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SOMALILAND_NATIONAL_LAND_POLICY_SCOPING

The Somaliland National Land Policy Scoping Study identifies the need for a classification of land types, proposing three main categories: communal, private, and public. It highlights the rapid privatization of land since 1991 and the associated legal uncertainties, particularly regarding customary and statutory laws. The report also points out the lack of a national land registry and the challenges posed by decentralized urban land administration, which complicates effective governance and policy development.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
19 views28 pages

SOMALILAND_NATIONAL_LAND_POLICY_SCOPING

The Somaliland National Land Policy Scoping Study identifies the need for a classification of land types, proposing three main categories: communal, private, and public. It highlights the rapid privatization of land since 1991 and the associated legal uncertainties, particularly regarding customary and statutory laws. The report also points out the lack of a national land registry and the challenges posed by decentralized urban land administration, which complicates effective governance and policy development.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SOMALILAND

 NATIONAL  LAND  POLICY  SCOPING  STUDY                                            


 
 
REPORT  6:    LAND  TENURE  and  ADMINISTRATION1  
Contents  
SUMMARY   2  
1   INTRODUCTION   4  
1.1   Objective  and  Purpose  of  the  Study   4  
1.2   Scope  of  the  Study   4  
1.3   Methodology   4  
1.4   Land  Issues  in  Somaliland   4  
2   LAND  CLASSIFICATION   5  
3   LAND  TENURE   6  
3.1   Radical  Title  in  Somaliland   7  
3.2   Communal  tenure   7  
3.3   Private  indefinite  right  of  occupancy   8  
3.4   Restricted  right  of  occupancy   8  
3.5   Tenure  of  Public  Land   8  
3.6   Leasehold   9  
4   LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  MINISTRY  OF  INTERNAL  AFFAIRS   9  
4.1   Urban  land  and  decentralization  of  local  government   9  
4.2   Municipalities   10  
4.3   Powers  under  the  Regions  and  Districts  Law  No.  23  of  2002   11  
4.4   Certification  and  Registry   11  
4.5   The  Master  Plan  and  urban  sprawl  of  undeveloped  plots   12  
5   MINISTRY  OF  PUBLIC  WORKS  AND  HOUSING   14  
5.1   Public  Land   14  
5.2   Masterplans   17  
5.3   District  Land  Dispute  Tribunals  (LDTs)   17  
5.4   Land  and  Urban  Management  Institute  (LUMI)   18  
6   MINISTRY  OF  AGRICULTURE   19  
6.1   Powers   19  
6.2   Somaliland  Secure  Land  Tenure  Arrangements  Project  (SSLTAP)   21  
7   MINISTRY  OF  ENVIRONMENT  AND  RURAL  DEVELOPMENT   21  
7.1   Powers   21  
7.2   Enclosures  and  the  law   22  
8   OTHER  GOVERNMENT  STAKEHOLDERS   24  
9   TAXATION   24  
10   LAND  PROFESSIONS   25  
11   A  NOTE  ON  THE  LAND  MARKET   27  
12   GLOSSARY  OF  ACRONYMS,  WORDS  AND  PHRASES   28  
   
                                                                                                               
1
 Author:  Gavin  Olney,  assisted  by  Dr  Adan  Abokor,  Said  Mohamed  Dahir  and  Omar  Ali  Abdillahi.    The  views  expressed  in  
this  report  are  the  author’s  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  those  of  either  the  Rift  Valley  Institute  or  the  Somaliland  
Development  Fund.
 
1  
 
Map  of  Somaliland  

 
   

2  
 
Summary  
 
1.    A  National  Land  Policy  (NLP)  needs,  as  a  starting  point,  a  classification  of  land  types.    The  simplest  
option  is  to  frame  overall  policy  for  just  three  classes  of  land:  communal,  private  and  public.    
Additional  sub-­‐classes  will  be  needed,  but  only  for  matters  of  detail.  
 
2.    Somaliland  has  experienced  a  very  rapid  increase  in  the  number  and  extent  of  private  land  
holdings  (privatization)  since  1991.    An  NLP  might  be  expected  to  state  government’s  view  on  how  
sustainable  this  is  and  whether,  and  where,  there  should  be  any  limits.  
 
3.    Privatization  is  accompanied  by  uncertainties  as  to  the  respective  legal  force  and  jurisdiction  of  
customary  and  statutory  law,  in  particular  Xeer,  which  governs  usufruct  rights  to  communal  grazing.    
This  has  particular  reference  to  enclosures  (see  10,  below)  
 
4.    At  least  four  Ministries  (Internal  Affairs,  Public  Works,  Agriculture  and  Environment)  are  directly  
involved  in  land  administration,  with  powers  and  responsibilities  under  separate  Laws.    These  pieces  
of  legislation  do  not  always  interlock  neatly  –  as  analysed  in  Report  3.      
 
5.    Other  Ministries  are  also  represented  on  the  National  Land  Planning  Committee  but  this  
potentially  influential  institution  meets  rarely  and  does  not  seem  to  lead  to  action.          
 
6.    Decentralisation  of  local  government  has  produced  an  uncoordinated  urban  land  administration  
system,  to  a  large  extent  operating  independently  of  central  government.      
 
7.    There  is  no  national  land  registry  and  the  extent  and  impact  of  rapid  urban  sprawl  is  not  captured  
in  any  national  data  set.    This  lack  of  transparency  hinders  understanding  of  the  problem  and  the  
development  of  suitable  policies  to  deal  with  it.    
 
8.    Laws  governing  the  administration  of  urban  land  assume  the  existence  of  a  masterplan  for  all  
urban  settlements.    In  many  cases  these  do  not  exist  or  are  out  of  date.    Capacity  to  produce  them  is  
limited  and  is  located  in  the  central  Ministry  of  Public  Works,  not  within  the  local  government  
system  which  must  use  them.  
 
9.      Experience  with  titling  individual  farms  has  been,  on  the  one  hand,  positive  in  terms  of  public  
appreciation  and,  on  the  other,  something  of  a  missed  opportunity,  with  too  much  executive  
responsibility  left  in  the  hands  of  an  NGO  with  good  ideas  but  limited  capacity.  
 
10.  Enclosures  of  communal  rangeland  are  a  hot  issue;  the  law  is  contradictory  and  needs  
clarification,  in  conjunction  with  a  review  of  its  relation  to  customary  law  (see  3,  above).      
 
11.  There  are  few  opportunities  for  professional  development  of  the  land  professions  –  surveyors,  
brokers,  notaries  –  all  of  whom  play  key  roles  in  land  administration      
 
12.    Property  taxes  are  a  major  element  in  municipal  finance  and  are  the  subject  of  the  most  
innovative  current  development  in  land  administration,  the  UN-­‐JPLG2  GIS  programme.    
 
13.  It  is  important  to  recognize  that,  notwithstanding  the  issues  outlined  above,  there  are  functional  
systems  in  place  and  a  new  NLP  need  not  necessarily  aim  at  total,  radical  reform.    

                                                                                                               
2
 UN  multi-­‐agency  Joint  Programme  on  Local  Governance  and  Decentralized  Service  Delivery  –  see  section  9.  

3  
 
1   Introduction  
1.1   Objective  and  Purpose  of  the  Study  
This  is  one  of  six  reports  prepared  by  the  Rift  Valley  Institute  (RVI),  with  support  from  the  Somaliland  
Development  Fund  (SDF),  that  are  intended  to  provide  the  Government  of  Somaliland  with  up  to  
date  information  on  all  aspects  of  land  governance  in  Somaliland  that  will  inform  a  national  land  
policy  development  process.  The  other  reports  cover:    
   
1.    Historical  and  Cultural  Analysis     2.    Comparative  Case  Studies  
3.    Legal  and  Policy  Framework       4.    Land  Conflict  Dynamics      
5.    Land  Resources,  Use  and  Economy     6.    Land  Tenure  and  Administration  
       
These  reports  examine  past  and  on-­‐going  land  policy  and  regulatory  frameworks  and  the  political,  
social,  physical,  economic,  cultural  and  institutional  factors  impacting  on  governance  in  Somaliland.  
Together  they  are  intended  to  inform  a  Land  Policy  Conference  that  is  expected  to  be  held  in  March  
2016.    The  results  of  these  deliberations  will  be  incorporated  into  a  final  summary  report  outlining  a  
road  map  towards  a  successful  land  policy.    This  will  include  an  indicative  draft,  or  skeleton,  national  
land  policy  (NLP),  for  the  Government  of  Somaliland’s  further  consideration.    It  is  expected  that  
these  will  only  be  the  first  steps  along  a  long  road.      

1.2   Scope  of  the  Study  


The  study,  based  on  six  months  of  primary  research,  is  wide  ranging,  as  the  list  of  reports  above  
suggests.  This  is  needed  to  give  context.    These  reports,  the  conference  and  final  report  will  seek  to  
address  Land  Policy  mainly  in  its  restricted  specialist  topical  scope  of  land  rights,  titling  and  
administration.    It  will  also  touch  on  Land  Use  Policy,  which  by  growing  convention  is  a  separate  
though  related  topic.    

1.3   Methodology  
The  study  is  based  on  results  from  extensive  field  research,  described  in  detail  in  Report  4  in  the  
series  on  Conflict  Dynamics,  involving  110  focus  group  discussions  and  162  key  informant  interviews  
with  stakeholders  in  all  regions  of  Somaliland.  This  was  complemented  by  interviews  with  key  
informants  in  the  Somaliland  Government  and  development  partners,  and  a  literature  review.  
 
This  report  makes  extensive  use  of  quotes  from  Somaliland  Law  in  English  translation.    The  language  
of  Law  is  Somali  and  these  translations  are  not  official  or  definitive.    They  are  used  in  good  faith  with  
the  caveat  that,  through  errors  in  translation,  they  may  not  be  entirely  accurate  representations  of  
the  law  in  every  aspect.                

1.4   Land  Issues  in  Somaliland  


Somaliland’s  land  administration  and  dispute  settlement  system  works,  probably  for  most  people  
affected,  and  after  a  fashion.    Nevertheless  it  has  many  imperfections  and  has  been  described  as  a  
compounding  the  unbridled  expansion  of  urban  and  agricultural  land  into  pastoral  rangeland;  illegal  
enclosures;  corrupt  duplication  of  title;  land  speculation  driven  by  the  diaspora’s  disproportionate  
purchasing  power;  environmentally  unsustainable  land  use,  particularly  for  charcoal;  overlapping  
mandates  and  capacity  shortfalls  in  land  administration  systems;  a  failure  to  act  on  earlier  draft  
policies  and  a  lack  of  political  will  to  enforce  even  the  measures  available.    Access  to  land,  perhaps  
more  than  any  other  aspect  of  Somaliland’s  socio-­‐economy,  is  complicated  by  clan  allegiance.    A  

4  
 
National  Land  Policy  (NLP)  is  not  a  sufficient  remedy  for  this  challenge  but  it  should  be  a  necessary  
first  step.  
 

2   Land  Classification  
The  position  on  what  classes  of  land  are  recognized  is  confusing  and  it  may  be  that  no  single,  agreed  
formal  land  classification  exists.    One  opinion3  is  that  Law  No.  15  of  25th  January  1969  is  still  in  force,  
recognizing  “two  main  categories,  namely  aqua  land  and  terrestrial  land.  Terrestrial  land  is  further  
divided  into  rural  and  urban  land  while  rural  land  is  further  divided  into  agricultural  land,  
pastoral/rangelands,  forests  and  wetlands.”      
 
More  recent  attempts4  at  a  national  land  policy  have  proposed  the  following:  
 
Draft  Land  Tenure  Policy,  20085    
1)   Grazing  land:  a  field  covered  with  grass  or  herbage  and  suitable  for  grazing  by  livestock.    
2)   Pastureland:  is  an  area  with  lush  herbaceous  vegetation  cover  used  for  the  grazing  of  ungulate  
livestock  as  part  of  a  farm  or  ranch.    
3)   Agricultural  land:  refers  to  areas  of  land  in  which  agriculture  is  recognized  as  the  priority  use.  
Farming  is  encouraged  and  non-­‐agricultural  uses  are  controlled.    
4)   Rangeland:  a  large,  mostly  unimproved  section  of  land  that  is  predominantly  used  for  livestock  
grazing.  This  is  land  on  which  the  natural  vegetation  is  dominated  by  native  grasses,  grass-­‐like  
plants,  forbs,  and  shrubs.  Rangeland  also  consists  of  areas  seeded  to  native  or  adapted  
introduced  species  that  are  managed  like  native  vegetation.    
5)   Conservation  land:  an  area  that  is  fenced-­‐off  or  closed-­‐off  from  common  use  for  the  protection  
and  conservation  of  particular  endemic  and  endangered  natural  resources  (e.g.  plants,  animals,  
land,  energy,  minerals)  or  of  historical/archaeological  artefacts  (e.g.  paintings,  monuments,  etc)  
for  the  future.  (see  7.1)    
6)   Mining  land:  a  natural  deposit  of  ores,  coal,  precious  stones  where  such  minerals  are  extracted  
or  obtained  either  by  excavation  or  by  washing  the  soil    
7)   Urban  land:  is  an  area  with  a  relatively  higher  population  density  of  humans  in  comparison  to  
the  areas  surrounding  it  known  as  rural  areas.  As  such,  urban  areas  also  constitute  increased  
density  of  human-­‐created  structures  than  rural  areas.    
8)   National  Parks:  land  that  is  set  aside  for  the  preservation  of  unique  landscapes  for  the  pleasure  
of  the  people.  The  land  may  vary  in  sizes  and  natural  characteristics  as  well  as  the  usage  for  
which  it  is  particularly  preserved.    
9)   Graveyards:  an  area  that  is  specifically  designated  as  burying  ground  where  dead  bodies  or  
remains  are  buried.  Shall  be  respected  and  protected  by  the  state;    
a)   Graveyards  of  all  religions  shall  be  equally  respected  and  protected;    
b)   Specific  land  shall  be  allocated  for  graveyards  in  all  urban  settlements;    
c)   The  Minister  of  Religious  Affairs  and  local  municipalities  shall  be  responsible  for  the  
protection  of  graveyards  and  the  use  of  land  allocated  for  graveyards;    
d)   The  Minster  of  Religious  Affairs  shall  issue  regulations  on  protection  of  graveyards  and  use  
of  land  designated  for  graveyards.    
10)  Public  works  land:  an  area  where  public  buildings,  roads,  bridges,  dams,  housing  developments  
are  constructed  or  engineered  by  the  state  on  behalf  of  the  community.    
11)  Leisure  and  recreational  land:  areas  of  open  space  provided  for  recreational  use  and  resembling  
open  woodlands  where  trees  are  chosen  for  their  beauty  and  shade.    

                                                                                                               
3
 Agwanda  &  Hersi,  Evaluation  of  Somaliland  Secure  Land  Tenure  Arrangements  Project,  for  UNDP,  2012  
4
 see  Report  3  in  this  series,  Legal  &  Policy  Framework      
 Penha  &  VetAid,  for  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  (former)  Ministry  of  Pasture  Development  and  Environment    
5

5  
 
12)  Religious,  historical  and  archaeological  sites:  
a)   Shall  be  under  the  direct  preservation  and  protection  of  the  Government;    
b)   The  Minister  of  Tourism  and  Heritage  shall  be  mandated  to  declare  any  new  sight  of  
historical,  archaeological  or  cultural  value  as  a  protected  area.    
13)  Hazardous  land:  an  area  that  is  designated  as  unsafe  by  appropriate  authorities  for  the  
settlement  or  subsistence  of  humans  as  a  result  of  either  human-­‐made  causes  such  as  the  
disposal  of  toxic  substances  that  contaminate  or  pollute  the  environment  or  natural  threats  such  
as  earthquakes,  volcanoes  and  landslides  that  threaten  human  safety.  
 
A  more  conventional  approach  was  included  in  the  Land  &  Urban  Management  Institute’s  (LUMI)  
proposed  draft:    
 
Land  Policy  Draft,  LUMI,  2011  
a.   Urban  land  
b.   Agricultural  Land  
c.   Pastoral  land  
d.   Public  Infrastructure  land  highway,  ROW  (Rights  Of  Way)  for  Communications  
e.   Land  of  minerals  &  natural  resources  
f.   Industrial  land  
g.   Coastal  land  
h.   Airfields  land  
i.   Sensitive  land  
j.   Bad  land  
k.   Special  Development  purposed  land  
 
(Note  that  this  proposed  classification  also  appeared  in  the  earlier  version  from  the  National  Land  
and  Urban  Planning  Committee,  2001)  
 
The  2008  version  is  surely  too  elaborate,  and  unnecessary.    Even  the  simpler  proposal  from  LUMI  
may  be  cutting  the  issue  too  finely.    The  risk  is  that,  once  we  start  sub-­‐dividing,  we  can  always  think  
of  a  piece  of  land  or  situation  that  is  different  from  others.    This  is  natural,  as  every  parcel  of  land  is  
unique  and  some  degree  of  sub-­‐division  will  be  appropriate  in,  for  example,  detailed  town  or  land  
use  planning.      
 
For  overall  policy  purposes  it  may  be  sufficient  to  recognize  only  three  broad  classes  of  land:  
communal,  private  and  public6.      
 
All  the  longer  lists  above  could  fit  into  these  three,  as  sub-­‐classes,  only  as  and  when  needed  and,  
perhaps,  mainly  at  the  regulation  level.    Certainly  the  NLP  will  have  to  distinguish  agricultural  from  
pastoral,  housing  from  industrial,  forest  reserve  from  littoral  and  so  on.    But  it  is  useful  to  start  with  
the  broadest  focus,  only  narrowing  it  down  when  strictly  necessary.  
 

3   Land  Tenure  
Land  tenure  is  the  English  term  used  to  describe  the  legal  arrangements  (or  status)  under  which  a  
person  (legal  or  natural  –  i.e.  corporate  or  private  individual)  owns  land.    It  comes  from  the  French  
“to  hold”,  with  the  “tenant”  or  holder  being  someone  who  holds  the  consent  to  occupy  land,  of  the  
Crown  (or  King/Queen)  who,  in  ancient  feudal  law,  was  believed  to  be  endowed  with  all  land  by  

                                                                                                               
6  This  is  the  practice  followed  in  the  Kenyan  NLP  (and  law,  including  the  Kenya  Constitution)  
6  
 
God.    Many  forms  of  land  ownership  have  evolved  in  different  societies  and  the  word  is  now  used  in  
a  very  general  sense,  which  does  not  refer  directly  to  English  common  law.  

3.1   Radical  Title  in  Somaliland  


Rather  than  to  the  Crown  or  head  of  state,  Article  12(1)  of  the  Somaliland  Constitution  assigns  the  
basic  or  fundamental  (hence,  title  to  it  is  said  to  be  ‘radical’)  ownership  of  land  as  follows:  
 
The  land  is  a  public  property  commonly  owned  by  the  nation,  and  the  state  is  responsible  for  it.  
 
This  formulation  is  clear,  unambiguous  and  in  no  need  of  modification.    Unfortunately,  as  McAuslan7  
observes,  sloppy  legal  drafting  brings  it  into  question  in  Article  1  of  Urban  Land  Management  Law  
No.  17  by  changing  the  phrasing  of  the  elegantly  simple  statement  above.    The  third  phrase  of  Art  1  
unnecessarily  raises  the  distinction  between  nation  and  state,  or  the  people  and  the  government  
and  may  be  interpreted  as  contradicting  the  constitution.      It  should  be  sufficient  for  all  policy,  and  
the  law  that  follows  from  it,  to  start  from  the  country’s  Constitution.  
 
Law  17  Article  No.  1  Authority  of  Land  Management  
1.    In  principle,  apart  from  Allah,  the  ownership  of  the  territory  of  the  country  lies  with  the  
Government  of  Somaliland  (in  accordance  with  Article  No.  12,  section  1  of  the  
Constitution).  Therefore,  the  authority  of  its  management,  transfer  of  ownership  and  the  
proposition  to  enact  laws  for  such  land  is  vested  solely  for  the  Government.  
 

3.2   Communal  tenure  


Table  1  shows  land  suitability  classification  for  western  Somaliland,  selected  for  the  1980s  ‘scientific  
socialist’  North  Western  Agricultural  Development  Project  (NWADP)  as  the  better  part  of  the  
country  for  mixed  farming  (or  agro-­‐pastoralism  as  this  form  of  land  use  is  often  called).    Significant  
numbers  of  individual  farms  have  indeed  been  titled  (see  below,  under  Ministry  of  Agriculture)  but  
this  table  shows  that  mixed  farming  is  not  an  option,  for  most  of  Somaliland.      
 
Table  1:  Land  suitability  classification  for  rain-­‐fed  agriculture,  Western  Somaliland    
Suitability  for  rain-­‐fed   Area  (ha)   %  
agriculture  
Good  (440-­‐450  mm)   99,000   3%  
Medium  (300-­‐400  mm)   292,000   9%  
Poor  (200-­‐300  mm)   44,000   1%  
Unsuitable  (below  200  mm)   2,925,000   87%  
     
Total  Surveyed  Area   3,360,0008   100%  
Source:  Feasibility  Study  North  Western  Agricultural  Development  Project  (NWADP),  Sogreah,  1982;  
quoted  in  Draft  National  Agricultural  Policy,  MoA,  2008  
 
In  area  terms,  pastoralism9  will  remain  the  overwhelmingly  predominant  land  use  mode,  subject  to  
the  rules  of  Xeer,  described  in  Reports  1  and  3  in  this  series.    It  follows  that  communal  tenure  must  
addressed  as  a  central  issue  in  the  NLP;  it  applies  to  around  90%  (check  +  ref  Rpt  5)  of  the  total  
surface  area.    Forest  etc  reserves?  
                                                                                                               
 Land  Law  Reform  in  Eastern  Africa  –  Traditional  or  Transformative?  Patrick  McAuslan,  Routledge,  UK,  2013.    
7
8
 equivalent  to  24%  of  Somaliland’s  total  surface  area,  big  enough  to  produce  the  otherwise  rather  surprising    variation  in  
rainfall,  given  that  the  purpose  of  NWADP  was  to  promote  agriculture.  
     together  with  the  pernicious  exploitation  of  vegetation  for  charcoal  production  –  see  Report  5.  
9

7  
 
 
Law  17  has  nothing  specific  to  say  about  communal  tenure,  reasonably  enough  as  it  is  about  urban  
land,  where  private  ownership  is  the  rule.    Nevertheless,  Article  1  can  be  read  as  asserting  the  
primacy  of  statute  over  customary  law.    It  is  not  clear  that  ‘the  nation’,  with  its  continued  adherence  
to  Xeer,  has  fully  assented  to  this.    The  NLP  must  confront  this  problem,  with  policies  on  the  
respective  jurisdictions  and  force  of  the  two  legal  systems.  

3.3   Private  indefinite  right  of  occupancy  


Since  the  land  belongs  to  the  nation  (radical  title),  as  willed  to  it  by  Allah  (Shari’a),  no  person  legal  or  
natural  may  own  it.    What  they  may  own  as  private  property  is  an  indefinite  right  of  occupancy,  
qualified  (again  from  Shari’a)  by  a  duty  to  use  it,  or  care  for  it,  properly.    This  form  of  property  
ownership  or  tenure  applies  to  all  private  landholdings  in  Somaliland.    The  rapid  increase  in  the  
number  and  extent  of  private  land  holdings  since  199110  is  the  most  striking  development  in  the  
sector  and  is  the  main  reason  why  an  NLP  is  urgently  needed.    
 
Unlike  many  other  African  nations,  where  fixed-­‐term  leaseholds  are  the  rule,  private  ownership  in  
Somaliland  is  comparable  to  freehold  in  other  jurisdictions  and  as  secure.    Landowners  are  free  to  
pass  on  property  to  their  heirs,  to  rent  or  give  it  to  others  and  to  use  property  as  surety  in  financial  
transactions.  The  latter  must  be  Shari’a  compliant,  as  should  inheritance  (see  Report  3).    The  duty  of  
care  is  reflected  in  the  law  as  it  applies  to  urban  and  agricultural  private  occupancy,  as  well  as  the  
use  of  communal  land.    

3.4   Restricted  right  of  occupancy  


As  noted  in  Report  3,  Law  41,  1973,  provided  for  restricted  rights  of  occupancy  for  foreign  nationals  
for  terms  of  50-­‐99  years,  as  is  common  elsewhere  in  Africa.    While,  for  most  if  not  all  practical  
purposes,  this  law  seems  to  be  in  abeyance  and  the  contemporary  2008  Foreign  Investment  Law11  
No.  29  makes  no  such  provision,  it  looks  as  if  the  2008  Law  did  not  adequately  repeal  the  earlier  one.    
The  only  clause  in  the  2008  Law  dealing  with  property  in  general  (land  as  such  is  nowhere  
mentioned)  is  Article  12.2:      
 
“The  property  of  foreign  investment  duly  registered  under  this  law  shall  not  be  subject  to  
expropriation  measures,  except  in  the  only  case  where  public  interest  cannot  be  satisfied  by  
measures  other  than  expropriation.”  
 
However  this  form  of  tenure  is  perhaps  not  totally  extinct,  as  the  interesting  case  of  the  Kuwaiti  
Sheik  who  has  been  given  land  in  Sheekh  district  suggests.  Though  the  field  survey  team  was  told  of  
this  instance,  we  were  not  able  to  establish  tenurial  detail.    

3.5   Tenure  of  Public  Land  


The  Urban  Land  Management  (ULM)  Law  No  17  of  2001/2008  gives  no  guidance  on  the  tenure  
status  of  public  land,  other  than  the  mangled  version  of  the  constitutional  definition  mentioned  
earlier.    Article  2.2  (below)  only  establishes  the  role  of  Central  Government  in  managing  it.    
 
Raising  the  issue  of  the  state’s  tenure  may  seem  a  little  ‘picky’  or  academic  but  it  matters,  for  public  
accountability,  that  there  is  a  record  of  what  the  state  owns  and  how  it  disposes  of,  or  otherwise  
uses  it.    For  a  register  of  public  land  to  be  complied,  the  state  may  need  to  establish  title  to  all  the  
individual  parcels  it  owns.    These  should,  anyway,  appear  on  master  plans  (see  below).  
 
                                                                                                               
10
   Though,  as  Report  1  makes  clear,  this  trend  started  under  the  Protectorate    
11
 Promotion,  Protection  and  Guarantees  of  Foreign  Invesment,  No  29  of  2001/2008.  

8  
 
Article  No.  2  Authority  of  Issuing  Titles  
1.    Management  and  issuance  of  plots  in  urban  centers  in  Somaliland  is  for  the  local  
authority  (The  Executive  Branch  of  the  local  authority).    
2.    The  Management  of  Public  land,  such  government  offices  and  houses,  diplomatic  
buildings,  factories  and  ex-­‐Shacab  Area  is  for  the  Central  Government.    
3.    There  will  an  office  representing  the  National  Land  Planning  Committee,  headquartered  
in  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  and  Housing  at  National,  Regional  and  District  levels.  

3.6   Leasehold  
There  are  no  figures  on  this  but  we  believe  that  most  people  who  live  in  Hargeysa  rent,  rather  than  
own,  their  homes.    One  of  the  research  team  thinks  it  could  be  as  high  as  80%,  on  the  basis  of  
discussions  with  the  different  community  sectors,  but  there  is  no  hard  evidence  or  empirical  data  to  
support  the  estimate.    The  proportion  would  probably  be  lower  for  smaller  towns.    Whatever  the  
correct  figure,  it  may  be  that  such  tenants  number  in  the  hundreds  of  thousands.    No  law  protects  
them,  they  rarely  have  any  more  than  a  verbal  agreement  with  their  landlords  and  can  be  thrown  
out  at  any  time.    Though  many  landlords  are  probably  decent  people,  only  this  decency  and  self-­‐
interest  protect  the  ‘rights’  (there  are  none,  really)  of  tenants.    Tenancy  is  rather  on  the  fringes  of  
what  is  usually  covered  by  land  policy  but  it  is  a  legitimate  and  common  form  of  land  tenure  and  
deserves  to  be  noted  and  addressed.    Shari’a?      
 
These  are  some  responses  to  questions,  in  the  field  survey,  about  the  extent  of  landlessness:  
 
Box  1:  Field  survey  responses  on  the  extent  of  landlessness  
 
“Only  a  third  of  the  population  in  Awdal  own  land  while  the  other  two  are  landless.  There  
are  some  people  who  lived  here  for  30  years  and  don’t  own  a  small  piece  of  land”.  (Borama,  
Awdal)  
 
“There  are  also  refugees  from  Ethiopia  who  come  and  reside  here,  you  see  many  families  
sharing  a  small  piece  of  land”.  (Wajaale,  MJ)    
 
“Your  wealth  determines  whether  you  get  a  piece  of  land  or  you  don’t.  If  you  don’t  have  
money,  who  is  going  to  give  you  land!  (Lughaya,  Awdal)  
 
“There  are  a  lot  of  landless  people  in  the  community.  The  reason  is  that  they  didn’t  
participate  in  the  earlier  land  grabbings.  They  have  just  realized  that  no  land  was  left  
behind”.    (Lasa  Daacawo,  Sahil)      
 
“There  will  always  be  a  landless  people  until  the  government  implements  demarcation  of  
land,  and  limit  the  land  someone  can  own”.  (El  Afwayn,  Sanaag)  
 
 

4   Local  Government  and  the  Ministry  of  Internal  Affairs    


4.1   Urban  land  and  decentralization  of  local  government  
Around  50%,  possibly  more  12,  of  Somaliland’s  people  live  in  either  urban  areas  or  smaller  rural  
settlements.    This  is  also  where  the  great  majority  of  land  transactions  involving  statutory  law  are  

                                                                                                               
12
 See  section  on  demography  in  Report  5.    

9  
 
made.    Yet  it  surprises  many  people  to  learn  how  little  space  the  towns  and  villages  take  up.    
SWALIM  has  estimated13  the  total  area  covered  by  urban  settlement  as  4,645  ha,  with  a  further  
2,881  ha  in  rural  settlements.    These  figures  are  0.03%  and  0.02%  of  the  total  surface  area  of  
Somaliland.    Even  allowing  for  the  undoubted  increase  in  settlements  since  these  estimates  were  
made,  they  account  for  a  negligible  share  of  ‘land’  as  a  whole  –  less  than  one  tenth  of  one  percent.  
 
The  Regions  and  Districts  Law  No.  23  of  2002,  established  a  decentralized  structure  of  local  
government,  the  higher  tiers  of  which  administer  the  ULM  Law  No.  17  of  2001/8.    Central  
Government,  through  the  Ministry  of  the  Internal  Affairs  (MoIA)  and  its  Regional  Governors,  
exercises  oversight  of  local  government  and  defines  regional  and  district  boundaries  but  otherwise  
MoIA  has  few  specific  powers  over  urban  land  administration.    Instead,  authority  over  urban  land  
matters,  at  Central  Government  level,  has  been  located  in  a  committee.  
 
The  National  Land  Planning  Committee  could,  and  perhaps  should,  be  the  most  powerful  institution  
on  land  matters  in  Somaliland.    It  appears  and  re-­‐appears  throughout  the  literature,  sometimes  as  a  
“Commission”14,  elsewhere  as  a  “taskforce”  (such  as  the  Inter-­‐Ministerial  Committee  with  oversight  
of  the  present  study).    But  it  meets  rarely  and  the  results  of  its  deliberations  are  never  
communicated  to  stakeholders.    To  outsiders  it  appears  paralyzed  by  inaction.  
 
Urban  Land  Management  Law  No.  17  of  2001/8,  Article  4  National  Land  Planning  Committee  
The  master  plan  for  urban  areas  shall  be  approved  by  a  national  committee,  comprising  of    
Minister  of  Public  Works         -­‐  Chairman    
Minister  of  Health                                      -­‐  Member    
Minister  of  Agriculture                                      -­‐  Member    
Minister  of  Water  and  Minerals                                  -­‐  Member    
Minister  of  Interior  Affairs                                    -­‐  Member    
Minister  of  Rural  Development                                    -­‐  Member    
Minister  of  Communication  and  Postal  Services      -­‐  Member    
Director  General,  Ministry  of  Public  Works                        -­‐  Member    
After  the  approval  of  the  Committee,  the  plan  will  be  effective  with  the  issuance  of  Presidential  
Decree.    
 

4.2   Municipalities  
Law  23  establishes  a  graduated  (A-­‐D)  structure  of  local  government  entities.    Grade  A  and  B  districts  
are  able  to  elect  District  Councils,  headed  by  a  Mayor.  Most  Grade  C  districts  have  also  been  granted  
these  powers,  since  the  Law  first  became  effective.    They  are  generally  known  as  Municipalities,  
rather  than  Districts,  though  the  terms  (in  English)  are  inter-­‐changeable.  They  are  responsible  for  
both  the  immediate  areas  of  district  capital  towns  (as  the  name  suggests)  and,  it  seems  (though  this  
is  not  at  all  clear),  for  all  lower  tier  settlements  within  the  district,  including  Grade  D  districts  and  
smaller  villages.    
 
Table  2:  District  Councils,  numbers,  by  Grade,  as  established  by  initial  legislation,  Law  23,  2002  
Region   Capital  town  –  Grade  A   B   C   D   Number  
(no  of   21   17   13   9    
councillors)  
Maroodi-­‐Jeex   Hargeysa*           1  
  Gabiley   -­‐   2   3   6  
                                                                                                               
13
 Land  cover  of  selected  study  areas  in  Somaliland  and  Southern  Somalia;  FAO-­‐SWALIM  project  report  L-­‐03,  2007  
 See,  e.g.,  Agwanda  &  Hersi,  ibid,  for  discussion  of  the  design  of  Phase  III  of  the  MoA-­‐UNDP  project,  2011.    
14

10  
 
Togdheer   Burco   2   -­‐   3   6  
Sanaag   Ceerigaabo   2   3   4   10  
Awdal   Boorama   1   2   1   5  
Sool   Laascaanood   -­‐   3   2   6  
Saaxil   Berbera   -­‐   1   3   5  
  7   5   11   16   39  
*  as  the  national  capital  Hargeysa  City  Council  has  25  Councillors.      
 
Grade  D  districts  are  only  supposed  to  become  effective  when  their  boundaries  have  been  verified.    
Municipalities  have  no  authority  (in  land  matters)  over  agricultural,  pasture  or  other  classes  of  land  
in  the  district,  though  we  will  see  below  that  they  use  their  powers  to  encroach  extensively  into  farm  
and  pasture  land.    
 
Provision  is  made  for  towns  that  have  grown  sufficiently  to  graduate  up  the  scale.    For  example,  
Wajaale  (a  rapidly  growing  border  town  and  centre  for  trade  with  Ethiopia),  which  did  not  feature  in  
the  original  grades,  now  has  a  Mayor  and  Council.    Hargeysa  has  been  divided  into  four  districts,  
which  function  for  land  administration  together  with  the  overall  City  Council;  the  districts  carry  out  
preliminary  checks  and  due  diligence,  with  certification  remaining  a  city  function.  
 
Regions  and  Districts  Law  No.  23  of  2002,  Article  67:  
1.    Creation,  expansion,  and  increase  of  the  department  of  grades  B,  C,  &  D  will  be  in  
accordance  with  evaluations  by  the  Ministry  of  Internal  Affairs  on  the  economic  growth  
and  increase  of  income  of  each  district.  
 
In  all,  there  are  now  23  A+B+C  authorities.    They  are  (or  have  become,  de  facto)  the  main  authority  
in  land  matters,  in  terms  of  numbers  of  new  titles  issued.      

4.3   Powers  under  the  Regions  and  Districts  Law  No.  23  of  2002  
The  law  provides  for  every  district  council  to  have  a  sub-­‐committee  dealing  with  land  matters,  
constituted  slightly  differently,  depending  on  grade.    For  A  and  B  districts  there  is  the  General  Works  
Sub-­‐committee,  one  of  four  such;  C  and  D  districts  have  only  two  sub-­‐committees;  one  of  them,  the  
Economic  and  Development  and  General  Works  sub-­‐committee,  has  the  same  function.    The  
committees  consider  and  make  recommendations  all  applications  for  new  title  but  members  are  
explicitly  forbidden  to  sign  documents  pertaining  to  individual  cases,  presumably  for  conflict  of  
interest  reasons.      
 
Power  of  signature,  under  Article  33,  is  reserved  for  the  Permanent  Committee,  consisting  of  the  
Mayor  (District  Commissioner),  Deputy  District  Commissioner,  Executive  Secretary  and  the  Chairs  of  
the  various  sub-­‐committees.    Day-­‐to-­‐day  land  administration  functions  are  in  the  hands  of  the  
Executive  Secretary.  

4.4   Certification  and  Registry  


The  survey  team  visited  land  offices  in  the  capital  (A)  towns  of  all  regions.    Staff  and  systems  are  in  
place,  electronic  and  paper  registers  are  maintained,  and  paper  certificates  are  issued.    In  a  few  
districts,  filing  systems  did  not  appear  in  good  order  and  some  data-­‐bases  seem  perilously  
vulnerable  to  computer  crash;  others  have  a  back-­‐up  plan.      
 
The  certificates  themselves  are  branded  in  the  name  of  the  municipality  and  vary  in  form  and  
content.    The  information  is  generally  as  one  would  expect  and  includes:  name  of  owner,  date  of  
registration,  location,  plot  dimensions  etc.    There  is  also  space  for  the  Executive  Secretary  to  affirm  

11  
 
that,  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  the  plot  is  not  subject  to  dispute  or  any  other  bar  (for  example,  
that  it  has  been  reserved  by  the  Municipality  for  some  other  development).    It  was  observed  that  
copies  in  the  registry  were  often  incomplete  and  that  descriptions  of  location  are  very  general.      
 
It  seems  that  some,  perhaps  most,  lower  grade  districts  lack  the  resources  to  maintain  their  own  
registry  and  certification  machinery.    Their  sub-­‐committees  make  recommendations  to  the  main,  
regional,  municipality,  which  then  issues  title,  even  though  it  is  questionable  whether  Law  23  gives  
them  this  jurisdiction  over  lower  grade  districts.  
 
There  is  no  central,  national  land  registry15,  though  the  legal  basis  for  establishing  one  seems  to  exist  
in  Law  17,  which  gives  a  central  role  to  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  (MoPWH).    As  the  Chair  of  the  
National  Land  Planning  Committee,  the  Ministry  could  theoretically  use  copies  of  title  (which  it  
supposed  to  receive  as  a  matter  of  routine  procedure  –  Art  27.3)  to  compile  a  national  registry.    
However,  as  far  as  the  study  could  establish,  this  just  does  not  happen.    Municipalities  do  not  send  
copies  to  the  Ministry  and  nor  is  the  national  committee  effective  in  any  way.    It  meets  irregularly,  if  
at  all.  

4.5   The  Master  Plan  and  urban  sprawl  of  undeveloped  plots  
Report  3  in  this  series,  on  the  Legal  and  Policy  Framework,  argues  that  land  law  in  Somaliland  is  
generally  piecemeal,  with  gaps  and  contradictions.  Perhaps  the  biggest  practical  ‘gap’  is  the  so-­‐called  
“masterplan”  (Article  5  of  the  UML  No.  17  of  2001/8).    Much  of  what  municipalities  are  empowered  
to  do  depends  on  this  plan,  yet  few  district  towns  actually  have  an  up-­‐to-­‐date  one  and  the  capacity  
of  MoPW  (see  below)  to  deliver  them  is  limited.    This  has  not  stopped  municipalities  going  ahead  
and  expanding  their  towns.    
 
The  impact  is  visually  obvious,  on  the  outskirts  of  every  major  town  and  even  in  smaller  settlements.    
One  can  see,  everywhere,  the  corner  markers  or  foundations  of  compound  walls,  to  one  course  of  
masonry  above  ground  level,  of  relatively  new,  but  not  yet  developed,  landholdings.    They  extend  
some  distance,  in  Berbera  as  far  as  the  cement  factory  (8  km),  for  example.    Also  in  Berbera,  a  dillaal  
told  the  field  survey  that  the  whole  beachfront  or  coastline,  extending  20  km  east  of  the  city,  has  
been  allocated  and  marked  out  in  this  way,  one  plot  deep  and  without  planned  access  to  the  shore.  
“You  won’t  find  a  place  to  bury  someone  there”,  he  said.      
 
The  same  phenomenon  is  observable  in  Hargeysa,  south  of  the  airport  for  some  distance  and  indeed  
along  every  main  road  out  of  the  city;  in  Boorama,  some  8  km  towards  Gabiley.    And  so  on,  
throughout  the  country,  though  the  phenomenon  is  less  pronounced  in  the  Eastern  regions,  where  
the  economy  is  slower.  
 
 
Selected  excerpts  from  Urban  Management  Law  17,  2001/2008  
 
Article  3  Urban  Master  Plan    
3.  Planning  of  urban  land  cannot  go  beyond  five  kilometres  from  the  furthest  buildings  in  the  town.  
Article  No.  5  Urban  Town  Mapping  
1.    The  master  plan  of  a  town  or  part  of  it  shall  be  requested  by  the  local  authority  whenever  there  
is  need  to  extend  the  town  or  create  new  settlements,  by  indicating  the  area  to  be  planned.  
Article  No.  7  Farms  adjunct  to  the  town  

                                                                                                               
15
 as  a  consequence,  policy  makers  at  the  national  level  have  no  precise  information  about  what  is  happening  on  the  
ground;  though  they  hear  stories,  belong  to  networks  and  have  families  affected,  like  everyone  else.    

12  
 
1.    Irrigation  farms  that  conform  to  the  Agricultural  Law  No.  08/99,  and  now  included  in  the  master  
of  the  towns  can  be  used  for  plots,  and  they  are  owned  by  those  who  hold  the  titles  legally.  2.    
Rain-­‐fed  farms  that  conform  to  Agricultural  Law  No.  08/99  ….,  as  Art  7.1    
3.    Thirty  percent  of  the  farm  areas  extended  to  by  towns  shall  be  reserved  for  public  purpose  and  
that  shall  be  indicated  in  the  town  plan.  
Article  No.  9  Base  for  allocating  land  
1.    Any  land  (plots)  that  are  to  be  allocated  should  be  based  on  and  conform  to  the  general  town  
plan  approved  by  the  National  Land  Planning  Committee.    
2.    Any  plot  with  permanent  use  can  be  allocated  with  the  decision  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  
the  local  authority  following  recommendation  from  the  Planning  Office  of  the  Municipality.    
3.    The  Mayors  of  towns  can  issue  uniform  regulations  regarding  the  verification  of  the  ownership  
of  plots,  such  ownership  claims  should  be  supported  by  the  owners  –  with  legal  titles  –  of  the  three  
plots  or  buildings  around.  
Article  No.  12  Ownership  of  land  
1.    Anybody  who  receives  title  for  land  with  permanent  use  must  build  a  permanent  building  in  one  
year,  starting  from  the  date  of  issuance.  If  the  owner  does  not  build  the  land  within  that  time,  
he/she  shall  be  obliged  to  pay  the  unified  tax  tariffs  of  the  local  authority  (Law  No.  12).    
2.    Land  with  temporary  use  can  be  allocated  for  those  who  need,  and  they  must  build  in  three  
months,  and  the  types  of  buildings  that  can  be  build  in  such  land  are  those  indicated  in  Article  No.  
10,  Section  4  
3.    If  the  recipient  of  land  does  not  build  the  land,  and  does  not  pay  due  taxes  for  two  consecutive  
years,  he/she  shall  lose  the  right  to  own  that  land,  and  the  land  shall  become  public  property.    
Article  No.  23  Reclaiming  of  land  for  public  purpose  
1.    After  consulting  with  the  Executive  Committee  and  getting  permission  from  the  National  Land  
Planning  Committee,  the  mayor  of  the  town  has  the  authority  to  issue  decree  for  the  reclaim  of  a  
built  or  vacant  plot  for  public  purpose.    
3.    The  owner  of  the  land  shall  receive  fair  compensation  for  the  affected  building  in  that  plot.    
4.    The  owner  shall  also  receive  a  plot  that  is  equal  to,  in  terms  of  size  and  location,  the  previous  
plot.  
Article  No.  27  Registration  of  Plots  
1.    The  local  authority  of  the  town  keeps  registers  for  recording  the  different  types  of  plots  and  the  
titles  for  their  building.  
3.    The  Land  Planning  Office  at  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  shall  keep  copies  of  titles  for  
permanent  plots  
 
This  urban  sprawl  does  not  accord  with  Law  17  in  a  number  of  ways.    First,  the  plots  concerned  are  
often  laid  out  without  a  masterplan.    Second,  the  provision  for  30%  of  new  urban  land  to  be  
reserved  for  public  works  (Art  7.3,  previous  page)  seems  to  be  ignored  in  most  cases.    Sometimes,  it  
is  alleged,  even  access  roadways  are  not  properly  provided  for.    We  heard  of  one  unhappy  plot  
buyer  who  found  that  they  had  neighbours  on  all  four  sides  and  no  way  to  get  in.    
 
Third,  though  this  is  as  much  an  aesthetic  or  functional  consideration  as  a  legal  one,  plots  are  not  
planned  in  the  wider  sense  of  good  practice  in  town  planning.    Identical-­‐sized  plots  are  laid  out  on  
grids,  irrespective  of  terrain  or  function,  with  the  short-­‐sighted  aim  of  selling  them  to  people  hoping  
to  build  a  house,  some  day  (see  section  11  below  on  land  markets).    There  is  nowhere  for  future  
mosques,  schools,  shops,  market  places,  playing  fields  and  so  on.    This  may  be  the  result  of  the  
limited  skills  of  the  joomitir  (surveyors)  who  do  the  lay-­‐out  or  of  a  short-­‐sighted  imperative  to  meet  
demand,  at  any  cost  or  maybe  both.      
 
Fourth  is  the  broad  interpretation  of  the  term  “farms  adjunct  to  the  town”  in  Article  7.    The  process  
by  which  “farm  land”  is  converted  to  urban  plots  is  as  follows.    A  block  of  land  is  registered  as  a  farm  

13  
 
in  accordance  with  the  Agricultural  Land  Ownership  Law  (Law  No.8/99  –  see  below).    It  may  indeed  
have  been  farmed,  in  the  sense  of  growing  crops,  but  may  equally  have  been  under  communal  
tenure  as  rangeland.    It  may  be  registered  by  the  person(s)  originally  using  it  or  by  a  land  speculator  
with  the  resources  to  buy  out  (compensate)  anyone  with  an  interest  or  possible  claim  under  
customary  law.  
 
After  a  time  as  a  nominal  (or  actual)  farm  the  owner  applies  to  the  municipality  to  register  a  number  
of  plots  under  the  terms  of  Article  7  and,  in  due  course,  sells  them.    For  this  to  happen,  officials  in  
the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  (regional  and  headquarters)  and  in  the  District  Executive  Committee,  as  
well  as  elected  councilors  in  the  relevant  sub-­‐committee,  must  all  agree.    This  is  not  necessarily  
collusion,  in  the  negative  sense,  as  the  farm  may  indeed  have  been  under  crops  and  be  ‘adjunct’  to  
the  town,  i.e.  with  an  actual  common  boundary.  
 
However,  town  boundaries  are  not  mapped  and,  because  of  rainfall  and  soil  limitations,  much,  or  
most,  of  the  land  surrounding  towns  is  not  suitable  for  agriculture.    Blocks  of  new  plots  seem  
commonly  much  larger  than  the  8  hectare  maximum  allowed  for  individual  farms  (see  section  6,  
below)16.    It  appears  therefore,  that  much  of  the  urban  sprawl  observed  has,  in  fact,  involved  
collusion  by  parties  mentioned.    How  else  would  these  plots  have  spread  as  far  as  they  have?  
 
Finally,  many  ‘new’  plots  are  not  so  new  and  remain  undeveloped  after  two  years  or  more.    This  is  
visible  from  the  state  of  the  masonry  and  surrounding  vegetation.    This  is  as  true  of  much  older  plots  
within  towns  as  it  is  in  new  areas  on  the  outskirts.    It  is  probable  that  many  owners  are  not  
compliant  with  Article  12  and,  strictly,  stand  to  lose  their  investment.    This  is  highly  unlikely  to  
happen,  however,  as  it  would  be  an  unusually  bold  Mayor  who  attempted  to  claw  back  such  land  
into  public  ownership.    While  this  is  understandable  politically,  it  does  raise  the  question:  is  a  law  
that  invites  contempt  a  good  one?        
 
To  conclude:  “The  municipalities  are  out  of  control”  (Director  of  Housing,  MoPWH,  interview  with  
RVI).    This  would  appear  to  be  the  case;  however,  much  of  what  is  not  right  is  due  to  limited  
technical  capacity  in  the  municipalities  and  unrealistic  demands  in  the  law  itself.  
 

5   Ministry  of  Public  Works  and  Housing  


 
The  Ministry  has  the  following  important  roles  in  land  matters  under  Law  17:  
•   Under  Art  2.2,  it  is  responsible  for  all  public  land  in  urban  areas,  both  the  historical  ex-­‐
Shacab  and  the  30%  notionally  created  out  of  new  expansion  under  Art  7.3.    
•   Under  Arts  3  &  5,  it  is  responsible  for  producing  town  masterplans.    
•   It  provides,  ex  officio,  the  Chairmen  of  the  District  Land  Dispute  Tribunals17,  which  do  work,  
and  the  National  Land  Planning  Committee,  which  does  not.    
•   It  is  the  institutional  home  of  the  Land  and  Urban  Management  Institute  (LUMI).  

5.1   Public  Land  


Shacab  (or  ex-­‐Sha’ab)  is  the  quarter  or  locality,  in  all  seven  regional  headquarter  towns,  originally  
reserved  under  the  Protectorate  for  government  offices,  courts,  military  and  police  barracks  and  
parade  grounds,  senior  and  junior  staff  housing,  hospital,  clinics  etc.    Interviews  indicate  widespread  

                                                                                                               
16
 Apparently,  speculators  are  able  to  circumvent  the  8  ha  rule  by  registering  as  Co-­‐ops  or  companies  (see  Law  8,  art  7.2,  in  
section  6,  below);  DG,  MoA,  pers  comm.          
17
 See,  also,  Report  4  on  Land  Conflict  Dynamics  

14  
 
dissatisfaction  and  cynicism  about  the  way  that  parts  of  the  Shacab  have  been  privatized,  at  times  
without  regard  to  the  rights  of  those  who  settled  it  after  the  civil  war  (box  on  following  page).      
 
One  senior  MoPW  official  interviewed  regretted  that  Somaliland  has  not  been  able  to  retain  a  public  
interest  in  these  prime  locations  by  entering  into  joint  ventures  with  developers,  instead  of  selling  
them  outright.    The  example  of  Tanzania’s  National  Housing  Corporation18  was  quoted  but  it  seems  
that  there  is  no  legal  basis  in  Somaliland  for  any  such  form  of  joint  venture.    With  appropriate  
legislative  initiative,  the  opportunity  was  there,  at  a  certain  point,  to  retain  a  long-­‐term  public  
interest  in  former  Shacab  sites.    Cash  flow  benefits  to  government  would  have  been  less  dramatic  
than  outright  sale,  but  longer  lasting.    It  may  still  be  possible  with  sites  not  yet  sold.      
 
Some  form  of  claw-­‐back  may  theoretically  still  be  possible  with  sites  already  sold,  under  Article  23  
(see  above),  “for  public  purpose”.    But  note  that  Art  23.4  makes  this  practically  very  difficult.    
Compensation  is  supposed  to  be  not  just  of  equivalent  value  but  identical  size  and  location.    This  is  
yet  another  weakness  in  the  detail  of  Law  17  -­‐  if  the  state  or  municipality  already  had,  and  was  able  
to  offer  in  compensation,  another  plot  of  the  same  size  in  the  same  place,  where  is  the  public  
purpose?    Also  note  that  this  article  is  about  the  Municipality;  the  Ministry,  as  custodian  of  public  
land,  is  not  mentioned.      
 
People  are  not  happy  with  the  disposal  of  ex-­‐Shacab  sites  (see  Box  2,  following  page).    An  NLP  that  
ignores  these  concerns,  or  pretends  that  there  is  no  issue,  would  be  incomplete.  
 
The  process  of  urban  expansion  is  supposed  to  generate  new  public  space  equivalent  to  30%  of  
farmland  converted,  under  Art  7.3.    Though  there  is  widespread  public  awareness  of  this  provision,  it  
just  does  not  happen,  in  most  cases.    The  law  offers  no  clear  guidance  on  whether  this  area  should  
be  surrendered,  free,  or  whether  compensation  is  due,  again  under  Art  23.    Presumably  the  “farmer”  
selling  the  land  would  expect  payment.    Given  limited  capacity  to  produce  town  masterplans  in  the  
more  sophisticated  sense,  the  joomitir  just  lay  out  their  grids  of  plots,  the  sale  of  which  maximizes  
short-­‐term  tax  revenue  for  the  municipality  and  does  not  expose  them  to  difficult  questions  of  
compensation.    It  is  also  alleged  that  municipal  officials  benefit  directly.  
 
 
 
 
 
Box  2:  Focus  group  discussion  with  public  land  squatters,  Hargeysa  
 
“The  government  owns  the  land  in  this  neighbourhood.  However,  civilians  took  it  over.  There  are  
houses  owned  by  the  civilians  and  others  the  government  owns  but  sold  them  to  civilians.  The  
majority  of  the  people  who  settled  in  this  area  in  the  first  place  were  poor  people  who  either  moved  
into  government  houses  or  occupied  vacant  land  in  the  neighbourhood.    However  the  government  
sold  most  of  the  land  in  the  neighbourhood  to  rich  people  or  gave  it  to  them.    
 
For  example,  the  former  president  gave  Adna  Adam  1  km  (sic)  of  land  in  this  area.  400  families  used  
to  live  in  it  and  even  though  some  of  them  have  been  resettled,  the  majority  of  them  weren’t  and  

                                                                                                               
18
 NHC  was  set  up  to  own  all  the  commercial  and  residential  property  nationalized  post-­‐1967.    It  is  still  politically  difficult  in  
Tanzania  to  return  these  to  the  original  owners,  mostly  ‘Asian’  (of  Indian  sub-­‐continent  origin)  business  people  and  their  
families.    Instead,  they  are  being  allowed  to  enter  into  joint  ventures  with  NHC.    Many  never  left  and,  after  a  generation  or  
two  as  rent-­‐paying  tenants  of  the  state  in  their  increasingly  run-­‐down  buildings,  they  are  now  encouraged  to  rehabilitate  or  
completely  redevelop  NHC  property,  as  part  owners.    This  is  a  fairly  unique  form  of  tenure,  without  an  exact  parallel  in  
Somaliland.  

15  
 
they  fear  that  they’ll  be  simply  kicked  out  of  the  land  they  lived  on  for  more  than  20  years.  Thus  
now  the  people  who  live  in  Shacab  area  are  of  different  levels  of  wealth.    Some  of  the  people  lived  
in  this  neighbourhood  from  the  seventies.  These  were  government  employees.  However  the  
majority  of  the  people  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  after  the  war.  
 The  poor  people  are  being  pushed  from  the  neighbourhood  and  rich  people  are  taking  over.  These  
poor  people  who  don’t  have  anywhere  else  to  go  are  suffering  due  to  businessmen  who  want  to  
buy  their  land.  The  businessmen  offer  them  some  money  and  persuade  them  to  give  up  their  land.  
Sometimes  these  businessmen  buy  pieces  of  land  over  which  there  are  conflicts.  There  is  a  fast  
growing  land  trade  in  our  neighbourhood  and  at  least  a  house  is  sold  per  day.  There  isn’t  a  single  
plot  of  land  in  this  neighbourhood  that  hasn’t  been  claimed  by  someone.  It  is  all  fenced.  Sometimes  
the  occupants  of  these  houses  are  given  money  as  compensation  and  other  times  they  are  forced  
out  of  their  houses.  Sometimes  the  occupants  sell  part  of  the  land  and  settle  down  in  the  other.  
However,  they  move  out  of  the  neighbourhood  most  times.  Thus  the  number  of  poor  people  who  
live  in  this  neighbourhood  is  decreasing  day  by  day  and  the  rich  are  replacing  them.    
 
Sometimes  a  conflict  happens  between  the  occupants,  the  government  and  those  who  bought  the  
land  from  the  government.  The  occupants  believe  that  they  own  the  land  since  they  lived  in  it  for  
more  than  two  decades  so  when  the  government  who  is  the  real  owner  sells  it  to  buyers,  they  
refuse  to  move  out  and  a  conflict  starts.  Sometimes  several  families  share  a  piece  of  land.  The  first  
person  who  settled  in  it  decides  to  sell  it  but  the  others  refuse  to  move  out  claiming  that  since  this  is  
public  land,  no  one  has  more  rights  over  it  than  others.  The  elders  of  the  parties  involved  in  the  
conflict,  resolve  it.    The  local  government  doesn’t  have  the  power  to  control  this  neighbourhood.  It  
comes  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Public  Works  Ministry  and  the  only  time  the  ministry  intervenes  
in  our  affairs  is  when  there  is  a  transaction  or  a  big  conflict  happens  that  leads  to  the  police  being  
involved.  
 
 
Apparently  the  Ministry  has  publicly  warned  that  the  liability  for  the  30%  remains  and  that  plot  
buyers  should  be  aware  (caveat  emptor)  that  they  may  be  called  upon  to  make  it  good.    An  incident  
of  poorly  managed  privatization  of  ‘farmland’  involved  the  disposal  of  land  in  Boorama  that  had  
been  informally  used  as  recreation  space  (football  grounds).    This  led  to  well-­‐known  and  widely  
discussed  incidents  of  violence  between  gangs  of  youth  who  could  previously  sublimate  their  
rivalries  in  soccer.    If  the  land  had  been  properly  planned  before  sale,  football  grounds  might  have  
been  laid  out  and  allocated.  
 
Box  3:  Focus  group  discussions,  some  views  on  the  issue  of  30%  public  land  reservation  
 
“In  the  urban  area  the  only  communal  land  is  that  deducted  from  the  planning  of  agricultural  
areas  that  are  turned  into  residential  areas.  In  these  lands,  by  law,  the  local  government  deducts  
some  land  for  public  use.  Unfortunately  this  type  of  land  falls  into  hands  of  very  few  local  
government  officials  who  use  it  for  their  own  good”.  (FGD,  pastoralists,  Burco)  
 
“The  government  doesn’t  own  one  meter  of  land.  There  is  no  public  land  even  to  bury  one  person.  
All  that  land  the  local  government  deducts  for  public  use  falls  in  the  hands  of  very  few  local  
administration  officials.  It  is  a  sad  reality  to  know  that  the  local  government  makes  money  out  of  
these  lands  either  by  selling  the  public  lands  or  prolonging  land  conflict  cases  so  that  the  
disputing  parties  pay  money  to  them.”    (FGD,  elders,  Mohamoud  Heibe,  Hargeysa)  
 
“the  ..  local  municipality  here  in  Wajaale  ..  finished  all  the  land  ..  and  they  have  no  land  to  sell  
now  ..  they  only  care  about  the  people  who  are  buying  land.    Sometimes  they  take  500  dollars  

16  
 
from  each  side  ..  Here  in  Wajaale  they  exchange  money  for  land  and  they  have  no  impact  on  
community  peacefulness  and  affordability”.    (FGD,  farmers,  Togwajaale)      
 
“There  is  no  public  land  at  all.  The  30%  of  public  land  indicated  by  the  law  is  sold  by  the  local  
government  officials  and  nothing  is  left  for  public  purpose.”  (FGD,  elders,  JIgjigayar,  Hargeysa)  
 

5.2   Masterplans    
There  is  clearly  a  capacity  bottleneck  in  the  Ministry,  which  continues  to  produce  urban  masterplans,  
most  recently  in  Lascaanood  and  Wajaale.    But  the  speed  at  which  these  can  be  produced  is  far  out-­‐
paced  by  developments  on  the  ground.    The  problem  comprises:  
•   at  least  23  districts  in  need  of  a  town  plan  (leave  aside  district  boundary  survey19)  
•   capacity  to  generate  a  limited  number  (only  one  or  two?)  of  plans  a  year  
•   the  need  to  rotate  available  resources  fairly  around  the  country  
 
Even  districts  that  have  a  plan  find  that  it  is  quickly  out  of  date  and  that  it  will  be  years  until  it  is  their  
turn  again.    The  RVI  study  team  took  care  to  ask  municipalities  if  they  had  the  resources  to  draw  up  
plans  on  their  own,  without  waiting  for  the  Ministry.    The  answer  was  invariably  ‘no’  and,  moreover,  
there  were  doubts  as  to  the  legality  of  this.      
 
It  is  unlikely  that  the  private  sector  can  fill  this  gap  in  the  immediate  future,  because  there  simply  
are  not  enough  trained  surveyors.    However,  in  other  countries,  local  authorities  are  free  to  contract  
out  such  work,  as  they  do  with  construction.    The  NLP  could  consider  opening  up  competition  to  
provide  such  services,  using  the  best  technology  available.  

5.3   District  Land  Dispute  Tribunals  (LDTs)  


So  far,  LDTs  are  operational  in  Hargeysa,  Berbera  and  Boorama  but  they  are  expected  to  be  set  up  in  
all  Category  A  district  towns.    They  are  a  quasi-­‐judicial  institution  established  under  Article  28  (one  
of  the  2008  amendments)  of  Law  17.    UN  Habitat  has  supported  the  process  with  staff  training,  
equipment  etc.  This  included  technical  assistance  in  drawing  up  detailed  regulations,  issued  by  MoIA  
in  2014.      
 
The  following  representatives  of  line  ministries  from  the  Regional  Governor’s  staff  (i.e.  of  central,  
not  municipal,  government)  sit  on  the  LDT  (also  known  as  Administrative  Tribunal):      
 
•   One  person  from  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works,  Chairman  
•   One  person  from  the  Ministry  of  Endowment  and  Religious  Affairs,  Member  
•   One  person  from  the  Ministry  of  Internal  Affairs,  Member  
•   One  person  from  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Member  
•   One  person  from  the  Ministry  of  Environment  &  Rural  Development,  Member    
In  addition,  the  Municipality  is  represented  by:  
•   One  Councilor,  Member    
•   One  person  from  Municipality  staff,  Member  (in  practice  the  Director  of  the  Land  
Department  or  the  Executive  Secretary).  
 
Because  Law  17  establishes  the  municipality  as  the  lead  institution  in  administering  urban  land  
matters,  the  Mayor  is  supposed  to  take  the  lead  in  deciding  to  set  up  a  tribunal,  requesting  support  
                                                                                                               
19
 These  are,  presently,  not  much  more  than  notional  straight  lines  on  the  map  and  are,  actually,  the  responsibility  of  
Internal  Affairs,  not  Public  Works.    This  raises  the  desirability  of  creating  a  common  Government  Survey  and  Cartographic  
service/agency.    But  of  what  institutional  form  and  answerable  to  which  minister?    

17  
 
from  central  government,  presumably  through  the  appropriate  line  ministry,  which  is  Internal  
affairs,  not  Public  Works.    The  municipality  is  also  expected  to  provide  premises  and  support  staff.    
This  has  not  worked  well  in  Boorama,  where  the  LDT  Chair  indicated  considerable  friction  over  
resources  between  tribunal  and  municipality.    But  as  this  tribunal  is  new,  with  only  one  case  
resolved  and  seven  in  process  (in  October  2015),  it  may  be  that  these  are  only  teething  troubles.  
 
Once  again,  the  masterplan  is  a  problem.  The  Berbera  LDT  Chair  reports  that,  without  one,  he  is  
often  unsure  whether  a  given  case  falls  within  his  jurisdiction.    He  recommends  that  this  is  insoluble  
while  planning  capacity  is  so  limited  and  that  the  relevant  articles  should  be  repealed.    He  also  
recommends  that  the  tribunal  should  be,  physically  and  in  resource  terms,  taken  out  of  the  
municipality,  to  emphasise  its  impartiality.    As  Report  4  shows,  corrupt  or  incompetent  practice  by  
local  government  staff  is  a  common  cause  of  disputes.  
 
The  three  existing  LDT  Chairs  are  all  lawyers.    Berbera  is  especially  well  served  in  that  both  
Municipality  members  and  the  MoAg  member  are  also  lawyers.    It  is  not  clear  if  MoPW,  where  one  
would  expect  to  find  engineers,  has  an  infinite  supply  of  lawyers.  The  Berbera  Chair  regrets  the  gap  
between  an  Administrative  Tribunal  and  the  courts  and  judges  of  the  mainstream  legal  system.    This  
is  both  as  a  matter  of  principle,  because  the  expediency  of  the  tribunals  does  nothing  to  correct  the  
weaknesses  of  the  mainstream,  and  a  practical  consideration,  as  LDTs  have  no  powers  of  
enforcement.      
 
Where  one  party  (or  both)  refuses  to  accept  the  tribunal’s  decision,  the  case  must  go  up  to  the  
supreme  court  (not  the  regional  court).    Most  cases  in  Berbera  have  been  where  one  party  refuses  
to  accept  the  judgment  or  recommended  settlement  of  either  elders  or  shari’a  courts;  not  because  
these  have  failed  to  reach  a  decision  and  have  passed  on  the  case.      HGA  –  cross  check  R.4  
 
There  is  no  general  agreement  as  to  the  jurisdiction  of  LDTs.    Some  people  consulted  believe  that  its  
function  is  to  act  as  a  higher  authority  (than  the  elders)  on  all  land  disputes  within  the  whole  Region  
of  a  Grade  A  municipality,  including  those  involving  agricultural  land.    Others  believe  that  Law  17  
confines  jurisdiction  to  the  area  included  in  the  town  masterplan.      This  needs  clarification  and  the  
correct  position  needs  to  be  publicly  explained.    The  level  of  general  understanding  about  the  LDTs  is  
very  low.  

5.4   Land  and  Urban  Management  Institute  (LUMI)    


Chiefly  supported  by  UN-­‐Habitat20,  LUMI  was  designed  to  be:    
“a  national  and  semi-­‐autonomous  institute  that  provides  technical  support  to  the  deeply  
controversial  implementing  agencies  of  state  policies  on  spatial  planning,  development,  control  and  
support  the  improvement  of  land  tenure  security  and  resource  mobilization  through  property  
taxation.  One  of  its  expected  activities  is  to  assist  central  and  local  governments  in  managing  urban,  
rural  and  regional  areas  to  increase  the  access  to  equitable  land  resources  through  a  balanced  
spatial  allocation  and  distribution  of  activities  and  services.  LUMI  is  expected  to  be  a  leading  research  
and  training  institute  of  Somaliland  in  the  land  and  urban  sector,  establishing  networks  and  sharing  
capacity  with  other  research  institutes  in  Somaliland  and  abroad.”  (Habitat  newsletter)  
 
Unfortunately  it  has  not  yet  proved  possible  to  secure  the  semi-­‐autonomous  status  envisaged,  due  
to  uncertainty  as  to  how  this  would  fit  in  Somaliland  law;  perhaps  also  because  MoPW  wishes  to  
keep  it  as  a  department  in  the  ministry,  under  the  terms  of  Arts  2  and  3  of  Law  17.      This  would  
prevent  it  taking  a  wider  role  in  land  matters  because  Law  17  does  not  cover  farm-­‐,  range-­‐  or  other  
reserved  lands.  

                                                                                                               
 as  part  of  the  UN  multi-­‐agency  Joint  Programme  on  Local  Governance  and  Decentralized  Service  Delivery  (JPLG)  
20

18  
 
 
This  impasse  has  been  unresolved  since  2012  and,  as  a  result,  LUMI  has  yet  to  realize  its  potential.    
This  is  regrettable  and  the  draft  NLP  would  be  incomplete  without  a  statement  on  the  question.    In  
spite  of  this  impasse,  UN-­‐Habitat  has  progressed  its  work  on  property  tax  (see  section  10,  below).    
 

6   Ministry  of  Agriculture  


6.1   Powers  
The  Agricultural  Land  Ownership  Law  No.  8  of  1999  defines  agricultural  land  as  any  land  that  is  
suitable  for  cultivation  (Art  1  (1)  –  definitions),  distinguishing  rain-­‐fed  land  from  irrigated.    
Responsibility  for  all  such  land,  including  the  issuance  of  certification,  lies  with  the  Ministry  of  
Agriculture.    In  the  translation  of  the  law  available  to  RVI  there  is  no  demarcation  of  the  respective  
roles  of  MoA  and  MoERD  –  indeed  the  two  ministries  did  not  exist  in  their  present  form  in  1999.    
This  opens  a  very  large  gap  in  the  administration  of  rangeland.    
 
The  Agricultural  Land  Ownership  Law  No  8,  unlike  the  Urban  Land  Management  Law  No.  17,  makes  
no  provision  for  conversion  to  urban  land.    As  a  result  there  is  no  procedure  for  owners  following  the  
conversion  path  outlined  above  to  surrender  title  and  remove  re-­‐classified  land  from  the  MoA  
register.    This  leaves  open  grounds  for  future  dispute  over  ownership.    
 
Where  soil  and  water  favour  mixed  farming,  there  is  a  case,  sometimes  a  good  one,  for  private,  
individual  ownership  of  land.    The  arguments  are  familiar,  it  promotes  productivity  of  both  land  and  
labour,  by  encouraging  individual  investment  in  water  infrastructure  (berkad)  and  (perhaps)  
irrigation,  crops  can  be  protected  (by  fences  –  enclosure)  from  wandering  livestock  and  wild  animals,  
plots  of  pasture  can  be  improved  etc.  
 
 
Agricultural  Land  Ownership  Law:  Law  No  08/1999  
 
Article  Six,  Process  of  Granting  Titles    
1.    Every  family  or  individual  can  have  only  one  new  registration/title,  
2.    Those  who  had  a  farmland  in  the  past  will  get  as  many  titles  as  the  amount  of  land  they  possess.  
Article  Seven,  Allowable  Size  of  the  Land  to  be  Issued  
1.    The  size  of  the  new  land  to  be  registered  for  a  title  shall  be  at  maximum  8  hectares  for  the  rain-­‐
fed  farms,  and  4  hectares  for  the  irrigated  farms.  
2.    The  size  of  the  rain-­‐fed  farms  stated  above  does  not  apply  government  farms,  local  
government,  independent  government  agencies,  and  companies.  
Article  Eight,  Confiscating  Land  for  Public  Purposes    
1.    Any  land  that  is  cultivated  or  used  to  be  farmed  in  the  past  can  be  appropriated  for  public  
purposes.    
2.    The  owners  of  any  farm  appropriated  for  public  reasons,  should  get  compensation,  and  get  land  
equal  to  the  one  confiscated  in  three  months.    
Article  Nine,  Exclusions  From  Land  Registration    
1.    Any  land  can  be  registered  except  those  land  aimed  for  making  enclosures.  
2.    Registration  titles  for  new  land  does  not  allow  selling  land;  it  can  only  be  sold  again  three  years  
later,  after  securing  a  permission  from  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture.    
Article  Ten,  Rights  of  those  Cultivating  Land      
1.    To  farm  and  use  land  productively.  
2.    To  get  financial  loan  equal  to  the  farm  value  from  the  local  banks.    

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3.      If  the  farm  investment  and  the  related  expenses  came  from  oversees/foreign  sources,  they  can  
have  the  right  to  send  some  of  the  profits  oversees/foreign  country.      
4.    To  have  the  right  to  sell,  rent,  and  transfer  ownership  of  the  farm  land  apart  from  those  lands  
mentioned  in  Article  9.  
Article  Thirteen,  Inheritance    
1.    When  a  person  with  registered  title  dies,  the  title  will  be  transferred  to  the  heirs  as  shari’a  
defines.      
2.    In  such  cases  the  inheritors  of  the  land  title  will  be  entered  in  the  land  register  as  this  law  
states.  
Article  Fifteen,  Land  Registration    
If  the  land  issued  was  previously  improved  by  the  local  government,  or  another  independent  
government  agency,  the  expenses  should  be  compensated  by  the  person  given  the  land  title.    
Article  Sixteen,  Land  Registration  –  same  name???  
1.    The  Ministry  of  Agriculture  should  have  a  map  (master  plan)  and  a  farmland  register  on  which  
the  names  of  the  people  with  titles  appear  and  under  which  conditions/criteria  the  land  was  
issued.    
2.  Agents/representatives  of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  in  the  districts  may  register  farmlands  in  
the  districts.    
5.    Ministry  of  Agriculture  representative  in  the  district  will  finally  submit  a  copy  the  farm  
ownership  certificate  to  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture.    
Article  Seventeen,  Demarcation  of  Farmland  from  Residential  Land  
1.    Irrigated  farms  shall  not  be  issues/apportioned  from  the  pasture  and  of  the  Republic  of  
Somaliland,    
2.    Irrigated  farms  can  be  issued  from  pastureland  if  they  are  not  enclosed  or  not  interrupting  
water  routes  for  animals  or  not  blocking  access  to  wells  that  animals  travel  to.  
 
 
   

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6.2   Somaliland  Secure  Land  Tenure  Arrangements  Project  (SSLTAP)  
The  SSLTAP  was  the  most  ambitious  effort  to  issue  title  to  farms  that  has  been  attempted  to  date.    It  
evolved  from  the  initiative  of  Somaliland  Cadastral  Surveys  (SCS),  an  NGO  which  started  surveying  
individual  farm  holdings  in  1997.  Though  it  piloted  activities  in  Burco  and  Ceerigaaboo,  most  of  the  
work  was  in  the  west  of  the  country,  particularly  in  Gebiley,  Dilla,  Arabsiyo  and  Boorama.    At  one  
point  there  it  was  estimated  that  80,000  farms  could  benefit.  The  project  was  supported  by  UNDP  
through  three  phases  from  2001-­‐2012.  
 
In  one  important  respect  it  was  a  success:  farmers  loved  it.    It  mirrored  the  Ethiopian  experience  
that  people  appreciate  official  recognition  of  their  rights  and  are  proud  of  their  certificates.    SCS,  and  
the  MoA  project  that  took  over,  generated  a  lot  of  positive  good  will  and  publicity  on  this  basis.    The  
Municipality  in  Gebiley  are  equally  proud  of  their  SCS  master  plan,  still  prominently  displayed  in  their  
offices,  though  it  is  now  some  years  out  of  date.  
 
In  most  other  respects  SSLTAP  seems  to  have  been  a  technical  failure.    The  concrete  beacons  used  to  
mark  boundary  corners  were  all  too  frequently  stolen  or  moved,  perhaps  an  indication  that  
individual  ownership  is  opposed  locally.  The  substitute  adopted,  planting  Aloe  Vera21  along  
boundaries,  is  expensive  because  of  the  need  to  raise  and  distribute  planting  material.    More  
importantly,  SCS  failed  to  organize  and  pass  on  its  data  set  to  the  Ministry,  so  that  the  certificates  it  
issued  –  which  generated  the  early  publicity  –  are  of  doubtful  validity.    Many  of  them  had  to  be  re-­‐
surveyed.  
 
A  review  of  the  SSLTAP  project22  documents  the  gradual  breakdown  of  relations  between  SCS,  MoA  
and  UNDP  by  2012.    UNDP  did  not  renew  support  to  MoA,  though  some  of  the  ministry  staff  
continue  to  administer  new  title,  following  the  methodology  developed  by  SSLTAP,  in  the  Marodijeh  
Upper  Catchment  Soil  and  Water  Conservation  project,  funded  by  SDF.    SCS  itself  has  ceased  to  
function,  due  to  the  old  age  of  its  founder,  John  Drysdale;  staff  members  have  dispersed  and  the  
capacity  created  has  been  dissipated.    This  is  a  tragic  story  and  a  loss  to  Somaliland.    
   

7   Ministry  of  Environment  and  Rural  Development    


7.1   Powers    
The  Environment  Conservation  Act  and  Proclamation  No:  4/98  of  3rd  May  98  includes,  under  Article  
3,  the  recognition  of  18  named  Permanent  Forest  Reserves,  presumably  originally  established  under  
the  Protectorate.    The  Act  (Law)  provides  for  the  Ministry  to  establish  its  own  force  of  “guardians”  to  
enforce  protection  and  prevent  illegal  tree-­‐cutting,  clearing  for  farming,  settlement,  grazing  and  
bee-­‐keeping  (without  permission)  etc.              
 
Outside  the  reserves,  under  Article  9,  Demarcation  and  Protection  of  Land,  the  Ministry    
“in  consultation  with  the  Ministry  of  Livestock,  Water  and  Agriculture  [since  separated]  may  when  it  
considers  appropriate,  embark  on  reforestation  and  conservation  programmes  in  any  area  of  
Somaliland  and  can  take  the  necessary  measures  such  as:-­‐    
 
1.    Demarcation  of  lands  designated  as  agriculture,  pastoral  and  hills    
2.    Lands  as  rangelands.    
                                                                                                               
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 or  sisal,  which  is  used  for  enclosures  in  the  area,  though  this  was  not  the  official  vegetation  recommended,  perhaps  
because  it  makes  an  effective  enclosure,  in  contradiction  to  Art  9.1      
22
 SSLTAP,  End  of  Project  Evaluation;  report  for  UNDP  Somaliland,  Agwanda  &  Hersi,  December  2012.    Titus  Agwanda  was  
team  leader  of  the  present  RVI  study  until  ill  health  forced  him  to  withdraw.    

21  
 
3.    Lands  designated  as  fodder  crops  production  entity.    
4.    Land  cleared  by  fire  or  cleared  manually.    
5.    Land  used  for  water  reservoir,  water  wells,  barkes  and  seasonal  river  beds  used  for  pastoral  and  
irrigation  purposes.    
6.    Reserved  pastoral  grazing  lands.    
7.  Land  closed  for  research  in  bio-­‐diversity”  
 
These  wide  powers  are  specifically  extended  to  allow  the  Ministry  “to  control  and  regulate  the  land,  
grazing,  forestry  and  wildlife  and  make  optimum  use  of  water  resources  …”  and,  under  Article  10,  
Creation  of  Special  Fodder  Preservation  Farms  “may  permit  the  creation  special  fodder  farms  and  
special  reserved  areas  in  the  following:  
•   Land  designated  for  agricultural  purposes.    
•   Any  land  that  has  suffered  erosion  and  is  being  rehabilitated  and  conserved”.    
 
Note  that  Article  10  does  not  seem  to  cover  permitting,  or  otherwise  regulating,  enclosures  for  
fodder  preservation  on  open  rangeland,  but  Article  9.1  might  well  be  given  the  opposite  
interpretation.    Given  how  deeply  controversial  and  common  this  practice  is,  it  is  essential  that  the  
NLP  establishes  clarity  on  the  question  and  makes  a  commitment  to  amend  the  law  accordingly.    

7.2   Enclosures  and  the  law  


“In  the  absence  of  a  clear  definition  of  grazing  land,  the  power  of  the  Ministry  of  Environment  to  
allocate  grazing  land  to  pastoralists  can  be  and  according  to  information  received  is  frequently  used  
arbitrarily.  Ownership  and  user  rights  of  pastoralists  over  grazing  land  are  not  secured  within  the  
legal  system,  making  them  particularly  vulnerable  to  land  grabbing  from  both  farmers  and  people  
who  claim  that  the  land  is  urban  and  privately  owned.  Because  there  is  no  clear  demarcation  
between  agricultural,  grazing  and  urban  land,  the  domains  of  the  different  ministries  and  state  
agencies  overlap  and  are  a  significant  cause  of  confusion  and  conflict”23          
 
The  language,  and  thinking,  here  seems  to  ignore  legal  pluralism  and  to  leave  Xeer  out  of  
consideration  of  those  rights  “secured  within  the  legal  system”.    This  sort  of  bias  is  all  too  common  
in  the  literature  and  reflects  a  view  which  can  be  summed  up  (to  use  a  metaphor  from  card  games)  
as  “statute  trumps  (beats)  customary”.  
 
Nor  is  it  necessarily  true  that  there  is  no  clear  demarcation  of  grazing  land.    As  communal  tenure  
pre-­‐dates,  or  is  senior  to  other  forms,  it  might  reasonably  be  argued  that  it  applies  to  all  Somaliland,  
as  a  whole  and  as  determined  by  Xeer,  and  except  for  those  relatively  small  areas  that  have  been  
explicitly  set  aide  for  private  tenure,  i.e.  urban  areas  (the  masterplans)  and  titled  farms  (private  and  
corporate),  and  all  public  land,  including  shacab,  forest  reserves,  military  camps,  maintained  roads,  
burial  grounds  etc.  
 
But  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  law  is  confused.  MoERD  does  indeed  have  general  powers  (under  Law  
4,  Arts  9.1,  9.2)  to  “allocate  grazing  land”;  whereas  MoAg  (under  Law  8,  Art  9.1)  is  supposed  to  
exclude  from  land  registration  “any  land  can  be  registered  except  those  land  aimed  for  making  
enclosures”.      However,  the  RVI  study  heard  no  evidence  that  these  powers  are  “frequently  used  
arbitrarily”  by  MoERD.    On  the  contrary,  enclosure  seems  to  be,  overwhelmingly,  the  initiative  of  
powerful  individuals,  acting  with  the  tacit  consent  (if  not  approval)  of  the  elders  of  their  sub-­‐clan.    
Less  wealthy  clan  members  benefit  from  employment  in  making  and  maintaining  the  enclosures,  

                                                                                                               
23  Harmonization  of  the  legal  systems  resolving  land  disputes  in  Somaliland  and  Puntland;  Law  in  Action  Worldwide  (LAW),  

for  JPLG,  2015.    Note  that  this  report  does  in  fact  include  a  substantial  and  sympathetic  account  of  Xeer,  though  it  would  
appear  to  be  overlooked  in  the  passage  quoted.  

22  
 
herding,  harvesting  forage  etc.    It  is  not  clear  how  many,  if  any,  of  these  have  been  formally  
registered.  
 
Box  4:  Pastoralists  in  Rabaso,  Ethiopia,  consider  abolishing  enclosures  in  Somaliland  
 
During  the  dry  season  in  Somaliland,  pastoralists  go  with  their  camels  to  other  areas  in  
search  of  water  and  pasture.  This  year  (2015)  pastoralists  from  Maroodi  Jeex  and  Awdal  
regions  in  the  west  reached  Rabaso  and  Daroor  in  the  Somali  Region  of  Ethiopia.  
 
They  usually  gather  in  the  evening  around  the  fire  and  entertain  themselves  with  stories  and  
issues  of  interest  to  livestock  herders.  The  elders  are  the  most  vocal.    One  of  those  nights  an  
elder  started  analysing  the  main  cause  of  the  drought  in  their  homeland  on  the  other  side  of  
the  border  and  the  old  man  explained  why  the  land  is  greener  on  the  Ethiopian  side  of  the  
border.  The  listeners  were  all  interested  to  listen  to  the  old  man’s  wisdom  because  it  was  an  
issue  which  always  concerns  them.    Their  conclusion  was  that  it  is  the  will  of  Allah.    
 
The  old  man  did  not  dispute  that  it  is  the  will  of  Allah  but  explained  that  Allah  always  has  
reason  behind  such  judgments.  The  elder  continued  and  asked  the  listeners  whether  they  
see  any  enclosures  in  this  area  where  their  camels  were  grazing  and  the  answer  was  
negative.  Therefore  he  explained  that  the  reason  why  their  homeland  in  Somaliland  is  
always  dry  and  the  rainfall  is  erratic  is  because  of  the  enclosures  which  deprive  the  poor  
pastoralists  a  land  where  their  animals  can  graze.  He  further  explained  that  the  land  which  is  
a  gift  by  Allah  for  all  is  monopolised  by  few  hence  the  punishment  of  Allah  in  depriving  us  of  
water  and  pasture.  He  also  explained  that  some  of  us  here  enclosed  their  land  back  home  
and  travelled  hundreds  of  miles  to  bring  their  animals  to  Ethiopia  for  pasture.  
 
The  analysis  and  the  wisdom  of  the  elder  was  convincing  that  everybody  kept  silent  for  some  
time  and  started  to  reflect  on  what  the  old  man  said.  In  the  end,  the  elder  suggested  that  as  
soon  as  they  return  to  their  homeland  they  should  get  rid  of  the  enclosures.  Everybody  
present  accepted  the  proposal  and  they  all  swore  to  Allah  that  they  will  abolish  enclosures  in  
the  area  where  they  live.    Such  oaths  are  taken  seriously.  
 
This  incident  is  also  related  to  the  culture  that  when  the  rains  are  delayed  during  the  rainy  
season,  people  pray  for  rain  and  the  prayer  is  called  “Roob  doon”.  At  the  same  time  in  the  
mosques,  religious  leaders  preach  that  it  is  the  curse  of  Allah  as  a  result  of  the  sins  people  is  
committing  and  therefore  they  should  gather  and  pray  together  for  rain.  
 
 
It  is  important  (for  non-­‐Somalis)  to  grasp  the  fact  that  land  grabbing  by  an  outsider  in  any  given  
degaan  is  not  possible;  it  would  be  rejected  by  the  clan,  violently  if  necessary.    It  is  true  that  rumours  
about  the  archetypal  foreign  land  grabber,  said  to  be  Saudis,  have  played  a  part  in  the  communal  
rejection  by  the  Eidagale  clan  of  the  Government’s  plans  (with  SDF)  for  the  Qool  Caday  livestock  
holding  ground  but  that  tends  to  prove  the  point.    
 
The  point  is  that  enclosure  usually  involves  the  elders,  somehow,  and  that,  therefore,  the  NLP  
should  seek  to  establish  ways  to  strengthen  Xeer,  not  to  substitute  for  it  with  any  additional  powers  
for  the  already  stretched  Ministries24.    And  certainly  not,  as  the  LAW  report  seems  to  suggest,  to  
introduce  regulations  that  attempt  to  physically  define  patches  of  rangeland,  treating  it  like  a  house-­‐
plot,  with  fixed  corners.    Pastoralism,  or  transhumance,  works  in  a  quite  different  way,  with  fluid  
                                                                                                               
24
 For  a  discussion  of  the  potential  of  remote  sensing  (using  satellite  imagery)  for  monitoring  the  incidence  and  extent  of  
enclosures,  see  Report  5  in  this  series,  on  Land  Resources.    

23  
 
boundaries  determined  by  rain  and  where  the  grass  is  growing  in  any  particular  season,  as  well  as  
the  current  state  of  relations  between  the  clans  that  have  a  reasonable  established  claim  to  use  the  
grazing.      
 

8   Other  Government  Stakeholders    


Land  is  cross  cutting,  it  is  involved  in  and  affects  much  of  government  business,  from  the  military,  
with  its  bases  and  camps  across  the  country,  to  any  line  Ministry  with  property  (hospitals,  schools  
etc.,  including  roads).      
 
The  Ministry  of  Justice  and  its  system  of  higher,  regional  and  district  courts  are,  of  course,  engaged  
in  administering  the  law.    According  to  the  LAW  report  quoted  above,  the  LDTs  are  intended  to  
replace  the  mainstream  courts,  because  the  courts  are  struggling  with  capacity  to  deal  with  land  
matters.    In  principle  this  would  seem  to  be  the  case  but  this  view  needs  to  be  qualified,  most  
obviously  because  LDTs  are  new  and  there  are,  so  far,  only  three  of  them,  with  questions  about  their  
jurisdiction.  
 
In  Boorama,  District  Court  judges  told  RVI  that,  since  the  recent  introduction  of  the  LDT,  they  had  
ceased  to  hear  land  cases  except  where  inheritance,  or  an  associated  criminal  matter  (usually  
violence),  was  involved.  LDTs  have  no  jurisdiction  in  criminal  law  and  in  such  cases  the  courts  will  
continue  to  seek  resolution  of  the  original  dispute,  as  the  result  will  have  bearing  on  the  defendant’s  
sentence,  if  found  guilty.    In  lower  grade  districts,  such  as  Salaxley,  nothing  much  has  changed;  there  
is  no  LDT  in  Gabiley,  yet.    At  this  level,  district  judges  seem  often  to  act  together  with  Shari’a  and  
customary  systems,  not  necessarily  as  distinctly  separate  institutions.    cross  ref  Rpt  4    
 

9   Taxation  
Property  taxes  are  an  important  element  in  municipal  finance.    New  plots  attract  a  4%  tax  on  
purchase  price,  shared  equally  between  local  and  central  government.    An  annual  property  tax  is  
also  levied,  with  rates  decided  by  the  municipality.  The  Ministry  of  National  Planning  has  helpfully  
provided  the  study  team  with  the  income  and  expenditure  statements  for  Burco  and  Berbera  
municipalities.    Though  this  is  not  a  representative  sample,  the  two  sets  of  accounts  make  an  
interesting  contrast.    
 
For  Berbera,  property  taxes  are  only  some  5.3%  of  income  because  it  has  a  unique  revenue  source  in  
the  port.    Import  duties  (which  it,  not  central  government,  controls)  make  up  87%  of  municipal  
income.    In  Burco,  which  may  be  more  typical,  house  and  land  tax  account  for  17.6%  of  income,  the  
second  biggest  item  after  disposal  of  assets  (22.3%).    It  is  not  clear  if  the  latter  includes  the  sale  of  
public  land,  a  finite  resource.          
 
The  UN  multi-­‐agency  JPLG,  through  UN  Habitat25,  has  developed  geographic  information  systems  
(GIS)  and  related  accounting  packages  for  Hargeysa,  Burco,  Boorama,  Sheehk,  Berbera,  Odweyne  
districts.  A  three-­‐phase  process  starts  with  awareness  sensitization  on  the  purpose  and  importance  
of  good  property  information  to  the  management  of  the  municipality.    Religious  and  political  
leaders,  community  elders  and  the  general  public  are  engaged.  In  Burco,  for  example,  the  University  
has  been  a  key  partner.  
 

                                                                                                               
25
 See,  e.g  ,  http://unhabitat.org/un-­‐habitat-­‐in-­‐the-­‐somali-­‐region-­‐newsletter-­‐issue-­‐19/    +  other  JPLG  reports  

24  
 
This  is  followed  by  recruitment  and  training  of  enumerators,  municipal  assistants,  data  clerks  and  a  
team  leader  for  the  location.      The  survey  itself  uses  a  questionnaire  to  capture  the  resident’s  details,  
a  tape  measure  for  the  property  dimensions  and  a  hand-­‐held  global  positioning  system  (GPS)  device  
to  take  coordinate  readings  for  the  property.  Data  clerks  then  enter  this  information  on  the  
database.    This  links  with  a  Billing  Information  Management  System,  which  issues  tax  demands.    
Municipality  staff  is  trained  on  the  uses  and  maintenance  of  the  GIS  database.  
 
The  results  are  striking.    In  Borama,  before  the  installation  of  the  GIS  database  system,  the  revenue  
department  in  the  Municipality  collected  tax  from  7,600  registered  properties;  after  the  property  
survey  a  total  of  15,494  properties  were  captured.    In  Berbera,  registered  properties  increased  from  
3,000  to  7,107.    Once  staff  have  the  skills,  updates  can  be  made  annually,  adding,  for  example,  
another  500  properties  to  the  Berbera  tax  roll  in  the  last  year.    
 
This  programme  is  the  most  important  and  innovative  current  initiative  in  land  governance  in  
Somaliland.    In  addition  to  significant  gains  in  efficiency  and  transparency  in  municipal  finance,  it  
offers  a  solution  to  the  problem  of  the  masterplan.    The  present  GIS  property  data  mapping  is  not  
yet  equivalent  to  a  cadastre  but  it  is  conceptually  easy  to  see  how  it  could  be  up-­‐graded,  given  
additional  resources.    It  is  not  clear  whether  MoPW  will  easily  accept  this  potential  as  it  could  
challenge  its  control  over  the  masterplan.    GPS  based  mapping  for  masterplans,  carried  out  by  local  
staff  and  institutions,  would  constitute  a  further  step  in  devolution  of  land  governance,  probably  
needing  amendment  to  both  Laws  17  and  23.            
 

10      Land  Professions  
The  study  interviewed  surveyors  (joomitir),  brokers  (dillaal)  and  notaries  (nootaayo)  in  nearly  every  
location.    All  three  professions  play  key  roles  in  land  administration.      
 
Joomitir  are  municipal  employees,  men  (all  men)  of  a  certain  age,  usually  trained  at  an  institute  in  
Mogadishu  in  the  Siyaad  Barre  era.    Interviewees  reported  little  interest  by  a  younger  generation  in  
joining  the  profession  because  no  specific  training  opportunities  exist.    The  University  of  Hargeisa  
piloted  an  institute  (course)  with  the  SSLTAP  project  but  this  folded  without  external  support.    UN  
Habitat  is  said  to  be  preparing  a  certificate-­‐level  course  for  2016  [follow  up  at  validation  workshop*].      
 
No  continuing  education  opportunities,  trade  association,  conferences  or  other  kind  of  formal  
networking  arrangements  are  available  to  joomitirro.    None  seem  to  operate,  as  their  fellows  do  in  
other  markets,  as  independent  advisors  to  property  buyers  and  sellers,  charging  fees  at  a  market  
rate.    As  local  government  employees  their  work  is,  perhaps,  under-­‐paid  and  carried  out  with  a  
minimum  of  due  care  and  attention.    It  is  puzzling,  in  a  roaring  market  (see  below),  that  no  one  
seems  to  have  seen  an  opportunity  to  set  up  as  genuinely  independent  surveyors,  offering  a  quality  
service.  
 
Dillaal  are  private  business  people,  operating  on  different  scales;  there  are  some  big  operators,  one  
interviewed  is  a  practicing  lawyer  who  is  also  a  registered  notary.    It  is  usual,  but  not  invariably  so,  
for  both  sides  in  a  transaction  to  employ  their  own  dillaal,  to  negotiate  on  their  behalf.    Fees  are  
negotiable,  not  a  fixed  commission  (percentage),  though  5%  is  sometimes  mentioned  as  a  
benchmark.    Brokers  are  licensed  by  their  municipality,  though  it  is  not  clear  what,  if  any,  degree  of  
control  this  gives  the  mayors.    It  may  be  no  more  than  a  normal  business  license.    At  least  one  of  
those  interviewed  did  not  bother  to  get  his  license.    They  are  widely  thought  to  be  crooks  but  that  is  
a  view  of  estate  agents  or  realtors  or  whatever  the  profession  is  called,  across  the  world.    Like  the  
surveyors  (but  unlike  lawyers  and  accountants),  there  is  no  professional  body  to  represent  them  or  
through  which  to  promote  a  code  of  professional  conduct/standards.    

25  
 
 
Property  transactions  are  only  part  of  a  public  notary’s  business  and  are  subject  to  a  low  fixed  fee.    
Like  surveyors,  therefore,  the  incentive  to  compete  on  standard/quality  of  due  diligence  is  limited.    
The  number  of  notaries  is  also  limited  (though  this  may  be  changing,  with  the  recent  output  of  law  
graduates)  and  people  seem,  from  interviews,  to  choose  the  nearest  or  most  convenient  one,  not  to  
go  on  grounds  of  reputation  or  clan.    This  suggests  that  the  role  is  neutral,  as  it  is  supposed  to  be.  
 
Box  5:  A  Land  File  in  Hargeysa:  a  record  of  recent  administrative  actions  for  one  residential  plot  
 
1.    The  plot  is  a  sub-­‐division,  undeveloped,  and  the  first  document  of  record  is  the  owner  writing  
in  2013,  as  a  private  citizen,  to  the  municipality  requesting  registration.    The  letter  is  typed  and  
has  obviously  been  prepared  by  a  notary,  to  a  set  format.  
2.    District  officials  add  a  form,  annotated,  dated  and  stamped,  attesting  that  the  plot:  a)  has  
been  physically  checked;  b)  its  tax  compliance  is  in  order;  c)  conforms  with  the  master  plan.  
3.      GRs  (government  general  receipts)  filed  for:  a)  verification  fee  SL  100,000/=    (US$16);    
             b)  housing  tax  SL50,000/=    (US$8  approx.).  
4.      Copy  of  relevant  section  of  master  plan  showing  location  on  grid.    
5.      Document  2  is  repeated,  formalizing  attestations,  by  District  Head  of  Housing;  and  
countersigned  by  equivalent  official  in  the  City  Mayor’s  office.    This  declares  that  any  error  is  the  
responsibility  of  the  district,  not  the  city.    Formal  ownership,  Title,  of  this  plot  is  now  complete.  
6.    Two  years  later  the  plot  is  for  sale,  buyer  and  seller  agree  and  a  notary  prepares  a  bill  of  sale,  
with  stamp  tax/duty  and  witnessed  (thumb  print)  by  nine  people:  two  brokers,  one  for  each  side,  
who  attest  that  they  have  checked  with  neighbors  and  elders  and  there  is  no  encumbrance  in  the  
way  of  inheritance  or  other  dispute;  other  witnesses,  again  for  both  sides,  include  relatives  and  
district  councilors,  as  guarantors  of  the  good  faith  of  both  parties.  
7.    GRs  for  recent  housing  tax  to  date.  
8.    Mayor’s  office  files  a  Transfer  of  Ownership  form  with  following:    a)  identification  details  of  
plot,  seller  and  buyer;  b)  sale  price  and  calculation  of  transfer  tax  due;  c)  official  (district)  
confirmation  that  the  price  reflects  fair  market  value  (often  allegedly  under-­‐reported);  d)  
checked,  signed,  stamped  by  District  Executive  Secretary;  e)  stamped  by  City  Mayor’s  office  (PW  
department);  f)  confirmation  of  development  permit.    This  is  the  document  transferring  Title.  
9.    More  GRs,  for  transfer  tax,  construction  tax  etc.  
 
All  of  this  is  quite  proper,  the  interval  between  document  dates  is  not  long,  suggesting  prompt  
processing,  and  the  detail  seems  assiduous  and  clear,  unlike  some  examples  the  study  saw.      
 
Except  that,  almost  immediately  after  the  sale,  the  buyer  began  building  and  the  seller  initiated  a  
dispute,  based  on  the  dimensions  of  the  plot.    The  seller  claimed  that  a  two-­‐metre  strip  of  the  
sub-­‐division  was  not  in  fact  included  in  the  sale.    This  goes  back  to  an  error  in  document  2,  where  
the  district  joomitir  had,  perhaps,  just  assumed  that  the  plot,  a  standard  size,  had  been  sub-­‐
divided  into  two  exactly  equal  halves.    The  buyer  had  not  ensured  that  this  was  independently  
checked.    Rather  than  enter  into  a  lengthy,  perhaps  endless,  dispute  with  the  district  about  
liability,  the  buyer  settled,  at  much  expense.    This  also  involved  repeating  step  6  for  the  disputed  
strip,  with  notary,  witnesses,  stamp  duty  etc.  
 
This  sort  of  relatively  minor  (though  not  to  the  buyer,  who  suspects  that  he  was  set  up)  
inefficiency  in  conveyance  is  apparently  all  too  common  and  quite  often  ends  in  violence.    It  is  
evidence  of  market  failure  in  service  provision,  by  the  land  professions.    

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11      A  note  on  the  land  market  
Interviews  with  dillaal  (and  many  other  interviewees)  describe  a  constantly  rising  market;  one  that  
has  not  experienced  a  correction  since  Somaliland  re-­‐established  itself;  one  in  which  year-­‐on-­‐year  
prices  have  doubled  in  each  of  the  past  three  years  in  the  hottest  areas,  particularly  in  Hargeysa;  and  
one  which  is  driven  by  an  externality,  diaspora  cash  investment.    Everyone  knows  what  a  good  
investment  real  estate  has  been  over  the  past  20  years.    
 
Box  6:  Land  prices  in  Burco,  excerpt  from  interview  with  a  dillaal    
 
“Usually  ..  plot  sizes  ..  are  24m  x  24m,  similar  to  four  traditional  plots.  In  town,  most  plots  are  
the  traditional  12mx12m.  People  like  to  buy  in  areas  close  to  the  town  center.  Prices  are  hiking  
..    a  piece  of  land  sold  for  $20,000  in  2011  is  now  sold  to  $55,000  in  2015.    It  is  the  same  
land.    Another  plot  in  town  sold  for  $55,000  in  2011,  and  for  $95,000  in  2015.”    
 [these  prices  presumably  refer  to  larger  sized  plots,  suitable  for  commercial  use]    
   
“A  plot  of  [residential]  land  near  the  town  center  will  cost  $13,000  to  $15,000  USD;  in  Tuwalli  
village  ..  $20,000  USD;  in  Jarmal  village  plots  are  between  $8,000-­‐$10,000.    What  makes  a  plot  
expensive  are  the  roads  [access]  it  has.    Sometimes  two  adjacent  plots  of  the  same  size,  one  is  
$12,000  and  the  other  is  $16,000.    Now,  people  like  the  south  side  of  town,  areas  along  the  
tarmac  road,  city  plaza  hotel  area,  Qasab,  Tuurta  and  Nafaqo  areas.  The  places  where  prices  
are  not  growing  are  ..  along  the  road  to  Berbera  ..  These  areas  are  good  farming  land  and  
those  who  buy  want  to  make  it  into  farms”.      
 
As  in  every  property  market,  worldwide,  the  principle  of  ‘location,  location,  location’  rules,  both  
within  a  given  town  and  across  the  country.    These  price  rises  in  Burco  are  not  the  100%  year-­‐on-­‐
year  increase  often  quoted  in  Hargeysa  but  clearly  the  same  general  trend  applies.    Dillaal  in  
Boorama  and  Burco  reported  that  prices  have  been  held  down  by  people  and  businesses  selling  up  
to  move  to  the  capital.    In  quiet  (economically)  and  comparatively  remote  Ceerigaavo,  quoted  prices  
are  correspondingly  lower.  
 
This  looks  very  like  a  bubble  and,  by  definition,  bubbles  always  burst;  though  who  knows  when  and  
how  explosive  the  result  might  be.    The  experiences,  after  2008,  of  American  and  European  property  
markets  are  the  obvious  examples.    What  the  consequences,  or  proximate  cause,  of  a  sharp  fall  in  
house  and  house-­‐plot  prices  in  Somaliland  would  be  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  study  but  they  
would,  as  a  matter  of  general  principle,  be  de-­‐stabilizing  in  an  economy  so  dependent  on  
remittances.    Interviewees  also  suggested  that  some  resentment,  and  the  possible  root  of  a  social  
problem,  may  be  building  between  those  that  have  access  to  capital,  through  the  diaspora,  and  
those  who  do  not.  
 
Prices  cannot  double  indefinitely,  it  is  mathematically  out  of  the  question;  but  it  is  quite  possible  
that  they  simply  flatten  out.    Given  a  degree  of  emotional  commitment  to  property  ownership  in  
Somaliland  on  the  part  of  the  diaspora,  there  is  little  reason  to  expect  a  sudden,  rapid  sell-­‐off,  
triggering  a  price  collapse.    Also,  this  market,  unlike  those  that  led  to  the  2008  financial  crisis  in  the  
West,  is  not  debt-­‐financed.    Whatever  happens,  managing  change  would  be  easier  with  a  robust  
land  administration  system.            
 
 
   

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12  Glossary  of  acronyms,  words  and  phrases  
 
abbaan       agent  or  broker;  also  dillaal  
berkad       water  reservoir  used  to  catch  and  store  rain  water  run-­‐off  
caaqil   representative  of  a  diya-­‐paying  group;  position  formalized  by  the  British  (pl.  
caaqillo)  
deegaan     environment,  land,  area,  territory  
dhulka  shacabka    Sha’ab  land  –  see  below  
dillaal       broker  
joomitir       surveyor  (from  Italian,  geometer)    
LUMI       Land  and  Urban  Management  Institute  
MoAg       Ministry  of  Agriculture  
MoERD       Ministry  of  Environment  and  Rural  Development  
MoIA       Ministry  of  Internal  Affairs  
MoPWH     Ministry  of  Public  Works  and  Housing    
nootaayo     notaries  
NWADP       North  Western  Agricultural  Development  Project  
NLP       National  Land  Policy  
NRDP       Northern  Rangelands  Development  Project  
RVI       Rift  Valley  Institute  
Shacab  (or  ex-­‐Sha’ab)      the  quarter  or  locality,  in  all  seven  regional  headquarter  towns,  originally  
reserved  under  the  Protectorate  for  government  offices,  courts,  military  and  
police  barracks  and  parade  grounds,  senior  and  junior  staff  housing,  
hospital,  clinics  etc.            
SCS       Somaliland  Cadastral  Surveys  
SDF       Somaliland  Development  Fund  
SSLTAP       Somaliland  Secure  Land  Tenure  Arrangements  Project  
xeer-­‐beegti     legal  councils  responsible  for  administering  xeer  
UNDP       United  Nations  Development  Program  
 

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