INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

What is a network?
A computer network is a link of two or more computers in order to exchange data. In computer networks,
networked computing devices pass data to each other along data connections. Data is transferred in the form of
packets. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-
known computer network is the Internet.

Advantages of a Network
1. Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
2. Centralized Software Management: Site (software) licences are likely to be cheaper than buying several
standalone licences.
3. Files can easily be shared between users.
4. Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
5. Security is good users cannot see other users files unlike on stand-alone machines.
6. Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.
7. Speed: Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a network, files are
shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another
which is time-consuming.
8. Cost: The network version of most software programs are available at considerable savings when compared
to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for
easier upgrading of the program.
9. Centralized data administration and support
10. It allows users to use programs that would otherwise be too large for the computer to run on its own.
11. They allow users to store more information as they can now store data on other computers on the network.

Disadvantages of a Network
1. Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
2. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually needs to be
employed.
3. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. Email might still work if it is
on a separate server. The computers can still be used but are isolated.
4. Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
5. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are needed to
prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

Components of a Network
A computer network comprises the following components:
1. A minimum of at least 2 computers
2. Cables that connect the computers to each other, although wireless communication is becoming more
common
3. A network interface device on each computer (this is called a network interface card or NIC)
4. A ‘Switch’ used to switch the data from one point to another. Hubs are outdated and are little used for new
installations.
5. Network operating system software (nos)
 I. TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Classification

1. Conducted or guided media: Use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic cable to move the signal
from sender to receiver.
2. Wireless or unguided media: Use of waves of different frequencies and do not need a wire or cable
conductor to transmit signals.

Conducted or guided media

Guided media provide a physical path along which the signals are propagated; these include
a) Twisted pair
This is a cable used for telephone systems. It consists of two copper insulated wire twisted around each other.
The twist is to reduce external interference and crosstalk.
Twisting the wires ensures that emitted signal from one wire are cancelled out by signals from the other.
There are two categories of twisted pair cables namely:
• Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
• Shielded twisted pair (STP)

b) coaxial cable
 Outer Braided Copper
Jacket Shielding Plastic
Insulation
Copper
Conductor

c) Fibre Optic

Brief over view of fiber optic cable advantages over copper:

a) Speed: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds – up into the gigabits
b) Bandwidth: large carrying capacity
c) Distance: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be “refreshed” or strengthened.
d) Resistance: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other nearby cables.
e) Maintenance: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.
Media Type Maximum Picture
distance
1. Twisted pairs (multi-pair cables) 2 km

2. Coaxial cable 1 to 9 km

3. Optical fibre 40 km

Unguided media/ Radiated Media/Wireless Transmission

Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna
1. Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes
Radio waves a good candidate for long distance broadcasting such as AM Radio
Application areas
• The omnidirectional characteristics of Radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which
there is one sender but many receivers.
• AM and FM Radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phone, and paging are examples of
multicasting.
2. Infrared Radio (wireless) data transmission uses the same basic principles as standard radio transmission.
Infrared Radiation: is the transfer of energy from one place to another by an electromagnetic wave. They are
used in:
• remote controls for television sets and DVD player
• Used in communication between devices such as Keyboard, PCs and Printers.
• data links over short distances mobile phones
• Indoor wireless LANs
• Do not pass through solid walls
• Better security and no interference (with a similar system in adjacent rooms)
• No government license is needed
• Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine)
• Low speed
3. A microwave is an extremely high frequency radio communication beam that is transmitted over a direct
line-of-sight path between two points. The techniques include using a dish parabolic antenna that broadcasts
and receives in only one specific direction.
4. Satellite: similar to transmission via microwave except, that it is used to link to point several thousands of
kilometres in space.

A satellite transmission system has three main components:

Transmitter earth station: That would set up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data. The uplink will
have a unique frequency.
A satellite that is somewhere in an orbit that receives, amplifies and retransmits the signals to a receiving earth
station via a down link frequency that is different from that of uplink to avoid interference with uplink signals.
Receiving station then would receive the sent signals on the other side of the globe.
The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data. Uplinks and downlinks
are also called Earth stations because they are located on the Earth.
Used for TV distribution, long-distance telephone, and business networks

DATA FLOW MODE

There is three way to transmission of data: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.
• Simplex is one way transmission, it uses one circuit in one direction only such as in radio or TV
transmission. It is simple and relatively inexpensive.
• Half-duplex (HDX) is two-way transmission which use only one circuit as simplex does but it is used in
both directions, walkie-talkie is the good example of the half-duplex processor. Half duplex is a circuit,
which can transmit the signal in two directions but only once at a time. In Half-duplex users can transmit
and receive signals or data but cannot do both simultaneously.
• Full duplex (FDX) Full duplex transmission is also the two-way transmission but it uses two circuits for
communication. Full duplex allows users to communicate in both way simultaneously (i.e. a common
telephone) with no turnaround time. This mode is clearly easier to use then the half duplex but the cost
may be significant, especially over long distance.

II. TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS BASED ON SIZE

(a) Personal Area Network (PAN) is the interconnected network of technology devices within the reach of
an individual person, but usually limited to a range of maximum 10 meters.
(b) Local Area Network (LAN):-consists of microcomputers or terminals located in the same general area and
connected by a common cable so that they can exchange information. This type of network typically uses
microcomputers in a bus organization linked with telephone, coaxial, or fibre-optic cable. A LAN allows all
users to share hardware, software and data on the network. Minicomputers, mainframes or optical disk
storage devices can be added to the network. LANs are typically used within the same building or set of
buildings situated close together and are typically owned, controlled and managed by a single person or
organization.
(c) Wide Area Network (WAN): is a network spanning a large geographical area. Its nodes (microcomputers)
can span cities, states or network boundaries. The widest of all WANs is the Internet, which spans the entire
globe.
Most WANs are not owned by one organization but rather exist under a collective or distributed ownership
and management; they are usually administered by multiple service providers.
(d) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)/ Campus Area Network (CAN): is a network spanning a
geographical area that usually encompasses a city or country. It interconnects various buildings or other
facilities within this city or network.
A CAN is designed to serve a university, military base or an educational institution.
(e) Internet this is the worldwide network of interconnected internets that operates using a standardized set of
communication protocols called TCP/IP (transmission protocol/internet protocol)
TCP/IP provides end to end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted,
routed and received at the destination .

III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A Network Topology is the way computer systems or network equipment connected to each other. Topologies
may define both physical and logical aspect of the network. The four most common topologies are the bus, the
star, the ring and the mesh.

The bus network

In a bus network all the workstations, servers and printers are joined to one cable (the bus). At each end of the
cable a terminator is fitted to stop signals reflecting back down the bus.

Advantages and disadvantages of a bus network

Advantages Disadvantages
easy to install If the main cable fails or gets damaged the whole
network will fail
cheap to install, as it doesn’t require much as more workstations are connected the performance
cable of the network will become slower because of data
collisions
Easy to add stations. Every workstation on the network "sees" all of the
data on the network – this is a security risk
Works well for small networks. Limited no of devices can be attached
The star Network
In a star network each device on the network has its own cable that connects to a switch or hub. A hub sends
every packet of data to every device, whereas a switch only sends a packet of data to the destination device.

Advantages and disadvantages of a star network

Advantages Disadvantages
• Very reliable - if one cable or device fails • Expensive to install as this type of network uses
then all the others will continue to work the most cable (network cable is expensive)
• High performing as no data collisions can • Extra hardware required (hubs or switches)
occur which adds to cost
Easy to find device and cable problems • If a hub or switch fails all the devices connected
to it will have no network connection
Can be upgraded to faster speeds •

The Ring Network

In a ring network each device (workstation, server, and printer) is connected to two other devices, this forms a
ring for the signals to travel around. Each packet of data on the network travels in one direction and each device
receives each packet in turn until the destination device receives it

Advantage Ring Network

This type of network can transfer data quickly, even if there are a large number of devices connected because the
data only flows in one direction, so there won’t be any data collisions.
Easier to fault find
No terminators required
Disadvantage Ring Network
If the main cable fails or any device is faulty then the whole network will fail.
Requires more cable than a bus

Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or two or more than two hosts. This topology may have
hosts having point-to-point connection to every other hosts or may also have hosts which are having point to
point connection to few hosts only.

Advantages:
• Yields the greatest amount of redundancy (multiple connections between same nodes) in the event that
one of the nodes fail where network traffic can be redirected to another node.
• Network problems are easier to diagnose

Disadvantages
• The cost of installation and maintenance is high (more cable is required than any other configuration)

Tree Topology
A tree topology is a type of network topology that includes at least three specific levels in a topology hierarchy.
Tree topologies are valued for their scalability and accessibility for troubleshooting.

Daisy Chain
This topology connects all its hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts in this topology are
connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts.

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be Hybrid Topology. Hybrid
topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
Advantages:
• Improves sharing of data and programs across the network
• Offers reliable communication between nodes

Disadvantages:
• Difficult and costly to install and maintain
• Difficult to troubleshoot network problems

Application of computer networks within an organization

Connectivity is the ability and means to connect a microcomputer by telephone or other telecommunication
links to other computers and information sources around the world.
The connectivity options that make communication available to end-users include:
• Fax machines (Facsimile transmission machines).
• E-mail (Electronic mail)
• Voice messaging systems
• Video conferencing systems
• Shared resources
• Online services

Fax machines
Fax machines convert images to signals that can be sent over a telephone line to a receiving machine. They are
extremely popular in offices. They can scan the image of a document and print the image on paper.
Microcomputers use fax/modem circuit boards to send and receive fax messages.

E-mail (electronic mail)

E-mail is a method of sending an electronic message between individuals or computers. One can receive e-mail
messages even when one is not on the computer. E-mail messages can contain text, graphics, images as well as
sound.

Voice messaging systems

Voice messaging systems are computer systems linked to telephones that convert human voice into digital bits.
They resemble conventional answering machines and electronic mail systems. They can receive large numbers of
incoming calls and route them to appropriate ‘voice mailboxes’ which are recorded voice messages. They can
forward calls and deliver the same message to many people.

Video conferencing systems

Video conferencing systems are computer systems that allow people located at various geographic locations to
have in-person meetings. They can use specially equipped videoconferencing rooms to hold meetings. Desktop
videoconferencing systems use microcomputers equipped with inexpensive video cameras and microphones that
sit atop a computer monitor.

Shared resources
Shared resources are communication networks that permit microcomputers to share expensive hardware such as
laser printers, chain printers, disk packs and magnetic tape storage. Several microcomputers linked in a network
make shared resources possible. The connectivity capabilities of shared resources provide the ability to share
data located on a computer.

Online services
Online services are business services offered specifically for microcomputer users. Well-known online service
providers are America Online (AOL), AT&T WorldNet, CompuServe, Africa Online, Kenyaweb, UUNET,
Wananchi Online and Microsoft Network.Typical online services offered by these providers are:
- Teleshopping- a database which lists prices and description of products. You place an order, charge
the purchase to a credit card and merchandise is delivered by a delivery service.
- Home banking – banks offer this service so you can use your microcomputer to pay bills, make loan
payments, or transfer money between accounts.
- Investing – investment firms offer this service so you can access current prices of stocks and bonds.
You can also buy and sell orders.
- Travel reservations – travel organizations offer this service so you can get information on airline
schedules and fare, order tickets, and charge to a credit card.
- Internet access – you can get access to the World Wide Web.

NETWORK SECURITY
Common Attacks
Wire tapping: listening a link to get access to cleartext data and passwords
Impersonation: to get unauthorized access to data or to create unauthorized e-mails, orders, etc.
Denial-of-service: to render network resources non-functional
Replay of messages: to get access to and change information in transit
Guessing of passwords: to get access to information and services that would
normally be denied (dictionary attack)
Guessing of keys: to get access to encrypted data and passwords (brute-force attack, chosen ciphertext attack,
chosen plaintext attack)
Viruses, trojan horses and logic bombs: to destroy data
Though these attacks are not exclusively specific to TCP/IP networks, they should be considered potential
threats to anyone who is going to base his/her network on TCP/IP, which is what the majority of enterprises,
organizations and small businesses around the world are doing today. Hackers (more precisely, crackers) do
likewise and hence find easy prey.

Observing the Basics

Before even thinking about implementing advanced security techniques, you should make sure that basic
security rules are in place:

Passwords: Make sure that passwords are enforced to be of a minimum length (typically six to eight characters),
to contain at least one numeric character, to be different from the user ID to which they belong, and to be
changed at least once every two months.

User IDs: Make sure that every user has a password and that users are locked out after several logon attempts
with wrong passwords (typically five attempts). Keep the passwords to superuser accounts (root, supervisor,
administrator, maint, etc.) among a very limited circle of trusted system, network and security administrators.

System defaults: Make sure that default user IDs are either disabled or have passwords that adhere to the
minimum requirements stated above. Likewise, make sure that only those services are enabled that are required
for a system to fulfill its designated role.

Physical access: Make sure that access to the locations where your systems and users physically reside is
controlled appropriately. Information security begins at the receptionist, not at the corporate firewall.

Help desk: Make sure that callers are properly identified by help desk representatives or system administrators
before they give out "forgotten" passwords or user IDs. Social engineering is often the first step to attack a
computer network.
Solutions to Security Issues
A combination of several such solutions should be considered in order to guarantee a certain level of safety and
security.

Encryption: to protect data and passwords.

Authentication and authorization: to prevent improper access.

Integrity checking and message authentication codes (MACs): to protect against the improper alteration
of messages.
Non-repudiation: to make sure that an action cannot be denied by the person who performed it

Digital signatures and certificates: to ascertain a party's identity

Frequent key refresh, strong keys and prevention of deriving future keys: to protect against breaking of
keys (crypto-analysis)
Address concealment: to protect against denial-of-service attacks

Content inspection: to check application-level data for malicious content before delivering it into the secure
network