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Contents

Contributorsix
Prefacexiii

PART I: THINKING ABOUT PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 1

1 Conceptions of Psychopathology: A Social Constructionist Perspective 3
James E. Maddux, Jennifer T. Gosselin, and Barbara A. Winstead

2 Psychopathology: A Neurobiological Perspective 19

Daniel Tranel, Molly A. Nikolas, and Kristian Markon

3 Developmental Psychopathology: Basic Principles 57

Janice Zeman, Cynthia Suveg, and Kara Braunstein West

4 Cultural Dimensions of Psychopathology: The Social World’s Impact on Mental Disorders 67

Steven Regeser López and Peter J. Guarnaccia

5 Gender, Race, and Class and Their Role in Psychopathology 85

Barbara A. Winstead and Janis Sanchez-­Hucles

6 Classification and Diagnosis: Historical Development and Contemporary Issues 109

Thomas A. Widiger

7 Psychological Assessment and Clinical Judgment 125

Howard N. Garb, Scott O. Lilienfeld, and Katherine A. Fowler

8 Psychotherapy Research 141

Rebecca E. Stewart and Dianne L. Chambless

PART II: COMMON PROBLEMS OF ADULTHOOD 153

9 Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-­Compulsive and Related Disorders 155
Shari A. Steinman, Amber L. Billingsley, Cierra B. Edwards, Mira D. Snider, and Lauren S. Hallion

10 Trauma-­and Stressor-­Related Disorders 173

Lori A. Zoellner, Belinda Graham, and Michele A. Bedard-­Gilligan

11 Depressive Disorders and Bipolar and Related Disorders 201

Lauren B. Alloy, Naoise Mac Giollabhui, Amber A. Graham, Allison Stumper, Corinne P. Bart, Erin E. Curley, Laura E. McLaughlin,
Daniel P. Moriarity, and Tommy H. Ng

12 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders 247

Matilda Azis, Ivanka Ristanovic, Andrea Pelletier-­Baldelli, Hanan Trotman, Lisa Kestler, Annie Bollini, and Vijay A. Mittal

13 Personality Disorders 281

Cristina Crego and Thomas A. Widiger

14 Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilic Disorders 305

Jennifer T. Gosselin and Michael Bombardier

15 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders 341

Michael J. Zvolensky, Lorra Garey, Justin M. Shepherd, and Georg H. Eifert

16 Dissociative Disorders 355

Steven Jay Lynn, Scott O. Lilienfeld, Harald Merckelbach, Reed Maxwell, Damla Aksen, Jessica Baltman, and Timo Giesbrecht
viii | Contents

17 Substance-­Related and Addictive Disorders 377

Keith Klostermann, Michelle L. Kelley, and Sarah Ehlke

18 Mental Health and Aging 399

Amy Fiske, Ruifeng Cui, and Alexandria R. Ebert

PART III: COMMON PROBLEMS OF CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 425

19 Externalizing Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence 427
Eva R. Kimonis, Paul J. Frick, and Georgette E. Fleming

20 Internalizing Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence 459

Janay B. Sander, Lindsay K. Rye, and Thomas H. Ollendick

21 Learning Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence 481

Rebecca S. Martínez and Leah M. Nellis

22 Eating Disorders 495

Danielle E. MacDonald, Traci McFarlane, and Kathryn Trottier

23 Gender Dysphoria 521

Jennifer T. Gosselin and Michael Bombardier

24 Autism Spectrum Disorders 537

Susan W. White and Caitlin M. Conner

Index551
Contributors

Lauren B. Alloy, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Damla Aksen, Psychology Department, Binghamton University, State University of New York, Binghamton, New York

Matilda Azis, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Jessica Baltman, The Reeds Center, New York

Corinne P. Bart, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Michele A. Bedard-­Gilligan, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

Amber L. Billingsley, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Annie Bollini, Patient-­Centered Outcomes Research Institute, Washington, DC

Michael Bombardier, Private Practice, Baltimore, Maryland

Kara Braunstein West, Clinical Psychology Doctoral Program, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia

Dianne L. Chambless, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Caitlin M. Conner, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Cristina Crego, Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Ruifeng Cui, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Erin E. Curley, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Alexandria R. Ebert, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Cierra B. Edwards, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Sarah Ehlke, Doctoral Candidate, Health Psychology Program, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

Georg H. Eifert, Department of Psychology, Chapman University, Orange, California

Amy Fiske, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Georgette E. Fleming, School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Katherine A. Fowler, Division of Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Paul J. Frick, Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Howard N. Garb, Wilford Hall Medical Center, Lackland Airforce Base, San Antonio, Texas

Lorra Garey, Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas

x | Contributors

Timo Giesbrecht, Forensic Psychology Section, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht,
The Netherlands

Jennifer T. Gosselin, Salt Lake City, Utah

Amber A. Graham, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Belinda Graham, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, England

Peter J. Guarnaccia, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New
Brunswick, New Jersey

Lauren S. Hallion, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Michelle L. Kelley, Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

Lisa Kestler, Princeton, New Jersey

Eva R. Kimonis, School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Keith Klostermann, Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Medaille College, Buffalo, New York

Scott O. Lilienfeld, Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

Steven R. López, Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California

Steven J. Lynn, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, The State University of New York, Binghamton, New York

Danielle E. MacDonald, Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario & Department of Psychiatry,
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario

Naoise Mac Giollabhui, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

James E. Maddux, Department of Psychology & Center for the Advancement of Well-­Being, George Mason University, Fairfax,
Virginia

Kristian Markon, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa

Rebecca S. Martínez, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana

Reed Maxwell, Cornell Weil Medical College, New York

Traci McFarlane, Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario & Department of Psychiatry, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Ontario

Laura E. McLaughlin, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Harald Merckelbach, Forensic Psychology Section, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The
Netherlands

Vijay A. Mittal, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Daniel P. Moriarity, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Leah M. Nellis, Department of Communication Disorders and Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology, Indiana State
University, Kokomo, Indiana
 Contributors | xi

Tommy H. Ng, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Molly A. Nikolas, Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa

Thomas H. Ollendick, Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia

Andrea Pelletier-­Baldelli, Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Ivanka Ristanovic, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Lindsay K. Rye, Department of Educational Psychology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana

Janis Sanchez-­Hucles, Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

Janay B. Sander, Department of Educational Psychology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana

Justin M. Shepherd, Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas

Mira D. Snider, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Shari A. Steinman, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia

Rebecca E. Stewart, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Allison Stumper, Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Cynthia Suveg, Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia

Daniel Tranel, Department of Neurology & Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa

Hanan Trotman, Department of Psychology, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia

Kathryn Trottier, Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario & Department of Psychiatry, University
of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario

Susan W. White, Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Thomas A. Widiger, Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Barbara A. Winstead, Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

Janice Zeman, Department of Psychology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia

Lori A. Zoellner, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

Michael J. Zvolensky, Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas

Preface

We are pleased to offer the fifth edition of Psychopathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding. This book was created – and revised –
with students in mind. The length, organization, and level and style of writing reflect this intention. We had – and still have – two
major goals in mind.

1. Providing up-­to-­date information about theory and research on the etiology and treatment of the most important psycholog-
ical disorders. Toward this end, we chose well-­known researchers who would not only be aware of the cutting-­edge research
on their topics but who were also contributing to this cutting-­edge research. This goal also demands frequent updating of
information to reflect, as much as possible, the latest developments in the field.
2. Challenging students to think critically about psychopathology. We tried to accomplish this goal in two ways. First, we encouraged
chapter authors to challenge traditional assumptions and theories concerning the topics about which they were writing. Sec-
ond, and more important, we have included chapters that discuss in depth crucial and controversial issues facing the field of
psychopathology, such as the definition of psychopathology, the influence of cultural and gender, the role of developmental
processes, the validity of psychological testing, and the viability and utility of traditional psychiatric diagnosis. The first eight
chapters in this book are devoted to such issues because we believe that a sophisticated understanding of psychopathology
consists of much more than memorizing a list of disorders and their symptoms or memorizing the findings of numerous
studies. It consists primarily of understanding ideas and concepts and understanding how to use those ideas and concepts to make
sense of the research on specific disorders and the information found in formal diagnostic manuals.

Part I offers in-depth discussions of a number of important ideas, concepts, and theories which provide perspective on specific
psychological disorders. The major reason for placing these general chapters in the first section before the disorders chapters is to
give students a set of conceptual tools that will help them read more thoughtfully and critically the material on specific disorders.
Parts II and III deal with specific disorders of adulthood, childhood, and adolescence. We asked contributors to follow, as much
as possible, a common format consisting of:

1. A definition and description of the disorder or disorders.

2. A brief history of the study of the disorder.
3. Theory and research on etiology.
4. Research on empirically supported interventions.

Editors must always make choices regarding what should be included in a textbook and what should not. A textbook that devoted
a chapter to every disorder described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the mental, behavioral, and
­neurodevelopmental disorders section of the International Classification of Diseases and Related Problems (ICD) would be unwieldy and impos-
sible to cover in a single semester. Our choices regarding what to include and what to exclude were guided primarily by our expe-
riences over several decades of teaching and training clinical psychology doctoral students regarding the kinds of psychological
problems that these and students in related programs (e.g., counseling, social work) typically encounter in their training and in their
subsequent clinical careers. We also wanted to be generally consistent with the nomenclature that appear in the DSM-­5 and the
new ICD-­11.
We were pleased that the authors of 23 of the 24 chapters of the fourth edition agreed to revise their chapters for the fifth
edition. This helps to assure continuity in content and style from the fourth edition to the fifth.
We continue to hope that instructors and students will find this approach to understanding psychopathology challenging and
useful. We continue to learn much from our contributors in the process of editing their chapters, and we hope that students will
learn as much as we have from reading what these outstanding contributors have produced.
James E. Maddux
George Mason University
Fairfax,Virginia
Barbara A.Winstead
Old Dominion University
Virginia Consortium Program in Clinical Psychology
Norfolk,Virginia
May 1, 2019
PART I
Thinking About Psychopathology
Chapter 1

Conceptions of Psychopathology
A Social Constructionist Perspective

James E. Maddux, Jennifer T. Gosselin, and Barbara A. Winstead

Chapter contents

Conceptions of Psychopathology 4
Categories Versus Dimensions 9
Social Constructionism and Conceptions of Psychopathology 11
Summary and Conclusions 15
References15
4 | James E. Maddux, Jennifer T. Gosselin, and Barbara A. Winstead

A textbook about a topic should begin with a clear definition of the topic. Unfortunately, for a textbook on psychopathology, this
is a difficult if not impossible task. The definitions or conceptions of psychopathology and such related terms as mental disorder have been
the subject of heated debate throughout the history of psychology and psychiatry, and the debate is not over (e.g., Gorenstein, 1984;
Horwitz, 2002; Widiger, Chapter 6 in this volume). Despite its many variations, this debate has centered on a single overriding
question: Are psychopathology and related terms such as mental disorder and mental illness scientific terms that can be defined objectively and
by scientific criteria, or are they social constructions (Gergen, 1985) that are defined largely or entirely by societal and cultural values?
Addressing these perspectives in this opening chapter is important because the reader’s view of everything in the rest of this book
will be influenced by his or her view on this issue.
This chapter deals with conceptions of psychopathology. A conception of psychopathology is not a theory of psychopathology
(Wakefield, 1992a). A conception of psychopathology attempts to define the term – to delineate which human experiences are
considered psychopathological and which are not. A conception of psychopathology does not try to explain the psychological phe-
nomena that are considered pathological, but instead tells us which psychological phenomena are considered pathological and thus
need to be explained. A theory of psychopathology, however, is an attempt to explain those psychological phenomena and experiences
that have been identified by the conception as pathological. Theories and explanations for what is currently considered to be psy-
chopathological human experience can be found in a number of other chapters, including all of those in Part II.
Understanding various conceptions of psychopathology is important for a number of reasons. As explained by medical philos-
opher Lawrie Reznek (1987), “Concepts carry consequences – classifying things one way rather than another has important impli-
cations for the way we behave towards such things” (p. 1). In speaking of the importance of the conception of disease, Reznek wrote:

The classification of a condition as a disease carries many important consequences. We inform medical scientists that they should try to
discover a cure for the condition. We inform benefactors that they should support such research. We direct medical care towards the
condition, making it appropriate to treat the condition by medical means such as drug therapy, surgery, and so on. We inform our courts
that it is inappropriate to hold people responsible for the manifestations of the condition. We set up early warning detection services
aimed at detecting the condition in its early stages when it is still amenable to successful treatment. We serve notice to health insurance
companies and national health services that they are liable to pay for the treatment of such a condition. Classifying a condition as a disease
is no idle matter (p. 1).

If we substitute psychopathology or mental disorder for the word disease in this paragraph, its message still holds true. How we conceive of
psychopathology and related terms has wide-­ranging implications for individuals, medical and mental health professionals, gov-
ernment agencies and programs, legal proceedings, and society at large.

Conceptions of Psychopathology
A variety of conceptions of psychopathology have been offered over the years. Each has its merits and its deficiencies, but none
suffices as a truly scientific definition.

Psychopathology as Statistical Deviance

A commonly used and “common sense” conception of psychopathology is that pathological psychological phenomena are those
that are abnormal – statistically deviant or infrequent. Abnormal literally means “away from the norm.” The word “norm” refers to
what is typical or average. Thus, this conception views psychopathology as deviation from statistical psychological normality.
One of the merits of this conception is its common sense appeal. It makes sense to most people to use words such as psychopa-
thology and mental disorder to refer only to behaviors or experiences that are infrequent (e.g., paranoid delusions, hearing voices) and
not to those that are relatively common (e.g., shyness, a stressful day at work, grief following the death of a loved one).
A second merit to this conception is that it lends itself to accepted methods of measurement that give it at least a semblance of
scientific respectability. The first step in employing this conception scientifically is to determine what is statistically normal (typical,
average). The second step is to determine how far a particular psychological phenomenon or condition deviates from statistical
normality. This is often done by developing an instrument or measure that attempts to quantify the phenomenon and then assigns
numbers or scores to people’s experiences or manifestations of the phenomenon. Once the measure is developed, norms are typically
established so that an individual’s score can be compared to the mean or average score of some group of people. Scores that are
sufficiently far from average are considered to be indicative of “abnormal” or “pathological” psychological phenomena. This process
describes most tests of intelligence and cognitive ability and many commonly used measures of personality and emotion (e.g., the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory).
Despite its common sense appeal and its scientific merits, this conception presents problems. Perhaps the most obvious issue
is that we generally consider only one “side” of the deviation to be problematic (see “Psychopathology as Maladaptive Behavior”
later in this chapter). In other words, Intellectual Disability is pathological, intellectual genius is not. Major Depressive Disorder is
 Conceptions of Psychopathology | 5

pathological, unconstrained optimism is not. Another concern is that, despite its reliance on scientific and well-­established psycho-
metric methods for developing measures of psychological phenomena and developing norms, this approach still leaves room for
subjectivity.
The first point at which subjectivity comes into play is in the conceptual definition of the construct for which a measure is developed.
A measure of any psychological construct, such as intelligence, must begin with a conceptual definition. We have to answer the
question “What is ‘intelligence’?” before we can attempt to measure or study its causes and consequences. Of course, different
people (including different psychologists) will come up with different answers to this question. How then can we scientifically and
objectively determine which definition or conception is “true” or “correct”? The answer is that we cannot. Although we have tried-­
and-­true methods for developing a reliable and valid (i.e., it consistently predicts what we want to predict) measure of a psycho-
logical construct once we have agreed on its conception or definition, we cannot use these same methods to determine which
conception or definition is true or correct. The bottom line is that there is not a “true” definition of intelligence and no objective,
scientific way of determining one. Intelligence is not a thing that exists inside of people and makes them behave in certain ways and
that awaits our discovery of its “true” nature. Instead, it is an abstract idea that is defined by people as they use the words “intelli-
gence” and “intelligent” to describe certain kinds of human behavior and the covert mental processes that supposedly precede or
are at least concurrent with the behavior.
We usually can observe and describe patterns in the way most people use the words intelligence and intelligent to describe the
behavior of themselves and others. The descriptions of the patterns then comprise the definitions of the words. If we examine the
patterns of the use of intelligence and intelligent, we find that at the most basic level, they describe a variety of specific behaviors and
abilities that society values and thus encourages; unintelligent behavior includes a variety of behaviors that society does not value
and thus discourages. The fact that the definition of intelligence is grounded in societal values explains the recent expansion of the
concept to include good interpersonal skills (e.g., social and emotional intelligence), self-­regulatory skills, artistic and musical
abilities, creativity, and other abilities not measured by traditional tests of intelligence. The meaning of intelligence has broadened
because society has come to place increasing value on these other attributes and abilities, and this change in societal values has been
the result of a dialogue or discourse among the people in society, both professionals and laypersons. One measure of intelligence
may prove more reliable than another and more useful than another measure in predicting what we want to predict (e.g., academic
achievement, income), but what we want to predict reflects what we value, and values are not derived scientifically.
Another point for the influence of subjectivity is in the determination of how deviant a psychological phenomenon must be from
the norm to be considered abnormal or pathological. We can use objective, scientific methods to construct a measure such as an
intelligence test and develop norms for the measure, but we are still left with the question of how far from normal an individual’s
score must be to be considered abnormal. This question cannot be answered by the science of psychometrics because the distance
from the average that a person’s score must be to be considered “abnormal” is a matter of debate, not a matter of fact. It is true that
we often answer this question by relying on statistical conventions such as using one or two standard deviations from the average
score as the line of division between normal and abnormal. Yet the decision to use that convention is itself subjective because a
convention (from the Latin convenire, meaning “to come together”), is an agreement or contract made by people, not a truth or fact
about the world. Why should one standard deviation from the norm designate “abnormality”? Why not two standard deviations?
Why not half a standard deviation? Why not use percentages? The lines between normal and abnormal can be drawn at many dif-
ferent points using many different strategies. Each line of demarcation may be more or less useful for certain purposes, such as
determining the criteria for eligibility for limited services and resources. Where the line is set also determines the prevalence of
“abnormality” or “mental disorder” among the general population (Kutchins & Kirk, 1997; Frances, 2013), so it has great practical
significance. But no such line is more or less “true” than the others, even when those others are based on statistical conventions.
We cannot use the procedures and methods of science to draw a definitive line of demarcation between normal and abnormal
psychological functioning, just as we cannot use them to draw definitive lines of demarcation between “short” and “tall” people or
“hot” and “cold” on a thermometer. No such lines exist in nature awaiting our discovery.

Psychopathology as Maladaptive (Dysfunctional) Behavior

Most of us think of psychopathology as behaviors and experiences that are not just statistically abnormal but also maladaptive (dys-
functional). Normal and abnormal are statistical terms, but adaptive and maladaptive refer not to statistical norms and deviations but to the
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a person’s behavior. If a behavior “works” for the person – if the behavior helps the person deal
with challenges, cope with stress, and accomplish his or her goals – then we say the behavior is more or less effective and adaptive.
If the behavior does not “work” for the person in these ways, or if the behavior makes the problem or situation worse, we say it is
more or less ineffective and maladaptive. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) (DSM-­5) incorporates this notion
in its definition of mental disorder by stating that mental disorders “are usually associated with significant distress or disability in
social, occupational, or other important activities” (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013, p. 20).
Like the statistical deviance conception, this conception has common sense appeal and is consistent with the way most
laypersons use words such as pathology, disorder, and illness. As we noted earlier, most people would find it odd to use these words
to describe statistically infrequent high levels of intelligence, happiness, or psychological well-­being. To say that someone is
6 | James E. Maddux, Jennifer T. Gosselin, and Barbara A. Winstead

“pathologically intelligent” or “pathologically well-­adjusted” seems contradictory because it flies in the face of the common
sense use of these words.
The major problem with the conception of psychopathology as maladaptive behavior is its inherent subjectivity. Like the dis-
tinction between normal and abnormal, the distinction between adaptive and maladaptive is fuzzy and arbitrary. We have no objec-
tive, scientific way of making a clear distinction. Very few human behaviors are in and of themselves either adaptive or maladaptive;
instead, their adaptiveness and maladaptiveness depend on the situations in which they are enacted and on the judgment and values
of the actor and the observers. Even behaviors that are statistically rare and therefore abnormal will be more or less adaptive under
different conditions and more or less adaptive in the opinion of different observers and relative to different cultural norms. The
extent to which a behavior or behavior pattern is viewed as more or less adaptive or maladaptive depends on a number of factors,
such as the goals the person is trying to accomplish and the social norms and expectations in a given situation. What works in one
situation might not work in another. What appears adaptive to one person might not appear so to another. What is usually adaptive
in one culture might not be so in another (see López & Guarnaccia, Chapter 4 in this volume). Even so-­called “normal” personality
involves a good deal of occasionally maladaptive behavior, which you can find evidence for in your own life and the lives of friends
and relatives. In addition, people given official “personality disorder” diagnoses by clinical psychologists and psychiatrists often can
manage their lives effectively and do not always behave in maladaptive ways.
Another problem with the “psychopathological = maladaptive” conception is that judgments of adaptiveness and maladaptive-
ness are logically unrelated to measures of statistical deviation. Of course, often we do find a strong relationship between the statis-
tical abnormality of a behavior and its maladaptiveness. Many of the problems described in the DSM-­5 and in this textbook are both
maladaptive and statistically rare. There are, however, major exceptions to this relationship.
First, not all psychological phenomena that deviate from the norm or the average are maladaptive. In fact, sometimes deviation
from the norm is adaptive and healthy. For example, IQ scores of 130 and 70 are equally deviant from norm, but abnormally high
intelligence is much more adaptive than abnormally low intelligence. Likewise, people who consistently score abnormally low on
measures of anxiety and depression are probably happier and better adjusted than people who consistently score equally abnormally
high on such measures.
Second, not all maladaptive psychological phenomena are statistically infrequent and vice versa. For example, shyness is almost
always maladaptive to some extent because it often interferes with a person’s ability to accomplish what he or she wants to accom-
plish in life and relationships, but shyness is very common and therefore is statistically frequent. The same is true of many of the
problems with sexual functioning that are included in the DSM as “mental disorders” – they are almost always maladaptive to some
extent because they create distress and problems in relationships, but they are relatively common (see Gosselin & Bombardier,
Chapter 14 in this volume).

Psychopathology as Distress and Disability

Some conceptions of psychopathology invoke the notions of subjective distress and disability. Subjective distress refers to unpleasant and
unwanted feelings, such as anxiety, sadness, and anger. Disability refers to a restriction in ability (Ossorio, 1985). People who seek
mental health treatment usually are not getting what they want out of life, and many feel that they are unable to do what they need
to do to accomplish their valued goals. They may feel inhibited or restricted by their situation, their fears or emotional turmoil, or
by physical or other limitations. Individuals may lack the necessary self-­efficacy beliefs (beliefs about personal abilities), physiolog-
ical or biological components, self-­regulatory skills, and/­or situational opportunities to make positive changes (Bergner, 1997).
As noted previously, the DSM incorporates the notions of distress and disability into its definition of mental disorder. In fact,
subjective distress and disability are simply two different but related ways of thinking about adaptiveness and maladaptiveness rather
than alternative conceptions of psychopathology. Although the notions of subjective distress and disability may help refine our
notion of maladaptiveness, they do nothing to resolve the subjectivity problem. Different people will define personal distress and
personal disability in vastly different ways, as will different mental health professionals and different cultures. Likewise, people differ
in their thresholds for how much distress or disability they can tolerate before seeking professional help. Thus, we are still left with
the problem of how to determine normal and abnormal levels of distress and disability. As noted previously, the question “How
much is too much?” cannot be answered using the objective methods of science.
Another problem is that some conditions or patterns of behavior (e.g., pedophilic disorder, antisocial personality disorder) that
are considered psychopathological (at least officially, according to the DSM) are not characterized by subjective distress, other than
the temporary distress that might result from social condemnation or conflicts with the law.

Psychopathology as Social Deviance

Psychopathology has also been conceived as behavior that deviates from social or cultural norms. This conception is simply a variation
of the conception of psychopathology as statistical abnormality, only in this case judgments about deviations from normality are
made informally by people using social and cultural rules and conventions rather than formally by psychological tests or measures.
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practicable, for starting is to select an easily recognised, permanent,
solid station for first placing of the staff—a mile-stone, large boulder,
or other solid object answers: a datum line is generally assumed to
be at a certain depth below this, to which all levels are referred.
From this station, if the ground be fairly level, 5 chains is the
ordinary advanced position where the level is set up and the first
staff reading taken. The level is set up at the measured distance
from the staff, which is indicated by a mark left by the chainman.

Fig. 111.—Level height tape.

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286.—Occasionally in town surveys the height of the level has to

be taken. For this a small steel spring pocket tape is used to take the
height of the axis of the telescope, Fig. 111. The tape may be
adjusted by taking a piece off the first end, and allowing for the
width of the tape case, so that by placing the ring of the tape upon
the hook under the instrument and bringing the case just to the
ground, the height of the axis of the telescope above the ground
may be read off at the point where the tape leaves its case.
287.—The Reading of the Staff.—The first position, which is
afterwards termed the back reading, is taken at a distance behind
the first forward position of the level. This is recorded exactly as it
appears in the telescope, the height of the telescope being also
noted in the levelling book, to be described. Thus in Fig. 112, S the
first staff; L the first station for taking levels. The fore reading L to S′
reads to a higher part of the staff S′; L′ next level station back sight.
L′S′ reads high on the staff S′; fore sight L′S″ reads low; back sight
L″S″ again low, following the contour; fore sight L″S‴ low; thus
giving data in the levelling book from which the contour can be
plotted from the datum line, which is taken low to make all readings
plus.
 Fig. 112.—Practice of levelling.
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288.—The staff reading, as already described, is divided into feet,

with two places of decimals. The safest method of taking this
reading is to take the second decimal place first and then record it,
then the first decimal, and finally the foot. In this manner no effort
of memory is required, and the staff being sighted three times
assures the certainty of the reading. The telescope should not be
touched during the operation, so that the reading in this manner is
only a cautious transfer.
289.—If two staves are used on fairly level ground, the second
staff is now advanced 5 chains from the level to a measured station,
the staff holder here sighting the line through the level to the back
staff, and firmly treading down the staff plate if the land is soft or
grass, or otherwise requires it, or an iron triangle is used. When time
is given to hold the staff vertically by means of the staff level, the
reading is taken in this position by the leveller as before, and this is
recorded in the levelling book. The level is now moved forward 10
chains, that is, 5 chains ahead of the forward staff. The staff is
carefully turned half round without pressure upon its standing place
or plate to face the level as now placed, in which position it is then
read off by the level as the back sight, the back staff now being
moved 5 chains forward of the level, and so on alternately staff and
level until the distance required to be levelled is completed, if there
is no obstruction which causes another method of procedure to be
adopted. A similar plan is pursued with a single staff; but care has to
be taken in securing the right line of march, which will be by placing
the staff in a sight line through the level with a fixed landmark
instead of the back staff mentioned.
290.—The equal back and fore sights as far as practicable are
insisted upon by all levellers, as by this means any inaccuracy in the
level, if the run of the bubble is kept constantly true, is thereby
compensated; but it is not always convenient, and when it is not the
accuracy of the work must depend largely upon the qualities of the
level. It is not necessary or convenient at all times to take the back
and fore sight in a line—obstructions of woods, rivers, etc., may
occur. In these cases very often what is quite equivalent may be
done by taking equal angular back and fore sights from the apex of
an equilateral triangle thus:—Say an obstruction occurs for the chain
by a pond or wood, but that both points to which the levels are to be
taken are visible at some lateral position. Levels may be taken from
this place, and if the intermediate point of distance is equal from
both stations there will be no instrumental error. Thus, suppose the
direct level line east (90°), and that the two stations can be seen
and the staves read at 150° and 210°; here, evidently, this is
equivalent to a direct back and fore sight, the right angle to the level
course being 180°—the one station is 150° = 180° - 30°, and the
other 210° = 180° + 30°. If these equal angles can be even
approximated with a fairly good level the error will be small. In this
manner intermediate and extended points may often be conveniently
taken by previous arrangement with a good staff holder. It is in this
angular levelling that the greatest use of the compass is found to
give the angles, to make entries of the work in the levelling book.
291.—In levelling hilly ground great loss of time would sometimes
be incurred from taking equal back and fore sights; the best plan in
this case is to make as much use as possible of the length of the
staff in use. It is in hilly districts only that a staff longer than 14 feet
is advantageous. With any staff in descending a hill only 5 feet of the
staff can be used for the back sight, that is, a part of it equal to the
height of the level, and sometimes 4 feet or less if there is grass,
brambles, or other obstruction. Whereas for the foresight all the staff
upwards of the height of the level, that is, about 9 feet in a 14-feet
staff, can be used with certainty. The distance of setting up of the
levels and staves must in this case entirely depend upon the length
of the staff and other conditions present.
292.—For near reading of the staff on sharp inclines, reading to
two places of decimals is not near enough, as errors may accumulate
rapidly. It is in such cases that a fully divided staff is best. The
divisions upon a near staff appear in the telescope much magnified;
and three places of decimals may easily be taken by anyone used to
reading a chain scale, particularly if a point diaphragm be used.
Through valleys the level may be often checked at some point from
hill to hill by a back sight: the contour must nevertheless be followed
for the section. It is in these shorter unequal ranges and in distant
sights that accuracy in the level is demanded; and it becomes
interesting to know how nearly this may be depended upon for such
readings.
293.—As already mentioned, a sensitive 14-inch level of Y
construction, or a dumpy in perfect adjustment supported on the
tribrach system, will work with a level tube divided to read 5 seconds
in divisions 1/20 inch apart. There will be a little personal error in
reading the bubble from difference of reflection, according to the
direction of the light from the two ends of the bubble, as before
discussed; but the bubble may be assumed to be read within less
than half a division, that is, within 2½ seconds—say 2 seconds. A
distinct staff may be read with a good glass within ·1 foot at one
mile. A second of arc subtends ·025598 of a foot = approximately ·3
inch at a mile distance. Therefore a back reading at this distance can
be taken within an inch or so of allowance for instrumental errors. A
reading taken in this way at a mile distance would require a plus
allowance for curvature of the earth of 8 inches, minus say 1 inch for
refraction = 7 inches. From these data we can get a fair check level
for hilly ground, possibly more accurate than by contour levelling for
a distant station, even if we allow double the probable error, say ·1
foot for error of reading the staff at a mile distance.
 Fig. 113.—Calder stove used as a lamp.
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294.—Lamp.—At heights between hills in wide valleys check

levels may be taken from five to ten miles very well with a good 14-
inch level in still clear weather in dark nights by the use of an oil
lamp. Coincident points above datum being selected, the lamp is set
upon the ground, or at a measured height at a calculated point, or
raised or lowered to lantern signals, allowance being made for
curvature and refraction. The wide band of light is read very easily
by shifting the observer's position and raising or lowering his tripod.
The "Calder" lamp stove answers very well as a lamp. It has a wick
about 3½ inches wide, and by means of a masked chimney may be
made to present a clear white line of light of 1 inch in depth, Fig.
113.
The heliostat is sometimes used for check levelling in sunlight.
This will be described further on with the theodolite.
295.—Curvature Corrections of the earth and
of Refraction to be made use of occasionally for check
levelling. The rule for finding curvature is "That the difference
between true and apparent level is equal to the square of the
distance between two places or stations in miles—divided by the
earth's mean diameter, 7916 miles"; consequently, by this rule the
correction is always proportional to the squares of the distances. By
proportioning the excesses of height to the squares of the distances,
we may obtain a curvature table for corrections. This is, however,
always in excess of the true curvature by the refraction caused by
the increase of density of the air towards the earth's surface, which
bends the visual ray. The curvature of the earth may be corrected for
refraction one-fifth to one-sixth,[12] which varies according to the
atmospheric pressure.
296.—The following table, which takes curvature minus refraction,
will be found useful to have at hand: it may be written out and
pasted inside the lid of the level case:—

Table of Differences of Apparent and True Level for

Distances in Chains.
Curvature Curvature
Distances in minus Distances in minus
Chains. Refraction in Chains. Refraction in
Dec. Ft. Dec. Ft.
1 ·000089 14 ·0175
2 ·000358 17 ·0258
3 ·000804 20 ·0357
4 ·001435 22 ·05
5 ·002233 24 ·06
6 ·003216 26 ·07
 7 ·00437 28 ·08
8 ·0057 30 ·09
9 ·0072 40 ·14
10 ·089 60 ·31
11 ·011 80 ·56

Where great precision in levelling is required, as for important

trigonometrical surveys, many precautions are required to be taken
which would be quite superfluous, for instance, in railway work. Thus
much greater exactness and freedom from personal error is secured
by having two levellers to go over the same ground simultaneously.
Errors by two persons in the same part of the track are very unlikely
to occur, and by comparing books every part may be checked.
297.—Pegs.—Where the work is to be entirely pegged for chain
measurements, the pegs may be made of natural sticks sawn off and
pointed up with a bill hook. If they are sawn from timber they are
generally made about 9 inches long and sawn to a point, the head
being full 2 inches by 2 inches. Where great precision is required a
cast-brass or iron nail is driven into the head after the peg itself is
driven down. This is used to turn the staff upon, Fig. 114. A the peg
shown with a nail in its head, 1/8 size. B nail about full size.

Fig. 114.—A, staff pegs of sawn timber, 1/8 scale; B, nail, full size.
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298.—It is considered a precaution with an ordinary level to mark

one leg of the tripod and always place this in the same position to
the staff. Thus, if the marked leg is placed to the forward staff at
first, it is put at the next station backward to the back staff. This
corrects any general error from defective work in the instrument and
want of adjustment; and if the staves are placed at equal stations
any instrumental defect whatever, to act cumulatively upon a distant
station, is then prevented, as this principle produces an alternate
plus and minus error.
299.—Differences of true level have been found between working
southward towards the sun from working northward from it, which
are caused by the expansion of the instrument and bubble tube upon
the side heated by his rays. These matters of higher refinement may
be followed in some of our best works on levelling. Most excellent
instructions in this matter will be found in the appendix of A Manual
of Surveying for India,[13] in a paper by Colonel J. T. Walker, R.E.,
F.R.S., etc., of the great Trigonometrical Survey of India, wherein
levels have been carried across from ocean to ocean for over 1500
miles of land surface.
300.—Levelling Books which record the levels as they are
taken are considerably varied in form, much influenced, no doubt, by
the method pursued by the civil engineer for the execution of his
work. The illustration, Fig. 115, shows the most general forms, but
there are many others.
301.—Entries are very generally made in levelling books in black
lead. Faber's artists' pencils, which require no cutting, are very
generally used, No. 2 being black and moderately hard. It is very
convenient to carry a small file for sharpening the lead frequently. In
the author's surveyor's knife, described further on, a file forms one
of the blades.
302.—Where it is desirable to make the original levelling book
readings permanent for reference or otherwise, they are very
commonly written in ink, Morrell's registration ink being very
generally used, or the author's drawing ink answers; this being
permanent is not liable to corrode the pen, nor permit the writing to
be effaced in any degree by moisture.

Fig. 115.—Specimens of levelling books, 1/3 scale.

 Ordinary Level Book with columns for No., Back Sight,
Intermediate, Rise, Fall, Reduced Level, Distance, Remarks.
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Collimation Level Book, with columns for Back Sight, Intermediate,

Fore Sight, Height of Collimation, Reduced Level, Distance, Remarks.
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Railway Engineers' Level Book, ruled for Back, Intermediate, Fore

Sight, Rise, Fall, Distance, Reduced Level, Formation Levels, Cutting,
Embankment, Remarks.
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Tacheometer Survey Book, ruled as above illustration.

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 Traverse Survey Book, ruled as above illustration.
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303.—The Ink Bottle mostly used is that known as the excise

bottle. This is of a smooth, oval form, covered with black leather,
with a tab and buttonhole to hang upon a button of the coat, Fig.
116. One of the numerous fountain pens is now generally used
instead of the bottle described.
Fig. 116.—Excise ink bottle.
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 CHAPTER VI.
DIVISION OF THE CIRCLE AND METHODS EMPLOYED IN TAKING ANGLES—
DIVIDING ENGINE—SURFACES FOR GRADUATION—VERNIER—VARIOUS
SECTIONS—READING MICROSCOPES—SHADES—MICROMETERS—CLAMP AND
TANGENT MOTIONS—OF LIMBS—OF AXES—USE AND WEAR—DIFFERENCE OF
HYPOTENUSE AND BASE.

304.—Division of the Circle.—Sexagesimal Division.—All

true surveying instruments depend, as their special function, upon
taking the direction, or angular position, of surrounding objects or
definite parts of the surface of the earth from positions which are at
first accurately measured or ascertained. The instruments required
for such work must possess an accurately divided circle or arc, with
means of subdividing the visible divisions of this to greater closeness
than any possible method of drawing lines simply would permit. The
lines upon the circle in general practice in Great Britain are divided
into degrees, which are subdivided to 30, 20, 10, or 5 minutes,
according to the size of the instrument, and arranged for further
subdivisions by means of a vernier into minutes or 30, 20, or 10
seconds of arc. Upon large circles, say of 10 and 12 inches diameter,
and with modern 5, 6, and 8 inch diameters, angular displacements
in the direction of the telescope are ultimately read off with a
microscope by means of a screw with divided head, termed a
micrometer, placed tangentially to the divided circle; or by a series of
lines placed at equal distances apart in front of an eye-piece or
within a microscope; but in the ordinary portable instruments, or
those that a surveyor can personally carry about the country, the
ultimate subdivisions of the circle are still generally made by a
vernier scale only, which will presently be described, although the
smaller modern micrometer reading instruments are slowly but
surely coming into favour for all high class work.
 305.—Centesimal Division.—Ten to fifteen years ago on the
Continent generally, and in America occasionally, the division of the
circle into 400-grades and ½-grades, and the subdivision of these
decimally to centigrades, appeared to be coming more and more into
use, particularly with the more extended use of the tacheometer.
Under this system it will be seen that the right angle subtends 100
grades. This division, with its centesimal parts, was found to blend
conveniently with logarithmetical calculation and to permit the free
use of the slide rule with great saving of time over ordinary
calculation, but it is now very little used.
The decimal division of the ordinary degree of 90 to the quadrant
greatly facilitates the calculation compared with what is necessary
with the sexagesimal division into minutes and seconds, and the
reading of the verniers is much simpler and less liable to errors;
moreover, the mental conversion of the sexagesimal division into
decimals of the same degrees is much simpler than the conversion
into the centesimal degrees of 100 to the quadrant.
306.—Dividing Engine.—This important tool is used for
cutting the graduations on all surveying instruments. If possible a
position should be secured for it on a ground floor at a mile or more
distance from any railway, and at a good distance from roads upon
which there is heavy traffic, as small vibrations are sufficient to
cause unpleasant working and some error in the division of large
instruments. For very accurate work some makers divide at night for
the sake of stillness. The principles of construction of this machine,
as at present in general use, were invented by Jesse Ramsden, of
which an account was printed by the Board of Longitude in 1777.
Refinements of detail have been added to the invention, and the
steady action of steam or electric power has been applied in place of
the foot, but otherwise the machine remains practically the same.
Therefore a brief description of this machine as originally invented
will be sufficient for the purposes of this work, which is not intended
to fully describe the tools used in the manufacture of instruments.
307.—Ramsden's Engine consists of a circular brass surface plate,
made generally of 36 inches diameter. This plate is supported from
below upon a hollow vertical axis, which moves in an adjustable
collar placed at its upper end and in a conical point or pivot at its
base. The pivot rests in a cup of oil and supports the weight of the
plate and axis, so that this part rotates with little friction. The outer
edge of the surface plate is cut with 2160 teeth or threads, into
which an endless or tangent screw works, so that the plate can be
revolved any desired quantity by means of the screw. Six turns of
the tangent screw moves the plate 1°. The head of the tangent
screw is divided as a micrometer into 60 parts; therefore the
movement of one of the divisions of this head revolves the plate 10″
of an arc. A ratchet wheel of 60 teeth is attached to the tangent
screw, and so arranged that by reciprocating motion applied to a
rack which works into it the circle can be advanced any multiple of
10″. Motion is given to the tangent screw by a catgut over a pulley
worked by the foot. The work is centred and clamped down upon the
surface plate. While the divisions are being cut this surface plate
remains for the time quite stationary.
308.—The dividing knife is attached to a swinging frame having a
reciprocating motion. The forward extent of its swing is regulated by
a detent wheel with teeth of varied heights, which, as they are
brought by the mechanism consecutively forward, stop the knife at a
definite position; so that the cuts upon the circle—technically the
limb—are regulated for lengths to represent 10 degrees, 5 degrees,
degrees and parts. In the use of this dividing machine the divider
who worked it had alternately to press his foot upon a treadle and
then pull a cord attached to the dividing knife frame. These motions
are now performed by self-acting mechanism. For full particulars and
details of the dividing engine see Troughton's Memoir, Phil. Trans.,
1809: Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Soc., vol. v. p. 325; vol.
viii. p. 141; vol. ix. pp. 17 and 35. For various plans that have been
tried see Holtzapffel's Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, pp. 651–
955.
309.—The Material upon which the limb or circle of an instrument
is divided is almost uniformly of silver, except for mining survey
instruments, which need a very strong cut. Silver being dense and of
extremely fine crystallisation, or grain, as it is technically termed,
bears a uniform smooth cut with sharp outline. Occasionally circles
or arcs are divided on platinum, certainly the best metal, as it keeps
constantly clean; but it is expensive. The verniers are then made
either of this metal or of gold. The silver of the circle, when this
metal is employed, is rolled down from a surfaced cast plate of about
·25 inch in thickness to about ·045 inch, by means of which it
becomes uniformly dense and fine grained. In all cases possible, that
is, upon all flat internal surfaces, the silver is placed in an undercut
groove and planished down to fill the groove without any other fixing
being necessary. This plan of insertion is employed for all vertical
circles—the horizontal circle of Everest's theodolite, limbs of
sextants, box sextants, etc. In Fig. 117 the silver is shown at A, in
the section to which it is drawn by a plate after it is cut in slips. It is
shown placed in its groove B ready for planishing down. By this
method certainty of dense surface is obtained for the future division.
310.—Upon bevelled edges and outer surfaces the rolled silver is
planished to form, and then soldered to the metal of the part of the
instrument to be divided. The surface, after being made as dense as
possible by planishing or otherwise is turned to form and stoned to
surface ready for the dividing knife.

Fig. 117.—Insertion of silver in circle.

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311.—Graduating.—The object aimed at by the skilful

divider is to obtain as deep a sharp-edged cut as possible, which
shall be at the same time as fine as it can be read clearly by the
microscope with which it is to be used. This matter is most important
to the possessor of the instrument afterwards for use, as in the
atmosphere the silver soon forms an oxide and a sulphuret upon its
surface which has to be cleaned off; and at every cleaning a portion
of the silver is necessarily removed, so that in old or badly divided
instruments the divisions become dull or lost from this reason.

Fig. 118.—Piece of charcoal.

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312.—After the instrument is divided it is engraved with figures

and stoned off with fine blue-stone, and finally finished with willow
or pearwood charcoal, which has just sufficient cut in it to leave a
hard edge to the division lines.
313.—It may be useful to the surveyor, far from aid of the
optician, to know that divisions on silver which are much oxidised
may be brought up to sharp lines by the use of a piece of fine-
grained charcoal, sharpened by a clean file to a chisel point. This
should be frequently dipped in water, and rubbed lightly with the flat
of its end surface, Fig. 118, keeping the motion of the hand in the
direction of the circumference of the circle. The piece of charcoal
before being used should be first tried upon a piece of plain, smooth
metal—an old coin which is worn smooth will do—to see that it is not
scratchy. No kind of polishing powder should in any case be used for
cleaning limbs or verniers, as this is sure to rub down the edges of
the cuts and thereby ruin the divisions of the instrument.
314.—It must be understood that the above directions are not
intended for the ordinary cleaning of the circle for an instrument in
general use, as such would be injurious to it. In the ordinary daily
use of the circle, if it is not in any case touched by the hand, and is
kept carefully brushed with a large, soft camel-hair brush when
taken from the case, and the same when returned to it, it will keep a
long time in an excellent state. If the circle is slightly tarnished, this
tarnish may be removed by a piece of quite clean wash leather; but
the brush is always the safest if sufficient. If the vernier gets grubby
against the circle, a piece of clean thin writing-paper may be passed
between these parts, which will clear out any dirt or grit there may
be between sufficiently.
315.—The Vernier Reading Index.—This is one of the
most important inventions ever applied to instruments of precision
for measuring upon the circumference of the circle. It was invented
or brought into practical use by Pierre Vernier, a native of Ornans,
near Besançon, in Burgundy. The first publication of the invention
appears in a pamphlet published in Brussels in 1631, Construction,
Usage, et Proprietes du Quadrant Nouveau de Mathematique. This
invention was possibly foreshadowed, as it is mentioned by
Cristopher Clavius in his Opera Mathematica, 1612, vol. ii. p. 5, and
vol. iii. p. 10; but he did not propose to attach it permanently to read
into an arc, that is, to place it in its practical form.
316.—The value of the vernier as a means of reading small
quantities depends upon the fact that the eye cannot separate lines,
drawn at equal distance apart, of above a certain degree of
closeness, there being a point for all vision where such lines appear
to mix with the ground upon which they are drawn and form a tint;
therefore, an index reading into such close lines would be, unless
under extreme magnification, most indefinite; whereas the eye can
see a single separate line clearly and detect any break in it. The
vernier for reading subdivisions depends upon the functions of the
eye having power to detect any break in an otherwise straight line,
so that a line that appears without a break may be taken as the
index of reading from among others that appear broken or
separated. It is found in practice that a line as fine as it can be
clearly seen will appear broken in its continuity with another equally
fine line, if at the meeting the rectilinear displacement is as much as
·25 to ·2 part of the width of the line. It therefore follows that we
may read closer by displacement of parts of a single line than by any
possible series of lines that can be drawn in spaces apart upon a
surface; so that if we can arrange lines in such a manner that they
open out or separate into distinct lines to admit of this principle, we
obtain the full value of the unbroken single line reading, and this is
the principal aim of the vernier.
317.—On the same principle that we can find the straight or most
direct line of a series of lines to take as our index, we can also
estimate the amount of the displacement of our selected line, if this
does not read perfectly straight from the vernier division to the circle
division. This small difference is detected in practice by many
experienced surveyors, so that a vernier reading nominally to
minutes only is recorded n′ + 15″, 30″ or 45″, that is to 15″. There
is no doubt that this will be approximate, but it may be much nearer
than the even minutes, say to the 30″ on a 5-inch, or the 15″ on a
6-inch sharply divided circle.

Fig. 119.—Origin of vernier scale.

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318.—The Vernier Scale, as employed by Vernier, was divided to

read minutes upon a circle or limb divided to half degrees, by taking
thirty-one divisions of the scale and dividing these in thirty equal
parts for a separate scale to read against it. This plan is now termed
an inverse reading, the reading being the reverse to the direction of
that of the arc. In modern practice the vernier to read minutes is
divided to the length of 29 half degrees, and this length is
subdivided into thirty equal parts: consequently, where the vernier
and scale are placed edge to edge or reading to reading, every
division of the vernier advances consecutively on the scale one-
thirtieth of the half degree, that is = 1′ of arc on the scale divided to
half degrees. In the above diagram, Fig. 119 represents the scale
and vernier at the position from which the description is taken,
wherein the vernier is shown to cover 29 half degrees or 14° 30′,
and this length is divided into thirty parts. The consecutive advance
of the vernier on the scale is shown + 1′ for each half degree. In this
position of the vernier, or at a similar position in relation to any other
half degree of the circle the arrow placed at the zero of the vernier
reads direct into the degree or half degree, so that this reading must
be n° or n° 30′ at any equivalent position in relation to any line on
the limb.

Fig. 120.—Vernier scale, reading 23° 12′.

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319.—In Fig. 120 the arrow upon the vernier scale is shown
reading at a position beyond 23°, which we then know must be 23°
n′. Now, if we look along the vernier, the lines of this and the scale
appear coincident at the twelfth division of the vernier; consequently,
the n′ is 12′, and the reading is altogether 23° 12′.
320.—Learning the reading of the vernier is very similar to that of
the clock, wherein a child at first gets confused by the difference of
value of the minute hand and the hour hand. In the case of the
vernier we have only to get clearly in our minds that the degree
reading and the vernier reading are quite distinct processes, in which
the vernier reads minutes only, and this by coincidence of lines only,
and that it has nothing to do with degrees, which are indicated by
the arrow only. The arrow may be assumed to be placed on the
vernier scale to save an unnecessary line of division; but this
practically might just as well be placed quite outside of it, as it has
nothing whatever to do with the vernier reading.

Fig. 121.—Vernier scale, reading, 23° 47′.

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321.—It is important to make this matter of reading the vernier

clear; therefore in Fig. 121 the index arrow and vernier are shown
reading past a half degree. At this position the arrow reads 23·30 on
the limb + the vernier, or 23° 30′ + n′ of the vernier reading. We
find the coincident line of the vernier with the limb is at 17, therefore
the reading is 23° 30′ + 17′ or 23° 47′.
322.—The principle of the vernier, upon which it takes its reading
from the coincidence of lines, as just stated, points out that the
figuring of values of points of coincidence may be varied at
discretion, and the zero index may be in any convenient position.
The above described is the common reading to the theodolite and
many other instruments. In mining dials and some other instruments
the zero is placed in the centre. We may, for example, take a central
reading with a vernier reading to 3′, wherein the circle being divided
into degrees; the vernier is then, necessarily, in the direct method,
divided into twenty divisions (20 × 3 = 60) which correspond with
nineteen degree marks of the circle. With a central reading the
vernier in this case is figured 30, 45, 0, 15, 30. This is rather a
simple reading, as the zero to which an arrow is attached gives the
true bearing, and it is readily seen to which degree it refers.
 Fig. 122.—Vernier reading centrally to 3′.
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Fig. 123.
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In Fig. 122 the 45 of the vernier is coincident with a line of the

limb, this must, therefore be 45′; and as the index arrow is past 44°,
it is 44° 45′. If the vernier had read the division next past the 45,
the division being to 3′, this reading would have been 44° + 45′ + 3′
= 44° 48′. The same principles may be applied to any subdivision.
Circles are commonly divided by the vernier in various ways to give
readings from 5′ to 5″.
Theodolites reading to 30 seconds are usually divided degrees
and thirds of degrees on the circle and minutes and halves on the
vernier, as illustrated (Fig. 123), the reading in this case being 153
degrees 40 minutes on the circle and 8 minutes 30 seconds on the
vernier, giving a total reading of 153° 48′ 30″.
A 20 second reading usually has divisions of 20 minutes on the
circles and these are subdivided into minutes and thirds by means of
the vernier.
 Fig. 124.
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28 degrees 40 minutes on the circle and 12 minutes 20 seconds on

the vernier, giving a total of 28° 52′ 20″.
A 10 second reading is designed in the same manner as the
above, but each division of the circle is 10 minutes instead of 20
minutes, with minutes and sixths on the vernier. Fig. 125 is an
illustration of this, showing a reading of 7° 16′ 30″.

Fig. 125.
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323.—For Centesimal Division the vernier to read minutes is

generally divided 50 into 49 for the half grades, for small circles 4
inches to 5 inches. For larger circles, 6 inches to 8 inches, verniers
are cut 25 to 24. The circle is then divided to ·25. Where there is
space for five divisions to the grade, ·20, the third decimal place,
may be estimated or read exactly to ·005 by a vernier 40 to 39, or
more closely if desired by a micrometer, to be described presently.
 Figs. 126, 127.—Sections of scales and vernier for circular
readings.
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Figs. 128, 129.—Sections of scales and vernier for circular

readings.
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324.—Surfaces of Limb and Vernier.—To get a

perfect reading of a vernier the scale and vernier should be brought
into contact upon a plane. This, for many reasons, is impossible in a
great number of cases upon an instrument, from the conditions of its
construction, convenience of vision, and in some cases for want of
means of ensuring durability of the edges which work together.
Therefore verniers and scales are more commonly constructed upon
the methods shown in section Figs. 126, 127, where VV are verniers,
LL limbs. The plan shown in section Fig. 128 gives a nice reading on
a new instrument; but the part of the edge not covered by the
vernier is open to accident, or if nearly covered by a part of the
instrument, open to the introduction of gritty dust, which wears the
meeting line open, and thereby causes loss of edge to edge reading.
Fig. 129 shows a section we find on some French instruments. This
plan was introduced by the late Colonel A. Strange for the section of
the limb reading of theodolites for India, but it was found in practice
awkward to use upon this instrument, as it required unpleasant
stooping to read it. It is, nevertheless, one of the best permanent
vernier readings, as the division remains constant under the amount
of wear occasioned by the sliding of the vernier upon its circle.
325.—With the reading planes shown in section Fig. 126 we
require great care to bring the eye, whether open or through the
microscope, directly radial with the centre of the circle at the line
into which the vernier cuts. If we read the line in the slightest degree
one-sided it is quite possible to make a difference of a minute on a
5-inch or 6-inch circle. This is the section of the general reading
plane of theodolites, where, from the necessary height of the
telescope, the limb has to be placed much lower than the eye. With
this section the circle comes fairly square to a comfortable position
for reading. It will be noticed that there is a slight lap shown to the
vernier over the limb at a, Fig. 126, which is always found in new
instruments of this section. It gives an allowance for wear between
the vernier and the limb caused by the fretting of the metals
together, as also by the intrusion of grit, which is always present in
instruments used in the open air. The lap should not be great, and it
should be nearly equal along the edge of the vernier, although it is a
difficult matter for the maker to get it perfectly so.
Fig. 127 is a section of the reading planes common to sextants
and parts of many instruments. This plan requires the same care to
obtain a truly perpendicular reading to the division as that described
above for Fig. 126.
326.—In the very best of work there is at all times a certain
amount of error, both between the divisions themselves, and in the
place of the axis in relation to the centre of the divided circle, and of
the position of the vernier in relation to both these. It therefore
becomes necessary, where exactness is required, to place at least
two verniers to read opposite sides of the circle. These bisect every
reading through the axis of the instrument, and detect very small
errors in the work, as well as personal errors of the observer, of
which the mean reading of the minutes or seconds only may be
taken and used for correction to mean position. Where very great
precision is aimed at, three or even five verniers are sometimes
placed round the circle, and the mean reading is taken of the small
differences in minutes or seconds, after calculation for correction, to
find the direct position of the axis of the telescope required for the
record of the observation.
327.—Reading Microscope.—The microscope usual for
reading the vernier is either a simple plano-convex lens of short
focus or a Ramsden eye-piece of the kind described for observing
lines on the diaphragm of a telescope, art. 82. Frequently the
microscope, technically called the reader, is made of a compound
form, sometimes with a diagonal prism or mirror. It is uniformly
mounted in such a manner that it may move concentrically to the
divided circle into which it reads. In English instruments it is placed
normal to the surface of the vernier, so that following its curvature it
may read opposite any line upon it. In French instruments the reader
is frequently placed obliquely, so as to look along the line of the limb
into that of the vernier, which is said to be advantageous in certain
lights.
328.—In theodolites for reading the horizontal circle, the reader is
sometimes mounted to slide in an undercut groove near the
circumference of the limb to follow its curvature. This motion is not
pleasant; it is better in this and all cases of vernier reading, if
possible, to mount the reader on frame-work proceeding directly
from and moving upon the axis. Where it is practicable, it is much
better to have two readers where there are two verniers, and in all
cases to have one to each vernier, than to shift one reader about
after the instrument is placed in position, which is liable to disturb it.
With opposite readers mounted on a pair of arms formed of one
piece of metal, where these bisect the circle working through its axis,
by the setting of one reader truly normal to the coincident division of
the vernier the opposite reader will be set also; so that this does not
only save time, but the instrument need not be touched for reading
the second vernier. The same principle should be applied to any
greater number than two verniers as nearly as it may be practical.
329.—Instruments that have to be packed in cases for
conveyance should always have readers removable from the
instrument, with proper fittings in the case provided for them, or
they should be hinged to turn up to a secure position, the latter
being a more expensive but a much better way. It is better also, if
possible, to remove the light frame with the reader if this does not
turn up, so that it cannot be injured in replacing the instrument in its
case.

Fig. 130.—Reader fixed normal to surface.

Fig. 131.—Jointed reader to set to any angle.
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330.—Fig. 130 shows a good rigid form of reader for an oblique

plane of division:—V vernier, L limb. This reader is placed on an arm
radial from the centre of the instrument, more generally in pair with
an opposite reader. The connection with the arm is commonly made
for portability with a dovetail slide fitting to the reader, sprung by a
saw-cut down it to ensure constant contact after wear, as shown in
section Fig. 132; N arm of reader, O fitting to arm. The better form is
shown in Fig. 131. In this the arm is jointed, so that the reader out
of use is turned up into the central part of the instrument. This plan
admits of adjustment of the reader for reflection of light from the
division, or for reading down the lines if preferred. The magnifying
power of either of these microscopes is generally two to three
diameters. The adjustment of the glasses should be such as will
produce a flat field (Ramsden's principle, p. 41), so that several
divisions of the vernier and limb may be read sharply when it is in
focus, although the central division only is taken for the reading.

Fig. 132.—Section of movable arm fitting to reader.

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331.—Surface Reflection to Reader.—In reading

with the microscope the silver surface, from its brightness in certain
lights, gives unpleasant reflections which render the reading difficult.
In practice the hand or a piece of white paper is used to shade the
open vernier in such cases. In large instruments a piece of ground
glass is fixed in a frame over the vernier, which throws a soft light,
producing the effect of a dead surface upon the silver, or the light is
reflected from a cardboard or ivory surface. Fig. 133 shows a
common form of microscope for reading a vertical circle, by which
the light is reflected from a white surface surrounding the field-glass
end of the reader.
 Fig. 133.—Reflecting surface reader.
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332.—Shades for Vernier.—It is very general on the

Continent to place the divided reading of the circle and its vernier on
a plane perpendicular to the axis, Fig. 128, and to place the reader
at a fixed angle for down-the-line reading, the object-glass of the
reader being constructed to focus parallel rays. In this way the
division of the circle is followed into its vernier or vice versa. In this
case the silver may be shaded by ground glass, which gives a soft,
pleasant reading in most lights. The general arrangement is shown,
Fig. 134; L limb, V vernier, S shade of ground glass, M reader.
Objection is made to glass shades by civil engineers as being too
delicate and liable to fracture, with risk of the particles of glass
getting into the working parts of the instrument. To obviate this the
author has made the shade of a piece of thin horn or transparent
ivory, which appears to answer very well and to save this risk.

Fig. 134.—Oblique reading microscope with shade, French plan.

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333.—For ordinary instruments with no provision for shading, a

piece of transparent horn about 2¼ inches by 1¼ inches may be
carried in the waistcoat pocket, and will be found a great comfort if
held over the vernier when the lines appear glary, or the horn may
be placed in a pocket frame with the case containing reflector for
bubble reading, Fig. 52. In large theodolites, used for geodetic
surveys, the object-glass of the micrometer microscope is sometimes
surrounded by a thin belt of turned ivory. This throws a very soft
light upon the divisions.
334.—Micrometer Microscope, for Reading
Subdivisions.—Where more exact reading is required than is possible