or rejection affects people similarly across all societies, interventions (such as therapy or
family counseling) can be designed in ways that consider these universal reactions.
This consistency means that efforts to prevent or address issues like anxiety, depression, or low self-esteem,
which can stem from perceived rejection, may work in similar ways across cultures.
It highlights the importance of creating programs that strengthen positive family relationships universally.

2. What is the "universalist approach" in studying behavior across cultures? Why is this approach-or something
like it-needed to confirm the existence of universals in human behavior?
Ans)

 Universalist Approach: belief that certain psychological traits and behaviors are same across all human
cultures.

universalist approach looks for patterns in behavior that are the same across different cultures.
This approach is necessary to confirm "universals" (things true for all humans) because it helps us see if
behaviors like attachment, parenting styles, or emotional reactions are common in all societies, not just in one
specific culture.
It helps researchers figure out if some aspects of human behavior are shared by all people, regardless of their
background.

3. Why do you suppose that perceived rejection by one's intimate adult partner (or by other attachment figures)
generally appears to have the same psychological effects as perceived parental rejection in childhood? In other
words, what psychological mechanisms or processes seem to be at work here?
Ans)
Rejection from an intimate partner or another attachment figure (someone you trust deeply) has similar
psychological effects as parental rejection because both experiences hit core emotional needs, such as feeling
loved, safe, and valued.
When these needs aren't met, it can trigger feelings of hurt, loneliness, or worthlessness, similar to what
happens when a child feels rejected by a parent.
The psychological mechanism at work is tied to attachment—the emotional bonds we form, and when these
bonds are broken or weakened, it causes distress.

4. What are the seven personality dispositions that PARTheory's personality subtheory postulates to be
worldwide consequences of perceived parental acceptance rejection? Why do you think they have emerged as
more or less stable dimensions resulting from parental rejection?
Ans)
1) Self-Esteem: How individuals view their own worth.
2) Self-Confidence: Belief in one's abilities and judgment.
 3) Emotional Stability: Ability to remain calm and resilient under stress.
4) Dependence: Reliance on others for emotional support and guidance.
5) Social Competence: Skill in interacting effectively with others.
6) Aggression: Tendencies toward hostility and confrontational behavior.
7) Relationship Orientation: Attitudes and behaviors toward forming and maintaining relationships.

PARTheory suggests that children who experience parental rejection are more likely to develop the following
seven personality traits worldwide:

1. Hostility/Aggression
2. Dependency or defensive independence
3. Negative self-esteem
4. Negative self-adequacy
5. Emotional unresponsiveness
6. Emotional instability
7. Negative worldview

These traits likely emerge because rejection damages a child’s sense of security, love, and self-worth. When a
child feels rejected, they may become more hostile, dependent, or feel less confident, which are ways of coping
with the pain and insecurity they feel.

5. Select any widely used theory of personality (e.g., psychodynamic, behavioral, social learning, humanistic,
existential) and explain how it would deal with the phenomenon of parental rejection.
Ans)

Psychodynamic Therapy: Explores unconscious motives and past experiences influencing behavior.

If we take the psychodynamic theory (developed by Freud), it might explain parental rejection as something
that affects the unconscious mind. Freud believed childhood experiences shape our personalities, so parental
rejection could lead to deep feelings of inadequacy or insecurity that show up later in life as neuroses, anxiety,
or depression. Unresolved conflicts from childhood (like feeling unloved) could result in mental health issues as
adults.

Psychological Approaches
1. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Focuses on changing harmful thoughts and behaviors.
2. Attachment Theory: Examines how early relationships shape future emotional bonds.
3. Social Learning Theory: Suggests people learn behaviors by observing others.
4. Trauma-Informed Approach: Prioritizes understanding and healing from past trauma.
5. Interpersonal Theory: Investigates how interactions and relationships impact behavior.
6. Cycle of Violence Theory: Describes how violent behavior can repeat across generations.
7. Family Systems Theory: Looks at family dynamics and roles contributing to violence.
8. Person-Centered Therapy: Emphasizes the individual's personal growth and self-healing.

6. As described in PARTheory, who are "copers" and "troubled individuals"? How are they alike or different
with respect to their mental health status and their experience of parental acceptance-rejection?
Ans)
In PART theory:
"copers":
 individuals who experience parental rejection but still manage to lead relatively healthy, stable lives.
 They find ways to deal with the pain and emotional hurt.
 Copers are more resilient,
"Troubled individuals":
 who struggle deeply with mental health issues because of that rejection.
 They may develop the negative personality traits mentioned earlier (like hostility or emotional instability).
 They might find it harder to bounce back from their difficult experiences.