Medical Electronics II

ELE–MEE–512
BEEE5

A.O. Vweza, PhD

Department of Electrical Engineering

February 12, 2025

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Lecture 2: Amplifiers and signal processing
1 Op amp circuits
2 Comparators
3 Active filters
4 Timing circuits

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Outline
1 Lecture objectives
2 Introduction
3 Ideal op amp
4 Inverting amplifiers
5 Noninverting amplifiers
6 Differential amplifiers
7 The instrumentation amplifier
8 Integrators and differentiators
9 Comparators
10 Active filters
11 Timing circuits

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Learning outcomes

By the end of the lecture you should be able to:

1 Describe ideal and practical characteristics of operational
amplifiers.
2 Analyze different op amp circuits including summers,
differentiators and integrators.
3 Design simple op amp-based circuits (amplifiers and active
filters) for biosignal processing.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Some definitions

Most bioelectric signals are small and require amplification.

Amplifiers are also used for interfacing sensors that sense
body motions, temperature, and chemical concentrations.
In addition to simple amplification, the amplifier may also
modify the signal to produce frequency filtering or nonlinear
effects.
The operational amplifier (op amp) is a versatile IC suited
for these tasks.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
 AMPs have more than five terminals, these five a

Photogr

Key Cor
The operational amplifier (op
onesamp)

provide
we will use in this text. Figure 4–27(b) show
in a common eight-pin integrated circuit packag
(c) The two power supply terminals in Figure 4–
150 CHAPTER 4
diagrams. Be assured that they are always AthereCb CTIVE I

TheFIGURE
op am4–26 Examplesaofvery are required for the OP AMP to operate as an ac
is basically
OP AMP packages:
FIGURE 4–27 (a) Dualof

© Texas Instrument
Examples
high gain,
in-line very
14-pin
OPand
AMP high
8-pin input
types andpackages
packaging: signal amplification comes through these termin
The + VCC and − VCC voltages applied to these

Jameco
(a) Dual-in-line (DIP) 8-pin
(DIP). (b) AUA741
discrete-component,
impedance differential
AMP. (b)audio
high-performance 14-pin (DIP) amplifier
general-purpose OP
package. and lower limits on the OP AMP output voltage
LF444QML quadruple
with
(c) two inputs
Low-power (inverting
surface-mount
low-power JFET OP AMP. and Figure 4–28(a)(a)shows a complete(b)set of voltag
package. (c) Discrete-component
noninverting), and one
high-performance audio output.AMP, while Figure 4–28(b) shows the abbrev

The John Hardy Company

amplifier John Hardy 990+.

© Texas Instrument
(d) Surface mount LM224K use. All voltages are defined with respect to

Photo courtesy of
Positive
power supply ground. Voltage variables υP , υN , and υO are d
quadruple general-purpose OP
AMP. (e) 8-pin TO-3 package
allowing for direct contact with
Noninvertingheat sink for dual high-power beside the corresponding terminals. This notati
input OPA2541 OP AMP. (f) Military
grade TO-99 package LM741 at the terminal in question and the “−” refe
high-reliability OP AMP.
+ ground terminal.
(c) In this book the reference
(d) dir
Output
in at input terminals and out at the output. At

© Texas Instrument

© Texas Instrument
variables may appear to violate KCL. For exam
‒ complete set of variables in Figure 4–28(a) is
Negative
Inverting
power supply (e)
iO = IC + + IC− (f)+ iP + iN ðco
input
A similar equation using the shorthand set of
(a)
reads analog computers using vacuum tube amplifiers. In the early
special-purpose
general-purpose, discrete-transistor OP AMPs became readily available, and
+VCC vO Positive iO = iN + iP ðincorrec
mid-1960s the first commercial integrated circuit OP AMPs entered the marke
power supply transition from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits decreased the size, power con
Noninverting
8 ◦ Dpt.
Dr. A.O. Vweza 5 Engineeringtion, andBEEE5,
7 of Electrical
6 cost of OP AMPsElectronics
Medical by nearly three orders of magnitude. By the early 197
II, ELE-MEE–512
 acteristics that are not ideal.
Op amp equivalent circuit
Figure 1.9 shows the op-amp circuit symbol, which includes two differ-
ential input terminals and one output terminal. All these voltages are

Ro
v1 vo

Rd + A(v2 – v1)
–

v2

Figure 1.8 Op-amp equivalent circuit The two inputs are vl and v2.
A differential voltage
A differential between
voltage themthe
between causes currentv1flow
two inputs v2 causesthe
and through
current flow through the differential resistance Rd . Theby A, the
differential resistance R d. The differential voltage is multiplied
gain ofdifferential
the op amp, to generate
voltage the output-voltage
is multiplied by A, the gainsource.
of theAny current
op amp,
flowing to the output terminal vo must pass through the output resistance Ro.
to generate the output-voltage source. Any current flowing to
the output terminal vO must pass through the output
resistance Rv01. –
A vo
v2 +
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Ideal op amp characteristics

1 Infinite gain, A = ∞.
2 No offset voltage, vO = 0.
3 Infinite input impedance, Rd = ∞.
4 Zero output impedance, RO = 0.
5 Infinite bandwidth, fBW = ∞, i.e., no frequency response
limitations.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
 A differential voltage between them causes current flow through the
Importance rules
differential resistance R . The differential voltage is multiplied by A, the
d
gain of the op amp, to generate the output-voltage source. Any current
flowing to the output terminal vo must pass through the output resistance Ro.

v1 –
A vo
v2 +

Figure 1.9 Op-amp circuit symbol A voltage at v1, the inverting input, is
1 When
greatly the op-amp
amplified output istoin yield
and inverted its linear
vo. range, the two
A voltage at input
v2, the
noninverting input,
terminals areis at
greatly amplified
the same to yield
voltage, v− in-phase
i.e., an = v+ . output at vo.
2 No current flows into either input terminal of the op amp, i.e.,
i− = i+ = 0.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Inverting op amp configuration
1.12 INVERTING AMPLIFIERS 43

i Ri
Rf
vi
i
Ri Rf
vi – vo
vo
+
(a) (b)

vo
(a) Current flowing through the input 10 V resistor Ri also flows through
the feedback resistor Rf . (b) A lever with arm lengths proportional
to resistance values enables
–10 V the viewer to10 Vvisualize the input-output

characteristics easily. vi

Slope = –Rf/Ri
L Show that
v–10
O
V
Rf
(c) =− .
Figure 1.10
vi
(a) An inverting amplifier. Ri flowing through the input
Current
resistor Ri also flows through the feedback resistor Rf. (b) A lever with
arm lengths proportional to resistance values enables the viewer to
visualize the input–output characteristics easily. (c) The input–output plot
shows a slope of −Rf/Ri in the central portion, but the output saturates at
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Summing amplifier

Group discussion
How can the inverting op amp be extended to form a
summing amplifier?
Show that for input voltages vi1 , vi2 , . . . , vkN connected to the
inverting terminal through corresponding resistances
Ri1 , Ri2 , . . . , RkN , the transfer characteristics are given by
N 
Rf Rf Rf Rf
  
vO = − vi1 + vi2 + . . . + viN = ∑ vik .
Ri1 Ri2 RiN k=1 Rik

Note that if Rik = Rf , then vO = − (vi1 + vi2 + . . . + viN ).

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Example summing amplifier

Example
The output of a biopotential preamplifier that measures the
electro-oculogram (later on this) is an undesired dc voltage of ±5
volts due to electrode half-cell potentials (again, later on this),
with a desired signal of ±1 volts superimposed. Design a circuit
that will balance the dc voltage to zero and provide a gain of −10
for the desired signal without saturating the op amp.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Example summing amplifier

1.13 NONINVERTING AMPLIFIERS 45

Sample solution
+10
Ri Rf
vi
10 kΩ 100 kΩ
vi
–

Voltage (V)
vi + vb/2
+15 V Rb
vo 0
20 kΩ Time
5 kΩ +
vb
–15 V
–10 vo
(a) (b)
Figure E1.8 (a) This circuit sums the input voltage υi plus one-half of the
balancing voltage vb. Thus, the output voltage vo can be set to zero even
vwhen
b should  be
vi has
set to ±10 V. We have
a nonzero dc component. (b) The
three waveforms show vi,
Rf R
vO = − Ri vi +(viR+bf vvbb/2),=
the input voltage; the−10 vi + 21 voltage;
balanced-out vb . and vo, the amplified
output voltage. If vi were directly amplified, the op amp would saturate.

vi vb
+ =0
Ri Rb
−R v
i b − 104 BEEE5,
− 10 Medical Electronics
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. ofR
Electrical
= Engineering
= = 2 × 104 Ω II, ELE-MEE–512
The voltage follower (buffer) and noninverting amplifier

46 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

For the voltage
follower (buffer) i i
(a), we have Ri Rf

vi = vO , i.e., unity
– –
gain. Used for vo vo
vi vi
impedance + +

matching (to avoid (a) (b)

loading) vo

10 V
Show that for the Slope = (Rf +Ri)/Ri
Rf
non-inverting op –10 V 10 V
vo vi
amp (b) Ri
vi
–10 V
vO Rf
= 1+ . (c) (d)
vi Ri Figure 1.11 (a) A follower, vo = vi. (b) A noninverting amplifier, vi, appears
across Ri, producing a current through Ri that also flows through Rf. (c)
A lever with arm lengths proportional to resistance values makes possible
an easy visualization of input–output characteristics. (d) The input–output
plot shows a positive slope of (Rf + Ri)/Ri in the central portion, but the
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Single-op amp differential amplifier
48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

We have
  –
v5 = R3R+R 4
4
v4 and v1
+ R2 R3 R4
i = (v3 − v5 ) /R3 = v3
(v5 − vo ) /R4 . –
R1 v R3
Hence 4
v5 +
vo

R4
R4
 
R2
vO = (v4 − v3 ) –
R3
v2
+

(a)
If the two inputs are hooked together and driven by a
common source, with respect to ground, then theR4
common-mode voltage vcm is v3 = v4 . Note that in this case
R3
common-mode gain Gc = 0. vo
R3
v4 R4

v3

(b)
Figure 1.12
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering (a)BEEE5,
The right side Electronics
Medical shows a one-op-amp differential amplifier,
II, ELE-MEE–512
Single-op amp differential amplifier
48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

We have
  –
v5 = R3R+R 4
4
v4 and v1
+ R2 R3 R4
i = (v3 − v5 ) /R3 = v3
(v5 − vo ) /R4 . –
R1 v R3
Hence 4
v5 +
vo

R4
R4
 
R2
vO = (v4 − v3 ) –
R3
v2
+

If v3 ̸= v4 , then the differential voltage (v4 − v3 ) produces a

(a)

differential gain Gd = R4 /R3 . R4

R3
vo
R3
v4 R4

v3

(b)
Figure 1.12
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering (a)BEEE5,
The right side Electronics
Medical shows a one-op-amp differential amplifier,
II, ELE-MEE–512
Single-op amp differential amplifier
48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

We have
  –
v5 = R3R+R 4
4
v4 and v1
+ R2 R3 R4
i = (v3 − v5 ) /R3 = v3
(v5 − vo ) /R4 . –
R1 v R3
Hence 4
v5 +
vo

R4
R4
 
R2
vO = (v4 − v3 ) –
R3
v2
+

(a)
No differential amplifier perfectly rejects the common-mode
voltage. To quantify this imperfection, we use theR4
term
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which is defined as
R3
vo

v4
Gd R3
R4
CMRR = .
v
Gc
3

(b)
Figure 1.12
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering (a)BEEE5,
The right side Electronics
Medical shows a one-op-amp differential amplifier,
II, ELE-MEE–512
Examples

Example
A blood pressure sensor uses a four-active-arm Wheatstone
strain-gage bridge excited with 5 V dc. At full scale, each arm
changes resistance by ±0.3%. Design an amplifier that will provide
a full-scale output over the op amp’s full range of linear operation.
Use the minimal number of components.
Solution: From the bridge, we have
∆VO = ∆R V 5V × 0.003 = 0.015 V.


R exc =
AV = 20/0.015 = 1333. So many possible designs!
Aim to minimize number of components! See
Example 1.9.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Gc and Gd for diff amp with unmatched resistors
50 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

R1 R2
V1
We have Vdm = V2 − V1 ,
Vcm = 12 (V2 + V1 ), V2
R3
– +U1 Vout
+
V2 = Vcm + 12 Vdm ,
– LT1632
+ +
V1 = Vcm
 − 12 Vdm, and Vout = –Vdm/2
– –
+Vdm/2

1 + RR21 R4
R3 +R4 V2 − RR21 V1 .
R4
+
Vcm
–

Hence The differential signal given as Vdm = (V2 − V1) and

Figure E1.10
common-mode signal given as Vcm = (V2 + V1)/2.
R1 R4 + R2 R3 + 2R2 R4 R1 R4 − R2 R3
   
Vout = Vdm + Vcm
2R1 (R3 + R4 ) R1 V(R =+
dm 3 V 2R
– 4V)1 (E1

= Gd Vdm + Gc Vcm V cm = V 2 + V 1 2 (E1

V 2 = V cm + V dm 2 (E1

V 1 = V cm – V dm 2 (E1

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics

R II,
R ELE-MEE–512
R
Gc and Gd for diff amp with unmatched resistors
50 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

R1 R2
V1
We have Vdm = V2 − V1 ,
Vcm = 12 (V2 + V1 ), V2
R3
– +U1 Vout
+
V2 = Vcm + 12 Vdm ,
– LT1632
+ +
V1 = Vcm
 − 12 Vdm, and Vout = –Vdm/2
– –
+Vdm/2

1 + RR21 R4
R3 +R4 V2 − RR21 V1 .
R4
+
Vcm
–

R2
Note that when R1 /R2 = R3 /RFigure E1.10 VThe differential
4 , then out = R1 Vdm + (0)
signal Vcm
given as ,V i.e., an− V )
= (V dm 2 1 and
common-mode signal given as V = (V + V )/2. cm 2 1
ideal differential amplifier amplifies only the differential mode portion
of the input voltage, and eliminates the common mode portion of
V dm = V 2 – V 1 (E1
the input voltage.
V cm = V 2 + V 1 2 (E1

V 2 = V cm + V dm 2 (E1

V 1 = V cm – V dm 2 (E1

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics

R II,
R ELE-MEE–512
R
Gc and Gd for diff amp with unmatched resistors
50 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

R1 R2
V1
We have Vdm = V2 − V1 ,
Vcm = 12 (V2 + V1 ), V2
R3
– +U1 Vout
+
V2 = Vcm + 12 Vdm ,
– LT1632
+ +
V1 = Vcm
 − 12 Vdm, and Vout = –Vdm/2
– –
+Vdm/2

1 + RR21 R4
R3 +R4 V2 − RR21 V1 .
R4
+
Vcm
–

In many applications, it is VdmFigure

thatE1.10
contains the information
The differential of inter-
signal given as V = (V − V ) dm 2 1 and

est, while Vcm represents the noise

common-mode signal given as V = (V + V )/2.
found in all electric signals. E.g., cm 2 1

ECG electrode measures the voltages produced by your body that

V dm = V 2 – V 1 (E1
regulate your heartbeat. The noise (from lights, mains, etc) appears
as the common mode portion of the measured Vvoltage, cm = V 2 + Vwhereas
1 2 the (E1

heart rate voltages comprise the differential mode portion.

V 2 = V cm + V dm 2 (E1

V 1 = V cm – V dm 2 (E1

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics

R II,
R ELE-MEE–512
R
 nal and remove the dc offset. Use LTspice simulation to determine the com-

Example mon-mode gain if the value of resistor R2 in Figure E1.11(a) changes by 1%.

ANSWER One-op-amp differential amplifier with gain of 5 is shown in

Figure E1.11(a). The offset to the signal is represented as a common-mode
voltage VCM = 1 V.

Example R1 R2 + VCC
10
–

You have a physiological signal VIN

SINE(0 0.1 10)
+
–
1k 5k
– +
U1 Vout
R3 + – LT1632
(represented as a sinusoid
1k R4
VEE
signal) with amplitude of 100 VCM + 5k + –10
1 – –
mV, frequency of 10 Hz, and a .tran 0 1 0 0.1
(a)
dc offset of 1 V. Design a
one-op-amp differential 1.2 V Vin
amplifier with gain of 5 to 1.0 V

amplify the signal and remove 0.8 V

Vout
0.6 V
the dc offset. Use LTspice Amplitude 0.4 V
simulation to determine the 0.2 V

common-mode gain if the 0.0 V

value of resistor R2 in the –0.2 V

–0.4 V
figure changes by 1%. –0.6 V
0.0 s 0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s 0.4 s 0.5 s 0.6 s 0.7 s 0.8s 0.9 s 1.0 s
(b) Time
Figure E1.11 (a) One-op-amp differential amplifier with gain of 5. (b) Input
signal (100 mV with 1 V offset) and amplified output signal with no offset.
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Three-op-amp differential amplifier (IA)

Adding buffers to
each input of the
48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
differential op amp
and a non-inverting
–
op amp to improve
v1
gain. + R2 R3 R4
v3
However, this –
R1 v
solution amplifies 4 R3
vo
v5 +
both vcm and vdm , R4
so there is no R2
–

improvement in v2
+
CMRR. (a)

R4

R3
vo
R3
v4 R4
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Three-op-amp differential amplifier (IA)

A superior solution
is obtained by
48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
combining the two
circuits to form an
–
instrumentation
v1
amplifier. + R2 R3 R4
v3
Note that when –

v1 ̸= v2 , v3 − v4 = R1 v
4 R3
vo
v5 +
i (R1 + 2R2 ) and R4
v1 − v2 = iR1 . –
R2

Hence v2
+

v3 − v4 R2 (a)
Gd = = 1+2 .
v1 − v2 R1 R4

R3
vo
R3
v4 R4
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Three-op-amp differential amplifier (IA)

Also note that when

v1 = v2 , iR1 = 0 and
48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
v1 appears at both
op-amp outputs
–
making Gc = 1.
v1
+ R2 R3 R4
Hence CMRR =
v3
Gd /Gc = Gd ≫ 1. –
R1 v R3
The IA has high 4
v5 +
vo

input impedance, a R4
R2
high CMRR, and a –

gain that can be v2

+
changed by (a)
adjusting R1 .
R4

R3
vo
R3
v4 R4
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Three-op-amp differential amplifier (IA)

Note that the gain

of the first stage is
48
1 + 2 RR21 as proved
1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

above.
–
For the differential v1
+ R2 R3 R4
op amp, the gain is
R4 v3
R3 . –
R1 v R3
Hence the overall relation 4
v5 +
vo

for the IA is R4
R2
–
R4 R2
 
vO = 1+2 (v2 − v1 ) v2
R3 R1 +

(a)

R4

R3
vo
R3
v4 R4
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
 Instrumentation amplifier.
Example

Calculate theCalculate
eXaMpLe 11 outputthevoltage expression
output voltage expressionfor thecircuit
for the IA below.
of Fig. 29.
[Vo = 21 (V1 − V2 )]
+10 V
V2 +
5 kΩ

– 5 kΩ
5 kΩ +10 V
−10 V –

500 Ω Vo
5 kΩ
+10 V +
– −10 V
5 kΩ
5 kΩ

V1 +
−10 V

Fig. 29
Circuit for Example 11.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Integrator

An integrator provides an output that is proportional to the

integral of the input voltage vi .

We have
if Cf ii (t) = −if (t)
vi (t) dvo (t)
Ri = −Cf
vi − Ri dt
ii
vo
Or
+ Z t
1
vo (t) = − vi (t) dt
Ri Cf 0

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Differentiator

We have
if Rf
ii (t) = −if (t)
Ci dvi (t) vo (t)
Ci =−
vi − dt Rf
ii
vo
Or
+
dvi (t)
vo (t) = −Rf Ci
dt

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Examples

DYNAMIC OP AMP CIRCUITS

vS(t), vO(t) (V) F

15
vS(t)
10
5
1 MΩ 1 µF t(s)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
+ –0V+ + –5
vS(t) – vO(t)
+ –10
vO(t)
–15

(a) (b)

t
1
υ t =Engineering
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical υ 0 − υ Medical
BEEE5, x dx Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
 The input to the circuit in Figure 6–20(a) is the trapezoidal waveform shown
Examples
in Figure 6–20(b). Find the output waveform. The OP AMP saturates when
υO t = 15 V.

vS(t) (V)

0 t (ms)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b)

100 nF 10 kΩ vO(t) (V)

+ +
vS(t) vO(t) 2.5
–
0 t (ms)
+ 0 1 2 4 6

–5

(a) (c)

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Comparator

+12V
A comparator is
voltage-differencing Vin +
device commonly Comp VO
Vre f −
used in
analog-to-digital −12V
conversion process.
Active signal Vin
Vre f
occurring at the
non-inverting
terminal: Logic HIGH
VO

Input Output
Vin > Vref High (1)
Vin < Vref Low (0) Logic LOW

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Comparator

+12V

A comparator is
Vin −
voltage-differencing Comp VO
device commonly Vre f +
used in
analog-to-digital −12V

conversion process.
Vin
Active signal Vre f
occurring at the
inverting terminal:
Logic HIGH
Input Output
Vin < Vref High (1)
Vin > Vref Low (0) Logic LOW
VO

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Example application

Example
Assume R2 is adjusted to
7.46kΩ and Vin = 6.3V: Vs = +12V

1 What is the approximate

+12V
output voltage, assuming R1
10kΩ
a 2-V internal drop for Vin +
the comparator? Comp VO
[VO ≈ +VCC (sat) = +10V] Vref −

2 What digital logic level −12V

R2
could this output voltage 0/10kΩ
represent? [logic 1] VAR

3 Do the same when

Vin = 2.78V and R2 has
the same ohmic setting.
[VO ≈ −VEE = −10V]

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Another application

Explain the purpose and operation of the following circuit

+10V

Q
UV lamp

A +10V
+10V
R1 8
R4
Astable Step-up 3kΩ R2 6

24V dc 2
+ 1kΩ
multivibrator transformer 0/10kΩ 5

LM311 7
Vo
B 3
− To alert
4
system
1
R3
68 kΩ

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Comparator with hysterisis (Schmitt trigger)
(c)

Sine

Upper threshold (output Using an op

(e) amp as a Schmitt
 
= +Vmax ) is VUT = R1R+R1
2
VCC trigger.
and lower threshold (output
Input –
= −Vmax
 ) is  Output
+
VLT = R1R+R1
2
VEE . R2
10 kΩ
Hysteresis = VUT − VLT . E.g.,
for power rails of ±18 V, R1
2.2 kΩ
hysteresis
= +3.25 − (−3.25) = 6.5 V.
Fig. 9-56 Using an op amp as a Schmitt trigger.

When the output of this circuit is maximum

negative (Vmin), the voltage divider will produce
the lower threshold point (LTP):
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Comparator with hysterisis (Schmitt trigger)
Schmitt trigger operation.
+
Input
signal

+3.25 V UTP

Fig. 9-58 Schmitt trigger sy

–3.25 V LTP

the input signal because

– signal noise. Note that
single threshold point (n
+ on the signal causes ext
+18 V
forth through the thresh
tra pulses appear in the o

Single Supply Circuit

Output
Op amps normally requi
–18 V signal ply. However, for some a
Single supply – powered by a single supp
typical circuit. Two 10-k
Fig. 9-57 Schmitt trigger operation. +15-V supply to +7.5 V,
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering noninverting inputs of the
BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Schmitt trigger output can differ from the out- Single supply circuits are often used in ac am-
Comparator with hysterisis (Schmitt trigger)
put of a comparator. The Schmitt trigger has plifiers. As Fig. 9-60 shows, the signal source is
hysteresis. The noise on the signal does not capacitively coupled. Since the noninverting in-
cause false triggering, and the output is at the puts are at +7.5 V, the inverting inputs are also at
same frequency as the is
Hysteresis input. However,
valuable whenthe conditioning
+7.5 V. The input coupling
noisy capacitor
signals prevents the
for use
comparator in
output is at a higher frequency
a digital circuit or system. than signal source from changing this dc voltage.

Noisy input signal

UTP
TP
LTP

Hysteresis

Schmitt trigger output Comparator output

Fig. 9-59 A
 comparison of Schmitt trigger output with comparator output when the input
is noisy.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Example

Example
A physiological signal (represented by a sinusoidal signal of 10 Hz)
is amplified such that it has a voltage swing from −1 V to +10 V.
However, along with signal, the noise overriding the signal gets
amplified too. Design a comparator with hysteresis of window of 4
V, such that the comparator flips to VOH = +12 V when the input
is 0 V and VOL = −12 V when the input is 4 V. Provide LTspice
simulation results for the comparator.
 
Solution: We have VUT = R2R+R 3
3
(+12) = (Vi + Vref ) /2 and
 
VLT = R2R+R 3
3
(−12) = (Vi + Vref ) /2. Get Vref = −2 V. Choose
any standard values for R2 and R3 , say R3 = 1kΩ and R2 = 11kΩ.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Example

1.16 RECTIFIERS 55
LTspice simulation.
12 V
Vi Vo
10 V
8V
6V
4V
2V
Amplitude

0V
–2 V
–4 V
–6 V
–8 V
–10 V
–12 V
0 ms 100 ms 200 ms 300 ms
Time
Figure E1.12 LTspice simulation for the comparator with hysteresis design.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Active low-pass filter

The range of useful applications of an operational amplifier is

greatly expanded if energy storage elements are introduced into the
design.
A low-pass filter attenuates 1.20 ACTIVE FIL

high frequencies.
We have Cf

Vo (jω) Rf 1
 
=− Rf
Vi (jω) Ri 1 + jωτ Ri –
vi
vo
where τ = Rf Cf . Check what
+
happens for ω ≪ 1/τ and
ωτ = 2πfc τ = 1, cut off (a)
frequency, fc = 1/ (2πRf Cf ).

Rf
Ci Ri
–
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering vBEEE5,
i Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Active high-pass filter
Cf

A high-pass filter attenuates low frequencies. Useful Rforf

Ri –
amplifying small ac voltage that ridesvi on top of large dc voltage,
vo
since Ci blocks the dc.
+
We have
(a)
Vo (jω) Rf jωτ
 
=−
Vi (jω) Ri 1 + jωτ
Rf
Ci Ri
where τ = Ri Ci . Check vi
–
what happens for vo
ω ≪ 1/τ and +
ωτ = 2πfc τ = 1, cut off
frequency,
fc = 1/ (2πRi Ci ). Cf

Rf
Ci Ri
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering vi –
BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Active high-pass filter
Rf
Ci Ri
–
vi
A series combination of the low-pass filter and the high-pass filter vo
results in a band-pass filter, which amplifies frequencies
+
over a
desired range and attenuates higher and lower frequencies.
(b)
We have
Cf
Vo (jω) jω
 
= −Ci Rf
Vi (jω) (1 + jωτ1 ) (1 + jωτ2 )
Rf
Ci Ri –
where τ1 = Ri Ci and vi
vo
τ2 = Rf Cf . Cut off
+
frequencies,
fLP = 1/ (2πRf Cf ) &
fHP = 1/ (2πRi CFigure
i ). 1.19 Active filters (a) A low-pass filter attenuates high
(b) A high-pass filter attenuates low frequencies and blo
A bandpass filter attenuates both low and high frequencies.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Example

Design a first-order Circuit, low-pass filter.1 . 2 0 ACTIVE FILTERS

all-pass filter that has + VCC

R1 R3 10
phase shift of 0 at dc, –

−180◦ at higher 10k

R2
10k
– +
U1 Vout
Vin +
frequency, and −90◦ at SINE(0 1 50) –
+ – LT1632
10k C
corner frequency fc 1
+
VEE
31.8n –10
about 500 Hz. Provide –
(a) .ac dec 100 0.1 50k
LTspice simulation for
the frequency and phase 0 dB
Gain response

response.
–4 dB

Phase response
–8 dB
Gain

–12 dB

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
 1.20 ACTIVE FILTERS 67
Example
+ VCC
R1 R3 10
–

10k 10k
R2 – +
U1 Vout
Vin +
+ – LT1632
SINE(0 1 50) – 10k C
1
VEE
31.8n +
–10
Design a first-order Frequency response. –
(a) .ac dec 100 0.1 50k

all-pass filter that has 20°

Gain response
0 dB
phase shift of 0 at dc, 0°
–20°
−180◦ at higher –4 dB –40°

frequency, and −90◦ at –8 dB

Phase response –60°
–80°
corner frequency fc

Gain
–100°
–12 dB
about 500 Hz. Provide –120°

–16 dB –140°
LTspice simulation for –160°

the frequency and phase –20 dB

100 mHz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 KHz 10 KHz
–180°

response. (b) Frequency

Figure E1.14 (a) Circuit design of unity gain active all-pass filter. (b) Gain
and phase response for all-pass filter with phase shift of −90 at about 500 Hz.

HIGHER ORDER FILTER

While the first-order filters described above may be simple to design, they
offer a roll-off slope of −20 dB/decade attenuation for frequencies beyond
the corner frequency fc. This might not be adequate to remove unwanted sig-
nal frequencies and thus demands the need to design higher order filters with
steeper roll-offs. Detailed review of higher order filter is beyond the scope of
this chapter and could be obtained through Van Valkenburg (1982). How-
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Introduction
In the design of medical instrumentation systems, there is often a
need to generate signals that repeat at regular intervals
(examples?). The 555 timer IC is one of the mostly used module
for such tasks. The IC is made of a combination of linear
comparators and digital flip-flops (FF).
VCC Threshold
8 6

R +
Control 5 ( 23 VCC) 1
voltage –
3
Output Output
R F/F
stage
( 13 VCC)
+ 7
2 Discharge

R –
1 2
Trigger
input 4
Reset Vref

Fig. 16
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
 Fig. 16
Astable operation Details of 555 timer IC.

Thigh = 0.7 (RA + RB )C

Thigh Tlow = 0.7RBC

Duty cycle, D = 1 1
Thigh + Tlow f= =
T Thigh + Tlow
Fig. 17
Astable multivibrator using 555 IC.
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Practice
Determine the frequency and draw the output waveform for the
circuit shown to the left.

Fig. 18
Astable
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. multivibrator
of Electrical for Example 1:
Engineering (a) circuit;
BEEE5, (b) Electronics
Medical waveforms.II, ELE-MEE–512
ig. 19. When the trigger input signal goes negative, it triggers the one-shot, with output
Monostable (one-shot) operation
in 3 then going high for a time period given by
Thigh = 1.1RAC (7)

Fig. 19
Operation of 555 timer as a one-shot: (a) circuit; (b) waveforms.
E.g., if RA = 7.5 kΩ and C = 0.01 µF, then
Thigh = 1.1RA C = 0.825 ms.
erring back to Fig. 16, we see that the negative edge of the trigger input causes com-
ator 2 to trigger the flip-flop, with the output at pin 3 going high. Capacitor C charges
ard VCC through resistor RA. During the charge interval, the output remains high. When
Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Summary and next lecture

Basic sensors for bioinstrumentation

Please study Chapter 2 of Webster.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512
Reference

Webster J.G. & Nimunkar A.J. (Eds) (2020). Medical

Instrumentation: Application and Design, 5th Ed. Wiley.
Boylestad, R. & Nashelsky, L. (2013). Electronic Devices and
Circuit Theory, 11th Ed. Pearson Ltd.

Dr. A.O. Vweza ◦ Dpt. of Electrical Engineering BEEE5, Medical Electronics II, ELE-MEE–512