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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Office of the Vice President for Branches & Satellite Campuses
SANTA MARIA BULACAN CAMPUS
Santa Maria, Bulacan

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR (SEEN 30053)

LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES
IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES

COMPILED BY:
ARONE JOHN S. CASTRO, LPT
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OVERVIEW:

This course provides a survey of local and international basic education language programs and
policies that account for issues and considerations relevant to the engagement of teachers in
school settings.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
1. Value and understand the importance of diversity in education
2. Define and identify the relationship of language in education and society.
3. Differentiate certain terminologies related to language policy.
4. Recognize the different programs and issues relevant to eh language policy and planning.
5. Collaborate with classmates through interactive learning.
6. Create media presentations.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON 1 4 - 13
Diversity and Education: Language in a Global World

LESSON 2 14 - 27
Understanding Concepts in LPPMLINGSOC

LESSON 3 28 - 35
Introduction to Basic Education
Language Programs, Policies, and Planning

LESSON 4 36 - 41
Communication in Global Context

LESSON 5 42- 48
Language Policy Choices in Multilingual Societies

LESSON 6 49 - 55
Involvement in the Education of Emergent Bilinguals

REFERENCES 56 - 57
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LESSON 1 – Diversity and Education: Language in a Global World

UNIT 1 – Diversity in Education

Introduction:
Diversity is generally understood to encompass race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality,
age, and political and religious beliefs. And while in the past it has focused on strengthening inter-
cultural tolerance, new ideas about diversity and inclusion have developed, shifting the focus
towards enriching human learning and experience, so-called ‘unity in diversity.’
In the first unit, we will take a look about the importance of diversity in education.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define diversity;
2. Value and understand the importance of diversity in education;
3. Define and identify the characteristics of language;
4. Create a video presentation introducing.

Course Materials:
Diversity can be conceptualized in different ways depending on the context. When it comes to our
classrooms, we conceptualize diversity as understanding each student brings unique
experiences, strengths, and ideas to our classroom. These differences can be along dimensions
of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, socio-economic status, age, ability, religious or
political beliefs, or other different ideologies. Diversity is the exploration and incorporation of these
differences to enrich learning and in our classrooms.
When it comes to education, ‘unity in diversity’ in the classroom doesn’t seem a farfetched idea
anymore for any globally minded teacher. This can be accomplished by either having technology
that connects students with foreign knowledge and cultures or by having an international student
body to make the learning environment multicultural and diverse.
The Importance of Diversity in Education
Student Performance
Exploring differences enriches the learning experience. Studies have demonstrated that fostering
diversity in the classroom has a huge impact on student performance. According to research
conducted by Queens University of Charlotte, students achieve more, and work harder, in
multicultural environments. Also, when lesson plans reflect the students and their varied
backgrounds, they develop a deeper knowledge of a subject as they explore it from varying
perspectives. This equips students with a broader understanding and opens their minds to deeper
insights.
According to a case study from The Century Foundation, students who attended a magnet school
in Hartford, Connecticut that was required to meet racial integration standards through a lottery
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system outperformed students at suburban school that had a higher percentage of affluent,
white students on standardized test scores.
The same report also found that effectively integrated schools had less misbehavior, lower
dropout levels and noticed that students were more likely to want to pursue post-secondary
education.
Creativity
Diverse study environments also drive creativity when interpreting and using knowledge, data and
facts. Group activities with diverse group members helps create a positive atmosphere and group
dynamic for creative and collaborative learning. Bringing diverse students together helps
with critical thinking or problem-solving, especially when applied to real world business
problems.
Combatting Prejudice
Studies have shown that having diverse classrooms help develop tolerance and a greater
sense of security when in environments with other foreign cultures present. It also helps
students learn about other languages and cultures, encouraging them to be interculturally
sensitive. Diversity in the classroom teaches students to appreciate different perspectives
and draw stronger conclusions. Challenging students to consider different perspectives can
also teach them how to interact with their peers on a social level, and equip them with skills they’ll
use for the rest of their life.
Teaching Faculty
Diversity is as important among faculty as it is among students. Educational institutions are
increasingly hiring teachers from a range of backgrounds. This helps students identify
with teachers who then structure their lessons to reflect differences among students.
Culturally relevant lesson-planning takes center stage, where a teacher not only highlights the
importance of academic performance, but also cross-cultural understanding and competence as
well as activism and political analysis.

REASONS WHY CLASSROOMS NEED DIVERSITY EDUCATION

1. Because the idea of “diversity” is not even that straightforward. Not only must schools recognize
diversity evident among broad racial and ethnic groups (e.g., Asian or Hispanic), but the diversity
within these groups must be recognized as well. For example Chinese and Japanese students
may share common cultural characteristics as a result of being Asian, but will also have distinctly
Chinese and Japanese cultural characteristics that differ from each other. The same is true of
Caucasian students who come from vastly different family backgrounds, even from the same
neighborhoods. In the interest of treating students equally, giving them equal chances for
success, and equal access to the curriculum, teachers and administrators must recognize the
uniqueness and individuality of their students.
2. Teachers have a particular responsibility to recognize and structure their lessons to reflect
student differences. This encourages students to recognize themselves and others as individuals.
It also encourages the appreciation of a diverse school population, and brings a sense of
connection between disparate cultural heritages within a single school’s culture. It is certainly in
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the best interest of students and teachers to focus on the richness of our diversity. Recognizing
and acknowledging our differences is part of treating students fairly and equally.
3. So that you can facilitate the process of learning overall. One reason for seeking out and
acknowledging cultural differences among students is the idea that learning involves transfer of
information from prior knowledge and experiences. To assist in this transfer process, it is
important to acknowledge the students’ background, and to validate and incorporate their
previous knowledge into the process of acquiring new information. All students begin school with
a framework of skills and information based on their home cultures. This may include a
rudimentary understanding of the alphabet, numbers, computer functions, some basic knowledge
of a second language, or the ability to spell and write their names. It also includes a set of habits,
etiquette and social expectations derived from the home.
4. So that you can help students assimilate what they learn with what they already know. If a
student cannot relate new information to his own experiences, or connect the new material to a
familiar concept, he may perceive the new information as frustrating, difficult or dismiss it
completely, believing it to be in conflict with his already tenuous understanding of the world.
Teachers have the responsibility to seek out cultural building blocks students already possess, in
order to help build a framework for understanding. Some educational pedagogy refers to this
process as “scaffolding.” Recognition of a student’s cultural differences provides a positive basis
for effective learning, and a “safe” classroom environment. Every group of students will respond
differently to curriculum and teachers must constantly adjust to be sure their methods are diverse,
both in theory and in practice.
WATCH: Diverse Education for a student in the Education System | Elijah Jones |
TEDxYouth@Wilmington

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7TEslQCwTY

Characteristics and Features of Language

Language is, today, an inseparable part of human society. Human civilization has been possible
only through language. It is through language only that humanity has come out of the stone age
and has developed science, art and technology in a big way. Language is a means of
communication, it is arbitrary, it is a system of systems. We know that Speech is primary while
writing is secondary.

Language is human so it differs from animal communication in several ways. Language can have
scores of characteristics but the following are the most important ones: language is arbitrary,
productive, creative, systematic, vocalic, social, non-instinctive and conventional. These
characteristics of language set human language apart from animal communication. Some of these
features may be part of animal communication; yet they do not form part of it in total.
Language is Arbitrary: Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no inherent relation
between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. There is no
reason why a female adult human being be called a woman in English, aurat in Urdu, Zen in
Persian and Femine in French. The choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea
is purely arbitrary but once a word is selected for a particular referent, it comes to stay as such. It
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may be noted that had language not been arbitrary, there would have been only one language in
the world.
Language is Social: Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used by humans
for communication in a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group,
comprising an indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each other, to
interact with each other, to co-operate with each other; it is a social institution. Language exists
in society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.
Language is Symbolic: Language consists of various sound symbols and their graphological
counterparts that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences or meaning. These symbols
are arbitrarily chosen and conventionally accepted and employed. Words in a language are not
mere signs or figures, but symbols of meaning. The intelligibility of a language depends on a
correct interpretation of these symbols.
Language is Systematic: Although language is symbolic, yet its symbols are arranged in a
particular system. All languages have their system of arrangements. Every language is a system
of systems. All languages have phonological and grammatical systems, and within a system there
are several sub-systems. For example, within the grammatical system we have morphological
and syntactic systems, and within these two sub-systems we have systems such as those of
plural, of mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.
Language is Vocal: Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only produced by a
physiological articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it appeared as vocal
sounds only. Writing came much later, as an intelligent attempt to represent vocal sounds. Writing
is only the graphic representation of the sounds of the language. So the linguists say that speech
is primary.
Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional: No language was created in a day out of a mutually
agreed upon formula by a group of humans. Language is the outcome of evolution and
convention. Each generation transmits this convention on to the next. Like all human institutions
languages also change and die, grow and expand. Every language then is a convention in a
community. It is non-instinctive because it is acquired by human beings. No body gets a language
in heritage; he acquires it because he an innate ability.
Language is Productive and Creative: Language has creativity and productivity. The structural
elements of human language can be combined to produce new utterances, which neither the
speaker nor his hearers may ever have made or heard before any, listener, yet which both sides
understand without difficulty. Language changes according to the needs of society.
Finally, language has other characteristics such as Duality referring to the two systems of sound
and meaning, Displacement which means the ability to talk across time and
space, Humanness which means that animals cannot acquire it, Universality which refers to the
equilibrium across humanity on linguistic grounds, Competence and Performance which means
that language is innate and produced is society and furthermore, language is culturally
transmitted. It is learnt by an individual from his elders, and is transmitted from one generation to
another. Thus using J. Firth’s term, language is a ‘polysystametic’. It is also open to be studied
from multifaceted angles.
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Activities/Assessments:
1. Create a 2-3-minute video presentation introducing yourself in the class.
2. Explain the characteristics of language.
3. Write a reaction paper about the video clip, Diverse Education for a student in the
Education System | Elijah Jones | TEDxYouth@Wilmington.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

REMINDER: DO NOT FORGET TO KEEP THE ACTIVITIES THAT YOU WILL BE DOING ALL
THROUGHOUT THE COURSE. THE ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS WILL BE COMPILED AND WILL
SERVE AS YOUR FINAL REQUIREMENT AS: E-PORTFOLIO.

THE INSTRUCTOR WILL GROUP YOU INTO FIVE GROUPS AFTER FINISHING THIS MODULE.
THE GROUP TASK IS IN THE LESSON 3.

LESSON 1 – Diversity and Education: Language in a Global World

UNIT 2 – Language and Education

Introduction:
Teachers and students use spoken and written language to communicate with each
other–to present tasks, engage in learning processes, present academic content,
assess learning, display knowledge and skill, and build classroom life. In addition, much of what
students learn is language. Language is an instrumental tool for education. In this unit, we will
take a closer look on the relationship.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define, value and understand the concept and relationship of language and education;
2. Create a graphic organizer about the relationship of language and education.

Course Materials:
In discussions of language and education, language is usually defined as a shared set of verbal
codes, such as English, Spanish, Mandarin, French, and Swahili. But language can also be
defined as a generic, communicative phenomenon, especially in descriptions of instruction.
Teachers and students use spoken and written language to communicate with each other–to
present tasks, engage in learning processes, present academic content, assess learning, display
knowledge and skill, and build classroom life. In addition, much of what students learn is language.
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They learn to read and write (academic written language), and they learn the discourse of
academic disciplines (sometimes called academic languages and literacies). Both definitions of
language are important to understanding the relationship between language and education.

As suggested by M. A. K. Halliday, the relationship between language and education can be

divided into three heuristic categories: (1) learning language, (2) learning through language,
and (3) learning about language.

Learning Language
In their early years, children are learning both spoken and written language. They are developing
use of complex grammatical structures and vocabulary; communicative competence (rules for
the appropriate and effective use of language in a variety of social situations); comprehension of
spoken and written language; and ways to express themselves.
Educational programs for young children often emphasize curriculum and instruction to facilitate
language learning. With regard to spoken language, instructional programs may emphasize
opportunities to comprehend a variety of genres from directions to narratives and opportunities to
experiment with modes of expression. With regard to written language, classrooms for young
children provide opportunities to learn alphabetic symbols, grapho-phonemic relationships (letter-
sound relationships), basic sight vocabulary, and comprehension strategies; and also feature the
reading of stories designed for young children. Young children may also have opportunities to
learn how to express themselves through written language, including opportunities to form letters,
words, sentences, and text structures, and opportunities to learn how to put together a written
story.
There is debate about the extent to which classrooms for young children's language learning
should provide didactic, teacher-centered instruction or student-centered instruction. Those who
support a didactic approach argue that children whose language performance is below that of
their peers need explicit instruction to catch up. These advocates argue that the home and
community environments do not provide all children with the experiences needed to be proficient
and effective users of language and that direct instruction with grammatical forms, vocabulary,
and pronunciation can help certain students catch up with their peers. A similar argument is made
for the didactic instruction of written language. Written language, it is argued, is sufficiently
different from spoken language as to require explicit instruction. Research noting the importance
of phonological awareness to reading development is cited as rationale for a parts (letters and
sounds) to whole (fluent oral reading) curriculum.
The alternative argument is that children are inherently wired as language learners and that
providing them with a stimulating, rich language environment supplies them with the tools they
need for further developing their spoken and written language abilities. Although teachers may
provide instruction, the instruction should follow the student's needs and interests rather than
being prescribed in a predetermined manner. The complexity of language processes requires that
children be allowed to engage in complete or whole-language activities rather than in isolated skill
instruction activities that distort language processes by stripping them of their complexity (and
also making them harder to learn). The learning of written language is not viewed as being much
different from the learning of spoken language, and thus learning processes similar to those used
in learning spoken language are advocated for the learning of written language.
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In the United States another set of debates surrounds language learning by children whose native
language is other than English. First, there are debates with regard to goals. Some educators
advocate for a sole emphasis on the learning of English, whereas others advocate for continued
language growth in English and in the child's native language. Arguments focus on the role of the
public school in providing a common language that can produce national unity. Although few
argue against the importance of learning English, questions are raised about whether national
unity depends on English only as opposed to English plus additional languages. With regard to
the learning of English, one side advocates for an immersion approach that prohibits use of the
child's native, first language. Immersion is believed to provide the child with motivation and
language input for becoming a fluent English speaker. The other side argues that stripping
children of their native language also strips them of their culture and heritage. Further, these
advocates point to studies that show that learning English is not inhibited by continued language
growth in a native language or by bilingual educational programs. Learning to read in one's native
language has been shown by research studies to provide a useful foundation for students learning
to read in English.
At the secondary and postsecondary level, students learn the language of a broad range of
disciplines. They must learn how to argue in discipline-specific ways and to read and write
discipline-specific texts each with their own set of language conventions. Studies have suggested,
however, that in some classrooms and schools there is little difference in the texts or written
assignments across disciplines. In both science and social studies, for example, students may
encounter the same pattern of reading a textbook chapter and answering end-of-chapter
questions.

Learning through Language

Learning in classrooms is primarily accomplished through language. Teachers lecture, ask
questions, orchestrate discussions, and assign reading and writing tasks. Students engage in
academic tasks through reading, writing, exploring the Internet, giving verbal answers to teacher
questions, listening to teacher lectures and student presentations, participating in whole-class
and instructional peer group discussions, memorizing written text and vocabulary, and so on. A
major thrust of classroom research since the 1970s has focused on the following question: What
forms of classroom language practice facilitate what kinds of learning?
One classroom language practice of interest to educational researchers has
been scaffolding. Scaffolding is the process through which teachers and students interact with
each other by building on each other's immediately previous statement or utterance. For example,
after making a statement, a teacher might ask a student a question intended to help the student
elaborate or probe the academic topic a bit further. The student, building on the teacher's question
or comment, produces a statement with more depth, complexity, or insight. The teacher might
then ask another question to scaffold the learning even further, and so on. Through scaffolding,
teachers may be able to help students explore and understand academic issues beyond what
they are able to do on their own. Scaffolding can occur between teachers and students and also
among students.
Another classroom language practice that has received a great deal of attention from educational
researchers has been the teacher initiation—student response—teacher feedback/evaluation
sequence (known as I-R-F). It is also referred to as the asking of known-information questions
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and recitation questioning. Of concern to researchers and educators are the constraints that such
a conversational structure places on academic learning. I-R-F sequences rarely provide students
with opportunities to provide long or in-depth responses, and the knowledge displayed is
contextualized by feedback or evaluation that subsequently comes from the teacher. I-R-F
sequences rarely allow opportunities to explore explanations or to debate issues. The teacher
always generates the topics, and thus students do not have opportunities to ask questions.
Further, I-R-F sequences provide students with few opportunities to practice the creation of
extended spoken text. Research on I-R-F sequences has also shown, however, that they may be
more complex and malleable than previously recognized. For example, instead of just providing
an evaluation of the correctness of a student response, a teacher might provide additional
information and revoice a student response in a way that models for students how to phrase the
statement in the academic jargon. Such revoicings can be considered a kind of scaffolding. I-R-F
sequences may also be useful to display to the whole class what counts as the knowledge for
which they are accountable. And I-R-F sequences may also be used by teachers as a classroom
management tool, ensuring that students complete assignments and that they are paying
attention.
A third classroom language practice that has received a lot of attention has been sharing time
(also known as show-and-tell). Sharing time provides an opportunity for young children to develop
narrative performance skills such as topic coherence, sequencing of events, structuring narrative
events, and adjusting a narrative to an audience. Research shows that how students construct a
narrative during sharing time may reflect narrative practices from their own families and
communities. In such cases, the narrative produced by the child may differ from the narrative
models that a teacher is using to evaluate the child's language performance, and as a result the
teacher may negatively evaluate the child. The research on sharing time and similar classroom
language practices shows that there is great variation in the narrative models, structures, and
devices used across cultures and that children may experiment with many different types of
narratives. Children adopt and adapt narrative models from a broad range of sources. In addition
to suggesting the need for educators to be sensitive to cultural variation in narrative performance
and in assessment of children's language abilities, the studies of sharing time show the close
connections among education, language, and cultural variation.
Beyond questions about the effectiveness of various classroom language practices are questions
about who is able to engage in what language practices and language processes, when, and
where. In other words, what constitutes equitable classroom language practices? Research on
turn-taking practices has shown that a broad range of factors influence who gets a turn to talk
during classroom conversations and who is less likely to get a turn. These factors may include
race, gender, class, native language, and where the student is seated, among others. Some
students may get or seek few turns to talk. Those students who do not get or seek turns to talk
and who feel alienated from the classroom are sometimes referred to as having
been silenced. Although students can be silenced by the behavior of the teacher or of other
students, more often silencing involves a deeper social process whereby a student is inhibited
from bringing into the classroom his culture, language, heritage, community, personal experience,
and so on.
Learning about Language
Perhaps the most obvious classroom practice for learning about language is through the study of
grammar and spelling. As linguists point out, the grammar taught in school is a prescriptive
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grammar and is not what linguists mean by grammar (they mean a descriptive grammar). For
those students who use Standard American English, prescriptive grammar is often very close to
the language they speak. But for students who speak a variation of English other than Standard
English or who speak African-American Language (which is also referred to as African-American
English, Black Dialect, and Ebonics, among others), the teaching and learning of prescriptive
grammar does not necessarily map onto the language they speak, and thus they are learning
about a language different from the language they speak.
Another typical classroom practice for learning about language is the instruction of a second
language. Learning a second language can mean one of two things: the learning of a foreign
language (such as the learning of Latin, French, and Spanish in the United States) or the learning
of English by those in the United States whose native language is not English. It is often the case
that the teaching of a second language includes coverage of the grammar, vocabulary structures,
and history of the language.
Beyond the teaching of prescriptive grammar and the explicit teaching of a second language,
there is very little taught about language in K–12 classrooms. Although there have been
experimental and one-off programs in K–12 schools that have taught students the practices of
linguists, engaged them in sociolinguistic studies, helped them develop language
autobiographies, and sensitized students and teachers to language variation, there exists no
broad-based trend
WATCH: How language shapes the way we think | Lera Boroditsky

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k

Activities/Assessments:
1. Create a graphic organizer about the relationship of language and education according to
MAK Halliday.
2. Write a reaction paper about the video clip, How language shapes the way we think |
Lera Boroditsky. Include it on the first unit’s activity.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

LESSON 1 – Diversity and Education: Language in a Global World

UNIT 3 – Language and Society

Introduction:
The connection between language and society is tightly anchored. The relationship of the
two is deeply rooted. Language performs various functions in the society and the society does
the same way. If one will not exist, the other one will be affected. In the last unit, we will explore
the relationship of language and society.
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Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define, value and understand the concept of language and society;
2. Discover the relationship of language and society through research.

Course Materials:
Language is the primary tool for communication purposes, for establishing peace and order in our
society, for showing authority and power, and for attaining goals and objectives. But, it can also
destruct the society if it will use inappropriately. It must follow the conformity governing the society
to avoid conflict s and to meet the boundary of individual differences.
Society however controls our language by giving us preferences as what are acceptable and not,
because each one of us has our own perception or point of view. A group of people may accept
our language, but for others, it could be kind of offence or insult. We must know how, when and
where to say it and for what purpose.
Social changes produce changes in language. This affects values in ways that have not been
accurately understood. Language incorporates social values. However, social values are only the
same as linguistic values when the society is a stable and unchanging one. Once society starts
changing, then language change produces special effects.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Discovery Learning. Research about the relationship of language and the society.
Give at least 5 concrete reasons on why language and society are intertwined with
each other.
2. Be prepared for a discusion about the whole lesson.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
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LESSON 2 – Understanding Concepts in LPPMLINGSOC

UNIT 1 – Bilingualism, Multilingualism, Code Switching

Introduction:
In this lesson, we will explore the different terms and concepts that you will encounter
along the course of Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define and understand bilingualism, multilingualism, and code switching;
2. Create a situation/scenario using the concept and idea of the terms: bilingualism,
multilingualism, and code-switching.

Course Materials:
The term bilingual refers to individuals who can function in more than one language. The
category of bilinguals is very broad–encompassing individuals who are sophisticated speakers,
readers, and writers of two or more languages, as well as those who use a limited knowledge of
a second language (L2) for purposes such as work or schooling, and who may be literate in only
one language (or even completely illiterate). Because of the consequences of colonization,
migration, nation-formation, traditions of exogamy, and modernization, some degree of
bilingualism is typical of most people in the world.
Bilingualism is a feature not just of individuals, but also of societies. Societies in which two
languages are used regularly, or in which more than one language has official status or a recurrent
function, can be called bilingual. For example, Canada is a bilingual country because French and
English are both official languages, even though many citizens of Canada are monolingual
English speakers. Saudi Arabia is also a bilingual society, as most Saudis speak both Arabic and
English, though English has no official status. The nature of individual bilingualism is quite
different in different communities–there are those where bilingualism is the norm for all educated
citizens (as it is, for example, in relatively small language communities like Scandinavia and The
Netherlands); those where bilingualism is the norm for the minority language speakers but not
those with the greatest political or economic power in the society (e.g., for Quechua speakers in
Peru, for Turkish speakers in the Netherlands, for Spanish speakers in the United States); and
those where bilingualism is the norm for the upper classes and better educated but not the
relatively powerless (e.g., Colombia). It must be noted that the United States and other
traditionally English-speaking countries observe a norm of monolingualism (low expectations for
second/foreign language proficiency, low value placed on immigrant languages, universal
emphasis on the need to speak English) that is possible only for speakers of a 'language of wider
communication' living in an economy that is globally highly influential.
Bilingualism is often the product of second language (L2) learning after the first language
(L1) has been acquired–either through non-tutored exposure or through instruction. Individuals
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can become bilingual at any age, depending on when the need to learn the L2 emerges or when
instruction becomes available. In some cases, though, bilingualism is a characteristic of a child's
earliest language system. For example, children growing up in bilingual households–where both
parents speak two languages regularly, or where each parent speaks a different language–are
typically bilingual from the very beginning of language acquisition. Children growing up with
parents who speak a minority language (within the larger societal context) may also be natively
bilingual, if visitors, neighbors, television, regular caretakers, and other sources make the majority
language available.
English as a second language (ESL) refers to the process of producing bilinguals by teaching
English as an L2 to learners in an English-speaking context. ESL is distinguished from English as
a foreign language (EFL), which is instruction delivered in a context where English is not used
regularly outside the classroom, using the instructional techniques and the intensity of instruction
required to achieve success. The term ESOL (English for speakers of other languages) is meant
to encompass both ESL and EFL. Given the importance of English in the modern, globalized
economy, ESOL is a large field of practice buttressed by considerable bodies of research and
many curricular resources.
ESL instruction also needs to be distinguished, in the American schooling context, from instruction
referred to as bilingual education, in which some instructional content is delivered in the learner's
L1 while English is being acquired. Bilingual programs range from those that use the native
language briefly (and primarily for emotional support), to programs that seek to develop L1 literacy
as a source of transfer to English literacy, to those that continue to teach L1 oral and literacy skills
at least through the elementary grades. Some districts also offer two-way bilingual, or double
immersion programs, in which half the students are L1 speakers of English and half are L1
speakers of another language, and instruction is given to all children in both languages, with the
goal of producing high-level bilinguals from both English-and other-language backgrounds.
Bilingual education programs, which were first supported by federal funding as a result of the
Federal Bilingual Education Act of 1968, are offered in districts where sufficient numbers of
students from a single L1 background exist; such programs came under attack as ineffective in
1998 in California, where they were severely curtailed as a result of ballot proposition 227. Since
then, political action to eliminate the bilingual schooling option has spread to other states. The
difficulty of carrying out well-designed evaluations of bilingual education has frustrated its
supporters because there is, as a result, no unambiguous demonstration that bilingual education
generates achievement advantages. Nonetheless, both theory and meta-analyses suggest that
bilingual education is the best approach to ensuring educational achievement and reducing the risk
of reading failure for many language-minority children.

The major challenge of education for language minority children in the U.S. is to ensure adequate
literacy development; scores from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
continue to show serious deficits in literacy for non-native speakers of English, even after several
years of U.S. schooling. Thus, focusing on educational treatments that promote literacy is a high
priority in research and practice innovations.

Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of speakers to

communicate effectively in three or more languages. Contrast with monolingualism, the ability to
use only one language.
 16

A person who can speak multiple languages is known as a polyglot or a multilingual.

The original language a person grows up speaking is known as their first language or mother
tongue. Someone who is raised speaking two first languages or mother tongues is called a
simultaneous bilingual. If they learn a second language later, they are called a sequential
bilingual.

Multilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple languages, either by an
individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual
speakers in the world's population
In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker".
According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some
respects a level of skill which a second (or subsequent) language learner can hardly reliably
accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out
using only native speakers as informants. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly
as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-
native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important
contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians and performing artists) in their non-native
language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on the use of widely known
world languages such as English as lingua franca, or the shared common language of
professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the
common language are functionally multilingual.

Code Switching in Speech

The ability to communicate our thoughts, emotions, and opinions to others is truly a remarkable
skill. But not only does our language communicate who we are, but our use of language can
influence our self-concept and identity. It goes both ways: Cultural influences are reflected in our
language and also influence how we conceptualize who we are and where we come from. (The
social aspect of language is studied by sociolinguistics, a subdivision of linguistics which studies
social factors.)
Bilingual communities use certain strategies to make communication more effective and
meaningful. One of these tricks is "code switching," which we can observe mostly in
second- or foreign-language classes. Code switching refers to the use of two languages
within a sentence or discourse. It is a natural conflation that often occurs between
multilingual speakers who have two or more languages in common.
Code switching is when a speaker alternates between two or more languages (or dialects
or varieties of language) in one conversation. This phenomenon can be observed in the
following examples.
Examples of Code switching:

• If you have an exam next week, şimdiden çalışmaya başlamalısın. (English + Turkish)
• Gracias for the lovely gift. Está awesome! (Spanish + English)
 17

• Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein! (Tagalog +
English)
• Are we eating chez ta mère demain? (English + French)
• Saweyti l-homework tabaa’ik? (Arabic + English)
• Nó còng đang celebrate cái sinh nhật. (Vietnamese + English)
• Ní yào qù get pizza with me ma? (Mandarin + English)
Code switching occurs mostly in bilingual communities. Speakers of more than one
language are known for their ability to code switch or mix their language during their
communication. As Aranoff and Miller (2003:523) indicate, many linguists have stressed the point
that switching between languages is a communicative option available to a bilingual member of a
speech community, just as switching between styles or dialects is an option for the monolingual
speaker.

READ: Bilingualism: Code-switching & Cross-Linguistic Influence

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWbVMyBPrvE

WATCH: Bilingualism: Code-switching & Cross-Linguistic Influence

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWbVMyBPrvE
Note: Kindly turn on the subtitle if you have
trouble understanding the context of the
video.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Give at least 3 reasons on why do we code switch. Create a scenario wherein
code switching happens.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

LESSON 2 – Understanding Concepts in LPPMLINGSOC

UNIT 2 – Language Change, Language Shift, Language Death,
Language Revival

Introduction:
In this lesson, we will explore the different terms and concepts that you will encounter
along the course of Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies.
 18

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define and understand Language Change, Language Shift, Language Death,
Language Revival;
2. Examine and research about language change, shift, death, and revival;
3. Give concrete examples of language change, shift, death, and revival.

Course Materials:
LANGUAGE CHANGE is the phenomenon by which permanent alterations are made in the
features and the use of a language over time. All natural languages change, and language
change affects all areas of language use. Types of language change include sound
changes, lexical changes, semantic changes, and syntactic changes.
The branch of linguistics that is expressly concerned with changes in a language (or in languages)
over time is historical linguistics (also known as diachronic linguistics).
How and why does language change?
There are many different routes to language change. Changes can take originate in language
learning, or through language contact, social differentiation, and natural processes in usage.
Language learning: Language is transformed as it is transmitted from one generation to
the next. Each individual must re-create a grammar and lexicon based on input received
from parents, older siblings and other members of the speech community. The experience
of each individual is different, and the process of linguistic replication is imperfect, so that
the result is variable across individuals. However, a bias in the learning process -- for
instance, towards regularization -- will cause systematic drift, generation by generation. In
addition, random differences may spread and become 'fixed', especially in small
populations.
Language contact: Migration, conquest and trade bring speakers of one language into
contact with speakers of another language. Some individuals will become fully bilingual
as children, while others learn a second language more or less well as adults. In such
contact situations, languages often borrow words, sounds, constructions and so on.
Social differentiation. Social groups adopt distinctive norms of dress, adornment,
gesture and so forth; language is part of the package. Linguistic distinctiveness can be
achieved through vocabulary (slang or jargon), pronunciation (usually via exaggeration of
some variants already available in the environment), morphological processes, syntactic
constructions, and so on.
Natural processes in usage. Rapid or casual speech naturally produces processes such
as assimilation, dissimilation, syncope and apocope. Through repetition, particular cases
may become conventionalized, and therefore produced even in slower or more careful
speech. Word meaning change in a similar way, through conventionalization of processes
like metaphor and metonymy.
 19

Some linguists distinguish between internal and external sources of language change,
with "internal" sources of change being those that occur within a single linguistic
community, and contact phenomena being the main examples of an external source of
change.

LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE denotes the continuing use of a language in the face of competition
from a regionally and socially more powerful language. LANGUAGE SHIFT is the opposite of
this: it denotes the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of
communication within a community.
Language shift is the process by which a speech community in a contact situation (i.e. consisting
of bilingual speakers) gradually stops using one of its two languages in favor of the other. The
causal factors of language shift are generally considered to be social, and researchers have
focused on speakers’ attitudes (both explicit and unstated) toward a language and domains of
language use in the community, as well as other macro social factors.
The course of shift
In the initial phases of the relationship between two languages, they may show specific
distribution patterns over specific domains. Public and formal domains may be allotted to
the dominant language, with more informal and personal domains allotted to the minority
language. The home, religion, folk songs and tales usually are the last bastions of survival
for the dominated language.
Speaker competence in language shift
Speakers of a language that is in its last stages may exhibit a range of competence from
full command to zero. Three types of speakers are distinguished: young fluent speakers
have a native command of the ancestral language, but show subtle deviations from the
norms of older speakers; passive bilinguals are able to understand the ancestral language,
but are unable to produce it themselves.; semi-speakers continue using the ancestral
language in imperfect way. The term ‘semi-speaker’ can be contrasted to the concept of
the new speaker, about which you have learned earlier this week.

The term LANGUAGE DEATH is used when that community is the last one in the world to use
that language. The extinction of Cornish in England is an example of language death as well as
shift (to English). And the demise of Norwegian as an immigrant language in the USA exemplifies
shift without death, as Norwegian is of course still spoken in its original setting in Norway.
Language death is a linguistic term for the end or extinction of a language. It is also called
language extinction. Language Extinction - distinctions are commonly drawn between an
endangered language (one with few or no children learning the language) and an extinct language
(one in which the last native speaker has died).
Campbell and Muntzel (1989) distinguished four types of language death.
1) Gradual death involves gradual replacement of one language by another. An example is
the replacement of Gaelic by English in parts of Scotland.
 20

2) Sudden death is rapid extinction of a language, without an intervening period of

bilingualism. The last speaker then is monolingual in the dying language, as with
Tasmanian.
3) Radical death is when a community stops speaking their language out of self-defence. For
example, after the massacre of thousands of Indians in El Salvador in 1932 the speakers
of Cacaopera and Lencia stopped speaking their language as not to be identified as
Indians.
4) Bottom-to-top death is when a language ceases to be used as a medium of conversation,
but may survive in special use like religion or folk songs. For example, Tzeltal in Mexico
has only a few older speakers in scattered villages, but survives in the register of prayer.
There is no single set of factors that can be used to predict the outcome of language-maintenance
efforts. But factors that have caused the decline of certain languages, can be grouped as
economic changes, demography, institutional support and status.

LANGUAGE REVIVAL is an attempt to reverse the decline of a language or to bring back an

extinct one. As the pillar of our communication with one another, language represents so much
more than words. For many communities, languages represent a part of their shared culture and
history that cannot be replaced. Revitalizing languages is an incredibly important step in
preserving unique cultural history around the world.

For further discussion, kindly check the links below.

READ: Language Change

Link: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-language-change-1691096

Language Change

Link: https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/language_change.html

What Is the Meaning of Language Death?

Link: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-language-death-1691215

Language Revival: How 7 Communities are Bringing Languages Back to Life

Link: https://bilingua.io/language-revival-bringing-back-languages-to-life
Note: If you can’t access the link, kindly send
a message to the instructor or in the
Facebook Group Chat.

WATCH: Why do languages die? | The Economist

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qr8QsNCe3C4

Activities/Assessments:
1. Do some research or extensive reading and answer the following questions:
a. Why does language change happen? Give a concrete example of language change.
b. Give some examples of languages that eventually extinct.
 21

c. Give some examples of languages that eventually revived. How did communities
revive those languages?
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

LESSON 2 – Understanding Concepts in LPPMLINGSOC

UNIT 3 – Standard and Vernacular Languages, National and Official
Languages

Introduction:
In this lesson, we will explore the different terms and concepts that you will encounter
along the course of Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define and understand Standard and Vernacular Languages, National and Official
Languages;
2. Differentiate Standard and Vernacular Language; National and Official Language;
3. Create a Venn Diagram.

Course Materials:
LANGUAGE VARIETIES
In order to assess the relative claims of different languages it is necessary to look at their status
and the functions which they serve. Sociolinguists have developed a number of ways of
categorizing languages, according to their status and social functions. The distinction between a
vernacular language and a standard language is a useful place to start.
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES
Vernacular is the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people of a country or region.
Furthermore, this language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or
region. In addition, the language use spoken as one’s mother tongue; not learned or imposed as
a second language. Vernacular language use in speech or written works, using the mother tongue
of a country or region. Vernacular literature, vernacular describes everyday language, including
slang, that’s used by the people, the vernacular is different from literary or official language; it’s
way people really talk with each other, like how families talk at home. Vernacular is different: think
of it as how friends talk when no one is listening. Vernacular language includes slang. One of the
 22

hardest things about writing for school is getting away from the vernacular and learning to write
in more formal ways that don’t come as naturally. You can also say specific groups have a
vernacular, meaning the unique way people in a certain region or profession speak’.
“Vernaculars; another name used to refer to languages, especially to the ones regarded
as the local varieties”.
It generally refers to a language which has not been standardized and which does not have official
status. Vernaculars are usually the first languages learned by people in multilingual communities;
in addition, they are often used for a relatively narrow range of informal function.
There are three components of the meaning of the term vernacular such as;
1. The most basic refers to the fact that a vernacular is an uncodified or unstandardized
variety. This component has been most widely used as the defining criterion, but emphasis
on one or other of the components has led to the use of the term vernacular with somewhat
different meanings.
2. The second refers to the way it is acquired in the home as a first variety.
3. The third is the fact that it is used for relatively circumscribed functions.
The term vernacular simply means a language which is not an official language in a particular
context. When the people talk about education in vernacular language, for instance, they are
usually referring to education in an ethnic minority language in a particular country. The vernacular
is the variety used for communication in the home and with close friends. It is the language of
solidarity between people from the same ethnic group. By extension the term has been used to
refers in a monolingual community to the most informal and colloquial variety of a language which
may also have a standardized variety. Therefore, the term vernacular is sometimes used to
indicate that a language is used for everyday interaction without implying that it is appropriate
only in informal domains. There are hundreds of vernacular languages such as, Buang in Papua
New Guinea.
Characteristic of vernacular language;
1. The standard native language of a country or locality.
2. The everyday language spoken by a people as distinguished from the literary language
3. A variety of such everyday language specific to a social group or region: the vernaculars
of New York City.
4. The idiom of a particular trade or profession: in the legal vernacular.
5. An idiomatic word, phrase, or expression.
6. The common, nonscientific name of a plant or animal.
7. Native to or commonly spoken by the members of a particular country or region.
8. Using the native language of a region, especially as distinct from the literary language: a
vernacular poet.
9. Relating to or expressed in the native language or dialect.
10. Of or being an indigenous building style using local materials and traditional methods of
construction and ornament, especially as distinguished from academic or historical
architectural styles.
11. Occurring or existing in a particular locality; endemic: a vernacular disease.
 23

STANDARD LANGUAGE
Language may also be varied according to whether it is perceived to be correct or not. In regard
to this view, terms ‘standard’ and ‘non-standard’ variety of a language are applied. A standard
language is developed as a result of a sociopolitical process. It is not entirely the same as the
formal variety of a language. A standard variety of a language includes both formal and informal
or colloquial variety. However, the language used in the formal occasions is often characterized
with the use of standard forms. Thus, in regard to the occasion where the variety is used, the
standard language variety might be associated with the formal variety. A Standard language is
generally one which is written, and which has undergone some degree of regularization or
codification (for example, in a grammar and a dictionary). Furthermore, it is a language variety
used by a group of people in their public discourse. Alternatively, varieties become standard by
undergoing a process of standardization, during which it is organized for description in grammars
and dictionaries and encoded in such reference works. Furthermore, Standard languages arise
when a certain dialect begins to be used in written form, normally throughout a broader area than
that of the dialect itself. The ways in which this language is use in administrative matters, literature,
and economic life lead to the minimization of linguistic variation.
“Standard language; the variety of a language that is considered as a better one for its
phonological, lexical, and grammatical correctness”.
In English, a definition of the standard variety has been stated once as quoted below :
“Standard English is that variety of English which is usually used in print, and which is
normally taught in schools and to non-native speakers learning the language. It is also the
variety which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts and
other similar situation”, (Peter Trudgill, 1978).
From the quotation above, two criterions to identify standard English are suggested. First,
standard English is printed (written variety). Second, it is taught to non-native speakers in schools.
Based on these, the word fun will be regarded as a standard word because it is learned by the
non-native speakers at schools and it is printed in the newspapers, magazines, or official
documents. However, a word with similar meaning, craic is probably considered as non-standard,
because it is used exclusively by Irish English speakers, besides, the word is not the one that is
taught to English learners in Indonesia, China, Egypt, Jordan, and in all other parts of the world.
Therefore, most people would agree that craic is a dialectal variety. Another example, the use of
have two children is standard as such a phrase is printed and introduced to English learners at
schools. Using the same perspective, the different between standard and non-standard English
sentence structures can also be spotted, for example my sister, she works and she lives out with
the town. Is obviously a non-standard English as it is filled with the use of a non-standard
preposition, but my sister works and she lives outside the town is standard and such a sentence
can be found with most English users. The former one is common only to speakers of Scottish
English.
Characteristic of standard language;
1. A recognized dictionary (standardized spelling and vocabulary)
2. A recognized grammar
3. A standard pronunciation (educated speech)
 24

CONCLUSION
Vernacular describes everyday language, including slang, that’s used by the people, the
vernacular is different from literary or official language; it’s way people really talk with each
other, like how families talk at home. Meanwhile, Standard language; the variety of a
language that is considered as a better one for its phonological, lexical, and grammatical
correctness.

“NATIONAL LANGUAGE” is probably the term that’s more commonly used when talking about
a language which is spoken in a specific country.
Factually, however, the term “national language” simply means that there is some type of a
connection between a territory and a language spoken there. Over 150 constitutions mention
national languages but there is actually very little consistency in these terms. It’s as difficult to
determine what’s a “national language” as it is to say what is a nation.
National language can mean that it is used in a specific region that may or may not coincide with
the borders of a nation. It can be a tongue shared by a number of people (possibly citizens of a
country), or it can be used as a communication tool between different groups within one nation.
The last option is that a national language is the one used by the government in official business.
This is the definition that is most often confused with the term “official language”.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE is a bit more of a precise term. It is used to refer to a language that is
given specific legal standing. This can apply to the whole country or a specific area.
Most often, however, official languages are the ones that are used by the government. Since it’s
almost impossible to regulate by law what language people use to communicate to each other,
official languages are mostly related to the government of a country.
It refers to what languages are used in the courts and by the administrators of a country. Official
languages are also the ones that are often expressly mentioned in constitutions and which serve
a symbolic purpose. For example, in many African countries, the indigenous languages are often
given official status to promote their use.

So, in conclusion, national and official languages both deal with the status of languages on a
certain territory. They are both legal categories that remain slightly badly defined, leading to
confusion and overlap. Both are commonly determined in constitutions of countries.
In broad terms, national languages refer to the tongues spoken on a certain territory (usually a
nation-state, but not always) by one or several groups of people. Official languages are the ones
used by a region’s government for official purposes. It has more to do with day-to-day
bureaucracy, although official languages can also be determined with the aim of promoting their
use throughout the territory.
 25

Activities/Assessments:
1. Compare and contrast standard from vernacular language. Use a Venn Diagram.
2. What is the official language pf the Philippines? What is the national language of the
Philippines? Support your answer by doing some readings.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

LESSON 2 – Understanding Concepts in LPPMLINGSOC

UNIT 4 – Regional and Social Dialects, Pidgins, Creoles

Introduction:
In this lesson, we will explore the different terms and concepts that you will encounter
along the course of Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define and understand Regional and Social Dialects, Pidgins, Creoles ;
2. Differentiate Pidgins and Creoles;
3. Give examples of social dialects and regional dialects.

Course Materials:
A REGIONAL DIALECT, also known as a regiolect or topolect, is a distinct form of
a language spoken in a particular geographical area. If the form of speech transmitted from a
parent to a child is a distinct regional dialect, that dialect is said to be the child's vernacular.
As opposed to a national dialect, a regional dialect is spoken in one particular area of a country.
In the USA, regional dialects include Appalachian, New Jersey and Southern English, and in
Britain, Cockney, Liverpool English and 'Geordie' (Newcastle English). In indonesia like : (Ngapak
Javanese, Yogya Javanese).
Common features of a regional dialect are: Difference Pronunciation and Different
Vocabulary.
In the Philippines, for example, there are dialects of Tagalog in the provinces of Bulacan, Batangas,
Cavite, Rizal, Laguna, Quezon, Mindoro, Marinduque, Palawan, and Metro Manila, that sound very
different from each other in terms of intonation, rhythm, accent, diction, pronunciation, choice of
words, or preferred expressions (e.g., ala e by Batangueños, oo naman by Manileños, ano baga by
Bulakeños). Each province has its own distinctive dialect of Tagalog. Other nearby provinces like
 26

Pampanga, Tarlac, Bataan, and Zambales would have their own version of Tagalog mixed in or
influenced by other languages within their areas, such as by Pampangueño (Kapampangan).

In sociolinguistics, SOCIAL DIALECT is a variety of speech associated with a particular social

class or occupational group within a society. Also known as a sociolect, group idiolect, and class
dialect.
"Even though we use the term 'social dialect' or 'sociolect' as a label for the alignment of a set
of language structures with the social position of a group in a status hierarchy, the social
demarcation of language does not exist in a vacuum. Speakers are simultaneously affiliated with
a number of different groups that include region, age, gender, and ethnicity, and some of these
other factors may weigh heavily in the determination of the social stratification of language
variation. For example, among older European-American speakers in Charleston, South Carolina,
the absence of r in words such as bear and court is associated with aristocratic, high-status
groups (McDavid 1948) whereas in New York City the same pattern of r-lessness is associated
with working-class, low-status groups (Labov 1966). Such opposite social interpretations of the
same linguistic trait over time and space point to the arbitrariness of the linguistic symbols that
carry social meaning. In other words, it is not really the meaning of what you say that counts
socially, but who you are when you say it."
(Walt Wolfram, "Social Varieties of American English." Language in the USA, ed. by E. Finegan.
Cambridge University Press, 2004)

PIDGINS and CREOLES are both the result of what happens when you blend two or more
languages, but they’re not the same. Put simply, a pidgin is the first-generation version of a
language that forms between native speakers of different languages — a makeshift
communication bridge, if you will. A creole is a pidgin with native speakers, or one that’s been
passed down to a second generation of speakers who will formalize it and fortify the bridge into a
robust structure with a fully developed grammar and syntax.
Generally speaking, pidgins form in the context of a multicultural population. Historically,
this has often happened in areas where multiple groups were trading with each other, or
when groups of slaves from various nations were assimilated into a single population and
developed a language.
Pidgins often borrow words from their source languages and feature a simplified grammar. It’s a
bare-bones language designed to enable minimum-viable communication.
By the time a pidgin becomes a creole, the language has developed enough of its own
characteristics to have a distinct grammar of its own. Beyond the well-known French/West African
creole spoken in Haiti, there’s also Hawaiian Creole English, which is a mix of Hawaiian, English,
Chinese, Spanish and other languages. Malay also has at least 14 recognized creole offshoots
thanks to Dutch and Portuguese colonial impact. Gullah is an English-based creole spoken in the
southern United States, and then there’s the French-based Louisiana Creole. There’s also
Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole spoken in the Philippines. The list goes on.
There’s some disagreement among linguists over whether pidgins immediately become creoles,
or whether this process can require more than one generation. Some argue that neurologically,
 27

there are always a ton of commonalities in the way humans learn native tongues, which means
first-generation speakers of creole languages will inevitably “fill in the blanks” of any language
aspects missing from the pidgin version. However, there’s often a ton of vocabulary, syntax and
pronunciation changes that occur during the first 20 to 30 years of creole formation. In either case,
some pidgins are still in use today, such as Nigerian Pidgin and Cameroonian Pidgin English, but
they’re often referred to creoles as well as pidgins. Confused yet?
There’s also some disagreement over whether creoles always arise from pidgins, otherwise
known as the “life cycle” theory, which was introduced by Robert Hall in 1962. Other theories have
surfaced since, like the notion that creoles can develop in much more intimate contexts than trade,
such as between slaves and plantation owners. Some linguists contest the notion that Haitian and
Louisiana Creole arose from a pidgin stage, for example.
Additionally, it’s important to note that pidgins don’t always become creoles. If a second
generation of speakers picks up aspects of the pidgin as a second language, it’s still generally
considered to be a pidgin. Additionally, if the society doesn’t provide an environment where the
language can continue developing in relative isolation, the pidgin will often disappear, along with
the need for it.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Give examples of regional dialects and social dialects. Elaborate your examples.
2. How does pidgin happen? Explain the relationship of pidgin and creole.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
 28

LESSON 3 – Introduction to Basic Education Language Programs,

Policies, and Planning
UNIT 1 – The Notion of Language Policy and Planning

Introduction:
The field of language planning and policy (LPP) is concerned with the policies both explicit
and implicit that influence what languages are spoken when, how, and by whom, as well as the
values and rights associated with those languages. LPP scholars focus on understanding the
development of both top‐down and bottom‐up language policies, but also their implementation
and impact at local, regional, and national levels. While the focus of LPP is on how language
policies are formed, implemented, and sometimes resisted, LPP scholars note that nonlinguistic
issues often play a critical role. The ecology metaphor firmly locates LPP analysis within the
broader social, political, and linguistic environment.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define and understand language policy and planning;
2. Define and identify the emergent bilinguals;
3. Value and understand the concept of mother tongue education and multilingual
education.

Course Materials:
Language policy
Many countries have a language policy designed to favour or discourage the use of a particular
language or set of languages. Although nations historically have used language policies most
often to promote one official language at the expense of others, many countries now have policies
designed to protect and promote regional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened.
Language Policy is what a government does either officially through legislation, court decisions
or policy to determine how languages are used, cultivate language skills needed to meet national
priorities or to establish the rights of individuals or groups to use and maintain languages.
The Notion of Language Policy and Planning
The notion of language policy and planning emerged in the early 19 th century along with the
concept of a nation-state, "when one language one nation ideology" was prominent. Many
sociolinguists and researchers argue that it is the joint venture of nation-states and linguists that
created or labeled languages such as mother-tongue, national, official, native, non-native and
many more different categories so that they (nation-states) were able to control and manipulate
linguistic behavior of their citizens (May, 2001; Shohamy, 2006; Spolsky, 2009).
It was mainly after World War IIthat many new independent nationstates emerged, with
increasingly bilingual and multilingual policies, but most of them tried to maintain status-quos by
adopting the former colonial languages, mostly in Asia and Africa. Most of these newly
independent states followed the same old path of their former colonies by adopting the colonizer's
educational policies in general and language polices in particular (Shohamy, 2006; Spolsky, 2009;
 29

Wright, 2004). Some of the examples from Asia could be Cambodia and Vietnam, where French
remained as an official language, and also India, where English was kept as an official language
along with Hindi. Similarly, in Africa, many new nation-states kept French as their official
language, such as Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Mali, Niger and Rwanda (Brock-Utne, 2008;
Kamwangamalu, 2010).
On the other hand, Spolsky (2009) argues that there are four major factors that determine
language policy of a nation-state: the sociolinguistic ecology (language practices), a set of beliefs
(language ideology) relating language to national identity, the effects of globalization (the pull
towards international languages, especially English), and pressure for attention to the rights of
indigenous or migrant linguistic minorities. These factors have shaped the current bilingual and
multilingual education complex in many countries, especially in Himalayan regions and influenced
their language policies and practices. Wright (2004) argues that the residual legacy of nationalism,
the perception that bilingualism is a disadvantage and is to be avoided, is fading as more people
become bilingual to function at the supra-and international levels. She further states that national
minorities in non-English-speaking countries are now likely to be bilingual or multilingual.

There are four main features to the theory of language policy that put forward. The first is
the tripartite division of language policy into language practices, language beliefs and
ideology, and the explicit policies and plans resulting from language management or
planning activities that attempt to modify the practices and ideologies of a community.
The second fundamental notion is that language policy is concerned not just with named
varieties of language, but with all the individual elements at all levels that make up
language. Language policy can apply to pronunciation, to spelling, to lexical choice, to
grammar, or to style, and to bad language, racist language, obscene language, or correct
language.
The third fundamental notion is that language policy operates within a speech community,
of whatever size. The domain of language policy may be any defined or definable social
or political or religious group or community, ranging from family through a sports team or
neighborhood or village or workplace or organization or city or nation-state or regional
alliance.
The fourth basic notion is that language policy functions in a complex ecological
relationship among a wide range of linguistic and non-linguistic elements, variables, and
factors. The relationship may well be causal, but that will often prove hard to establish.
Even when we look at specific implemented language management decisions, we often
find either no result (the failure of preachers to eradicate blasphemy or of teachers to
enforce grammatical correctness, for instance) or unanticipated results (the way that
reversing language shift or language revival activities produce novel, undesired forms of
language).

The Concept of Mother Tongue Education

In1953, UNESCO brought its declaration on the use of vernacular languages in education, given
the above stated scenarios. The UNESCO declaration was based on worldwide surveys of
classroom instructions where researchers found that in most cases media of instructions were
dominant languages of the nation-states or former colonial languages were used and minority
and indigenous languages were discarded as mere dialects or local vernaculars. As a result, they
emphasized the use of vernaculars and local minority languages (mother-tongues) instructions in
 30

place of the so-called languages of wider communication or lingua-franca, to give equal access
to education to all. By emphasizing the importance of mother-tongue, it was stated:
Mother-tongue instruction should be the best way for children to learn as it bridges the gap
between home language and language of instruction. Every language is sufficient enough to give
high cognitive skills to its users and there are no major or minor languages. Therefore, mother-
tongue instruction should be extended as long as possible. A Lingua Franca or a language of
wider communication cannot be a substitute for the mother-tongue, and it should be avoided until
the child fully acquired their mother-tongue (UNESCO, 1953, p. 11).
It is worthwhile to note that UNESCO declaration of 1953 proposed that "education is best carried
on through the mother tongue of a pupil" (p. 6) by stating that the mother tongue plays a huge
role in the defining of culture, identity, and learning new knowledge. It further stated that "a child
will find it difficult to grasp any new concept which is so alien to his cultural environment that it
cannot readily find expression in his mother tongue...every effort should be made to provide
education in the mother tongue" (p. 47).
However, it was also acknowledged by UNESCO declaration (1953) that the concept of mother-
tongue was not straightforward and there were many languages which did not have even scripts
and literary texts available at all. In this regard, it is important to note that UNESCO has also
reiterated its stand on the use of mother-tongue in its 2003 education position paper. UNESCO
education position paper (2003) not only has emphasized mother tongue education, but also has
recommended the use of national and official languages of wider communication, along with some
global languages, so that indigenous and marginal communities can be able to participate and
contribute for large part of the society (UNESCO, 2003).
So it is understandable that there are lots of complications for ensuring mother-tongue instruction
for all children in many regions of the world. For example, in some situations, mother-tongues of
particular groups of children are not recognized by nation-states; in other situations, mother-
tongues might not be languages of wider communication and yet in other situations, mother
tongues might not have enough literary resources available. In these contexts, some of the most
outstanding issues that investigators are facing now include how to categorize mother-tongue,
whether or not mother-tongue acquisition helps/hinders literacy in second or third languages,
whether or not mother tongue of some children is rich enough to cater needs of learners and
whether or not this helps learners to acquire high cognitive skills.
Based on the complexities associated with mother-tongue instruction, it can be argued that
educators, policy makers and sociolinguists do not agree on the viability and implication of
mother-tongue education. For some, this is the ideal situation because a child can learn fully
through his/her mother tongue and he/she also develop higher cognitive skills. But for others,
mother-tongue education is not very viable due to several factors, such as lack of materials,
absence of written scripts in many languages and dialects that are being spoken in the world, and
lack of trained teachers in the mother-tongue education. Meanwhile, the global spread of English
has further complicated the notion of mother-tongue education in multilingual contexts.
Hence, it is obvious that the concept of mother-tongue is very complex and it entirely depends on
how it is interpreted and by whom and for what purposes. Thus, the interpretation of mother-
tongue could be different for policy makers, and in social and political contexts of nation-states,
and in the "linguistic ecology of the society" (Haugen, 1972).
The Concept of Multilingual Education
In regard to multilingualism and multiculturalism, globalization has become the most
significant and widely used term over the past few decades, implying contradictory forces of global
homogenization and local hybridity; and global domination and local resistance (AMMON, 2001).
 31

In other words, the world has seen many changes in the field of education in the light of
information technology and globalization over the past three decades. As a result, the focus of
language education has shifted from monolingualism to bilingualism and multilingualism.There
are many more bilinguals or multilinguals than monolinguals in the world now (Broeder; Martyniuk,
2008; Darling-Hammond, 2010; Spolsky, 2009; Tucker, 1999; Zakaria, 2011).
Nevertheless, there still remains an incorrect belief that when an additional language is introduced
into a curriculum, the child must go back and completely relearn the academic concepts. Contrary
to empirical evidence, many policy makers still have characterized bilingual education as a high
risk undertaking in that it is necessary to attend to a complex set of interacting educational,
sociolinguistic, economic, and political factors (Cummins, 2000; Phillipson, 2001; Skutnabb-
Kangas et al., 2009). Consequently, a majority of children face a language gap between schools
and homes that must be bridged (UNESCO, 2003). In this regard, Phillipson (2001) contends that
in order to fully take advantage of globalization, each country should learn English as an additional
language after the mother tongue, and not to the extent that it endangers one's native language.
For Skutnabb-Kangas et al., (2009), discouraging children from developing their mother-tongues
is a violation of child rights.

For more information about language policy, kindly

READ: An International Perspective on Language Policies, Practices and Proficiencies (page 21-34)
Link: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11036717.pdf

For the continuation of the discussion about emergent bilingual, kindly

READ: From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals (pages 6-17)
Link: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524002.pdf

Note: If you can’t access the link, kindly

inform your instructor or send a message on
the Facebook Group Chat.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Who are the emergent bilinguals? List down the characteristics of the emergent bilinguals.
2. What are the benefits of mother tongue education and multilingual education? Do some
research supporting your answer.
3. What is the role of Language Policy in our education? What are the factors in language
policy? Elucidate your answer.
Answer these questions via blog post / essay.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
 32

LESSON 3 – Introduction to Basic Education Language Programs,

Policies, and Planning
UNIT 2 – A Brief History of Policies for Educating Emergent Bilinguals

Introduction:
Genesis 11 verses 1 to 9:
“And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech ... And they said, let us
build a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven ... And the Lord said, Behold the
people is one, and they all have one language ... Let us go down and there confound their
language, that they may not understand one another’s speech ... Therefore is the name of it called
Babel”
Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Examine the brief history of the policies for emergent bilinguals;
2. Create a timeline of history of the policies for emergent bilinguals;
3. Research and create a summary of Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA).
Course Materials:
The Antecedents
In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated schools
were unconstitutional, ushering in a new era in the struggle for civil rights in America. The Civil
Rights Act was passed by Congress in 1964, prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, color,
or national origin. According to Title VI of this Act, “No person in the United States shall, on the
ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial
assistance”(Civil Rights Act, 1964,sec. 601). Thus, Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act has played
an important role in protecting the educational rights of language minority students in the United
States (see Crawford, 2004; Garcia, 2005; and National Clearinghouse for English Language
Acquisition, 2006).
Title VII: The Bilingual Education Act
In 1968, the U.S. Congress reauthorized the landmark Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
the broadest and most influential federal education policy. Title VII of that Act, known as the
Bilingual Education Act, established a federal goal of assisting limited-English speaking students
in the quick acquisition of English and limited participation in this new program to poor students.
Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act did not require bilingual education.
Rather, Congress put aside money for school districts enrolling large numbers of language
minority students that chose to start up bilingual education programs or create instructional
material. The Bilingual Education Act (1968) stated:
In recognition of the special educational needs of the large numbers of children of limited
English speaking ability in the United States, Congress hereby declares it to be the policy
of the United States to provide financial assistance to local educational agencies to
 33

develop and carry out new and imaginative elementary and secondary school programs
designed to meet these special educational needs. (sec. 702)
When the Bilingual Education Act was first reauthorized in 1974, eligibility for educational services
was expanded to include students of any socioeconomic status who had limited English speaking
ability (LESA).The subsequent, 1978 reauthorization of the Bilingual Education Act expanded
eligibility for services even further, from students with limited English-speaking abilities to students
with “limited English proficiency” (LEP). During this time of expanding access, the federal law did
not dictate what type of instructional program had to be used in serving these students. The
central focus at that time was to assure students who needed bilingual education services were
getting them; the pedagogy was left to the educators.
But, by the 1980s, the tone and focus of the federal Bilingual Education Act had begun to shift
support to English-only programs. In fact, the 1984 reauthorization of the Bilingual Education Act
first provided funding for “nonbilingual” programs, or programs that used English only in educating
English language learners, although only 4% of the funding was reserved for these kinds of
programs. The 1988 reauthorization of the Bilingual Education Act further expanded the funding
for programs in which only English was used to 25% of programs funded and also imposed a
three-year limit on participation in transitional bilingual education programs, meaning that schools
had three years to move ELLs to fluency in English.
In 1994, Congress reauthorized the provisions of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
including the Bilingual Education Act, yet again under the new Improving America’s Schools Act.
Although this reauthorization gave increased attention to two-way bilingual education programs,
the quotas for English-only programs that were previously legislated were lifted.
These legislative efforts, beginning with ESEA in 1968, were the first to focus on the need to
provide language minority students with adequate education. A legal battle was also waged for
the rights of these students shortly thereafter. It was on this legal front that the battles for an
equitable education for ELLs have been most mightily fought, as we illustrate below.

For the continuation of the discussion, kindly

READ: From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals (pages 21-25)
Link: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524002.pdf
Note: If you can’t access the link, kindly
inform your instructor or send a message on
the Facebook Group Chat.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Create a comprehensive timeline of the policies for emergent bilinguals.
2. Pick a Pair! Research and study the history and content of Every Student Succeeds
Act (ESSA), specifically the Title 3. Synthesize the ESSA, Title 3.
Include this assessment in your blog / essay.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
 34

LESSON 3 – Introduction to Basic Education Language Programs,

Policies, and Planning
UNIT 3 – Language Policies in Europe, Australia, USA, Africa and Asia

Introduction:
On the previous unit, we tackle about the definition of language policy and the brief history
of the language policies. In this unit, we will take a closer look into the language policies across
the world – Europe, Australia, USA, Africa and Asia.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Identify and define the different language policies in parts of the world.
2. Research different language policies in Europe, Australia, US, Africa and Asia.
3. Present a report of their extensive readings and research.
4. Collaborate with groupmates/classmates.

Course Materials:
In your extensive readings and research, here are some of the references that might help you
and your groupmates
READ: Globalization and language policies of multilingual societies: some case studies of
south east Asia

Link: https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1984-63982012000200007

An International Perspective on Language Policies, Practices and Proficiencies

Link: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11036717.pdf

Multilingual Education in Europe: Policy Developments

Link: http://www.linguisticsnetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Multilingual-Education-in-Europe-
Policy-Developments.compressed.pdf

The History of U.S. Language Policy and Case for Official English

Link: http://usinc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/History-of-US-Language-Policy.pdf

The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning: Evidence from
Eastern and Southern Africa

Link: https://www.unicef.org/esaro/UNICEF(2016)LanguageandLearning-
FullReport(SingleView).pdf

Education, language policy and language use in the Philippines

Link: https://benjamins.com/catalog/lplp.41.1.05sym/fulltext/lplp.41.1.05sym.pdf

A History of the Philippines’ official languages

 35

Link: https://reneekarunungan.com/2019/08/15/a-history-of-the-philippines-official-languages/

Policies on the use of the Filipino language

Link: https://rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/policies-filipino-language

Note: If you can’t access the link, kindly

inform your instructor or send a message on
the Facebook Group Chat.

Activities/Assessments:
1. GROUP WORK! The class will be divided into 5 groups. Each group will be assigned to
a country and its language policy. You will collaborate with your groupmates. The output
will be:
a) A compiled narrative report (in PDF) and each student will have a copy
of that file.
b) A creative PowerPoint presentation of the group’s report.
c) A video presentation of the discussion about the topic.
Note: Format will be discussed on our
Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
 36

LESSON 4 – Communication in Global Context

UNIT 1 – Bilingualism and Achievements

Introduction:
Learning more than one language is an asset to individuals, families, and our entire
society. Early childhood teachers can share the benefits of bilingualism with families and their
communities, find ways to support children’s home languages, and encourage families to keep
their language strong. Developing the child’s home language provides the foundation for reading
and writing, preparing children to be biliterate. Researchers have found many benefits to being
bilingual and biliterate.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
5. Value and understand the importance of being bilingual;
6. Identify the relationship between bilingualism and achievement;
7. Research concrete evidences about the relationship of bilingualism and
personal/academic achievement;
8. Create a graphic organizer.

Course Materials:
Important Theoretical Constructs
Over the last three decades, researchers have developed frameworks for understanding the
relationship between a student’s native language and a second language, which must be used in
school for the purpose of academic achievement. A pioneer in this work has been Jim Cummins.
We describe what he has proposed and then point to alternative frameworks proposed by Brian
Street and other scholars in the area of social studies of literacy. We argue that although there
are differences in how these scholars make sense of these issues, these frameworks can be
compatible, and, together, they can provide a context for equitable education for emergent
bilinguals.
Linguistic interdependence. It might seem counterintuitive to support the use of a child’s first
language in the process of helping that child achieve to a higher level in an English-language
school system. But the benefits of such practices are explained by the concept of linguistic
interdependence, which means that the two languages bolster each other and thus the student in
his or her acquisition of knowledge. Cummins (1979, 1981, 2000) explains linguistic
interdependence by saying, “To the extent that instruction in Lx [one language] is effective in
promoting proficiency in Lx [the same language], transfer of this proficiency to Ly [the additional
language] will occur provided there is adequate exposure to Ly [the additional language]”
(Cummins, 2000, p. 38). Cummins (2000), however, does not posit that the child’s home language
needs to be fully developed before the second language is introduced. Rather, he argues, “the
first language must not be abandoned before it is fully developed, whether the second language
is introduced simultaneously or successively, early or late, in that process” (p. 25).
 37

Linguistic interdependence is stronger in the case of languages that share linguistic features (such
as, for example, Spanish and English) where students can derive interdependence from similar
linguistic factors, as well as familiarity with language and literacy practices and ways of using
language. Yet, even in cases where the two languages are not linguistically congruent, such as
Chinese and English, Chinese-speaking students learning English will benefit academically if they
have developed literacy in Chinese because they will understand, for example, that reading is
really about making meaning from print and that writing requires the ability to communicate to an
unknown and distant audience. In addition, they will have had practice in decoding, a sense of
directionality of print, and the mechanics of writing in their own language — useful metalinguistic
understandings that help orient learners to text in another language.
A related theoretical construct is that of the common underlying proficiency (Cummins, 1979,
1981), which posits that knowledge and abilities acquired in one language are potentially available
for the development of another. Researchers have consistently found that there is a cross-
linguistic relationship between the students’ first and second language, and proficiency in the
native language is related to academic achievement in a second language (Riches & Genesee,
2006). This is particularly the case for literacy. Lanauze and Snow (1989), for example, found that
emergent bilinguals, even those students who were not yet orally proficient in their second
language, exhibited similar complexity and semantic content in their writing in their first and
second languages.
Academic language. Skutnabb-Kangas and Toukomaa (1976), working with Finnish immigrants
in Sweden, proposed that there is a difference between the way in which language is used in
academic tasks as opposed to conversation and intimacy.The surface fluency so evident in
conversational language or in writing to someone we know intimately is most often supported by
cues that have little to do with language itself—gestures, repeating, providing examples. Cummins
(1981) has called this use of language, which is supported by meaningful interpersonal and
situational cues outside of language itself, contextualized language. Contextualized language,
supported by paralinguistic cues, is what one uses for basic interpersonal communication (BICS)
(Cummins, 1981). Contextual support, Cummins (2000) explains, can be external, having to do
with aspects of the language input itself. But contextual support can also be internal, having to do
with the shared experiences, interests and motivations that people engaged in conversations may
have.
To complete school tasks, and especially assessment tasks, a different set of language skills is
needed. Students in school must be able to use language with little or no extralinguistic support
in ways that are very different from the way in which we use language in everyday informal
communication. That is, more abstract language26 is what is needed in order to participate in
most classroom discourse, in order to read texts that are sometimes devoid of pictures and other
semiotic cues, or texts requiring background knowledge that students do not always have.
Students also need this abstract language in order to write the academic essays that require an
unknown audience with whom communication is important, and in taking multiple choice tests
that force students to choose only one answer. Cummins (1979, 1981, 2000) refers to the mastery
of these abstract language skills as cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) and
proposes that it takes five to seven years to develop these skills in a second language. Meanwhile,
students can usually acquire the language of everyday communication in a second language in
just one to three years. As shown in Table 8 in Part II of this review, many programs actually
provided to English language learners do not afford sufficient time to gain these language skills.
 38

Literacy skills and practices: Toward a theoretical synthesis. Cummins’s framework has been
tested, revised, and, like any groundbreaking proposal, subjected to criticism, without rejecting
the notion that the metalinguistic capacities available to learners through their first language can
support the learning of spoken language and literacy skills in the second or third language, an
alternative framework rejects a binary view of language and suggests that both BICS and CALP
are oversimplified terms. This alternative framework recognizes that the linguistic repertoire is a
complex phenomenon comprising multiple codes and modes or channels of expression and that
language is contextual (Zamel & Spack, 1998).
Taking the notion of language variation and complexity further, García, Bartlett, and Kleifgen
(2007) build on the concept of plurilingualism, which accounts for the complex language practices
and values of speakers in multilingual contexts where people hold—and value— varying degrees
of proficiency in a variety of languages, dialects, registers, and modes of communication. Drawing
on this framework, García, Bartlett, and Kleifgen (2007) propose the concept of pluriliteracy
practices, which are grounded in an understanding that equity for emergent bilinguals must take
into account the benefits of having strong native language and literacy skills for attaining academic
achievement in another language. Equity must also account for the power and value relations that
exist around the various languages, language varieties, and literacy practices in the school setting
and in society. It is thus important for schools to value the pluriliteracy practices of emergent
bilinguals, those in which they are engaged at home, and in community efforts and schools in
other contexts or countries, in other languages and scripts. An equitable education for emergent
bilinguals builds on all these practices and enables them to develop a powerful repertoire of
multiple literacies.

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
Academic achievement in English. Around the world, there is near consensus among
researchers that greater support for a student’s native language development and academic
development in that language are “positively related to higher long-term academic attainment by
LEP pupils” (Ferguson, 2006, p. 48). Because in the United States the notion of bilingual
education itself is so politically loaded, research about the question of whether bilingual education
or monolingual, English only education works best for these emergent bilinguals is often
contradictory. Nevertheless, and on balance,
….
For the continuation of the discussion, kindly
READ: From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals (pages 28-33)

Link: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524002.pdf

Bilingualism and Academic Achievement for Kids — Closing the Gap

Link: https://medium.com/@llanirfreelance/bilingualism-and-academic-achievement-
for-kids-closing-the-gap-233b8e706b59

Impact of bilingual education on student achievement (pages 4-8)

Link: https://wol.iza.org/uploads/articles/131/pdfs/impact-of-bilingual-education-on-
student-achievement.pdf
 39

Note: If you can’t access the link, kindly reach

out to the instructor or send a message in the
Facebook Group Chat.

WATCH: The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MMmOLN5zBLY&t=1s

Activities/Assessments:
1. Do you believe that bilingualism is a tool for a better academic and personal
achievement? Why? Elucidate your answer; supported by facts.
2. Create a graphic organizer about the relationship of bilingualism and achievement.

Note: Format will be discussed on our

Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

LESSON 4 – Communication in Global Context

UNIT 2 – Enculturation and Acculturation

Introduction:
Growing up in any culture, all humans go through the process of enculturation. This
process is the way in which we obtain and transmit culture. It describes how each individual comes
to terms with the already set ideals that their culture has established, and how each person adapts
to prohibited behaviors and beliefs, which are ‘proscribed’, versus encouraged behaviors and
beliefs, which are ‘prescribed’. Culture is very wide and it even encompasses language.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Define and identify enculturation and acculturation;
2. Compare and contrast enculturation from acculturation;
3. Create a Venn Diagram.

Course Materials:
Enculturation is the process by which an individual learns the culture that they are surrounded
by. It enables them to function as members of that society. Enculturation teaches, amongst other
things, moral values, behaviors, expectations, rituals and–the focus of this article–language. This
helps unify people to create functional societies.
ENCULTURATION AND EDUCATION
 40

Education plays important role in enculturation as the process by which individuals acquire the
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that enable them to become functioning members of their
societies.
Enculturation can either refer to formal learning, such as in a traditional education system, or
informal learning, such as the social feedback you receive from your parents and friends as a
developing child and beyond. Both are critical to the process and blend in unique ways to create
different personalities.
Our entire lives may be viewed as an enculturation process as we constantly learn more about
the changing culture surrounding us, adding depth and breadth to our knowledge. Other cultures
enculturate children differently, obviously, but the broad strokes tend to be the same.
With regard to language, the mechanisms by which one is enculturated include both formal and
informal learning. Oral and listening skills are initially learning from the cradle, often imparted by
the parents and other close family members, in a deeply informal process. In many cultures, a
formal education process will teach reading and writing skills.
After the initial child training phase, you continue to be enculturated in your language throughout
your life. For instance, you are constantly learning new slang terms as the language changes
gradually over time through informal social contacts. If you continue your formal education into
college or beyond, or take a career branch that demands skill with the language, you continue to
finesse your use.
Also, enculturation can be either conscious or unconscious on the part of the learner. For instance,
the individual may be consciously actively attempting to understand what people are saying, but
they may also be unconsciously absorbing new vocabulary words and slang from the
conversations that occur around them.
NATURE AND IMPORTANCE:
• Enculturation is the product of learning.
• Enculturation is not a static it is dynamic process.
• Enculturation is takes place through conscious or unconscious mode.
• Enculturation is called as acculturation sometime it means exchange of culture from one
generation to another generation.
• Enculturation begins before birth and continues until death.
Acculturation is the process of two cultures blending, generally seen when an immigrant or
minority culture acclimates with the dominant culture. Not only is there a blending of the cultural
traditions, there is also a blending of the languages. Newer generations may initially substitute in
words from the dominant culture with an eventual progression to full substitution of only speaking
the dominant language, as in the example of “Spanglish.” Initially, this is seen in a positive light
where the family blends, fits in, and can advance in the dominant culture by predominately using
the dominant language.
Acculturation most commonly occurs with a member of a minority culture being exposed to a
majority culture, such as the situation with an immigrant moving into a new country. For language,
this means there are two things to consider: the degree to which person learns the language of
the new country, and the degree to which the old language is retained.
 41

However, acculturation may also occur in situations where one culture is not clearly dominating
the other in a mutual flow of language shifts. For instance, consider the number of foreign phrases
that exist within the English language, from tornado to bon appetit! In such cases, people within
one culture have to a degree acculturated to another not necessarily dominating culture.
Sometimes, a third language may even be created out of the blend of the two cultures. Consider
the prevalence of Denglisch, for instance, a blend of English and German, or the varieties of
Creole.
This is to be differentiated from _en_culturation, which is slightly different. Enculturation has come
to mean the process by which you learn your “home” culture and language, whereas acculturation
generally refers to the process by which one learns a second culture and language. However,
older works still use the terms interchangeably, so be careful!
This must also be differentiated from assimilation, which is what occurs when one abandons their
native culture and wholly adopts another.
Effect on Secondary Language Acquisition
The process of acculturation often leads to a second language acquisition. This may occur
through a variety of mechanisms, including both formal classroom education as well as through
informal social networks, media and other mediums of culture. The more that the individual is
thrown into the other culture, the faster he generally learns the language. This is especially true
in situations where the individual comes from a minority culture and is acculturating to the
dominant culture.
This is complicated somewhat by the feelings of the individual regarding the dominant culture.
Many immigrants and other individuals who are put into an acculturation scenario still cling to their
former cultural backgrounds, often maintaining their preference for their native language. Some
will even outright reject the dominant culture, perhaps only gaining a minimal functional use of the
dominant language. Others will do the opposite and instead assimilate entirely into the dominant
culture, learning the language and taking it for their own.
Acculturation’s effects are usually more successful with the young, partially because they are less
at risk for fossilization effects, partially because they are often introduced into education
programs where they are formally taught the language, and partially because youth is an
incredibly formative period when self-identity is quite malleable, including language preferences.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Identify and explain the role of enculturation and acculturation in the language
acquisition. Do enculturation and acculturation have a major impact or implication in the
language policy. Why? Why not?
2. Create a Venn diagram showing the relationship between enculturation and
acculturation.

Note: Format will be discussed on our

Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
 42

LESSON 5 – Language Policy Choices in Multilingual Societies

UNIT 1 – Language Planning

Introduction:
Language planning is official, government-level activity concerning the selection and
promotion of a unified administrative language or languages. It represents a coherent effort by
individuals, groups, or organizations to influence language use or development. It is crucial on
the choosing and implementing language policies especially in multilingual societies.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
9. Define and understand language planning;
10. Identify the importance of language planning;
11. Examine the state of language planning in the country.

Course Materials:
WHY IS LANGUAGE PLANNING NEEDED?
Language policy and planning decisions arise in response to sociopolitical needs. Language
planning decisions may be required, for example, where a number of linguistic groups compete
for access to the mechanisms of day-to-day life, or where a particular linguistic minority is denied
access to such mechanisms. Two examples of such decisions are the Court Interpreters Act,
which provides an interpreter to any victim, witness, or defendant whose native language is not
English, and the Voting Rights Act of 1975, which provides for bilingual ballots in areas where
over 5% of the population speak a language other than English. Both governmental and social
institutions must effectively and equitably meet the needs of the population so that groups varied
in linguistic repertoire have an equal opportunity to participate in their government and to receive
services from their government.
Language planning decisions typically attempt to meet these needs by reducing linguistic
diversity, as in instances where a single language is declared a national language in a multilingual
country (such as Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesia) or where a single variety of a language is
declared "standard" to promote linguistic unity in a country where divergent dialects exist. For
example, although many dialects of Chinese exist, the promotion of a single variety as the national
language contributes to a sense of national unity.
WHAT ARE THE STAGES OF LANGUAGE PLANNING?
Language planning efforts typically include several stages. The first stage is a needs analysis,
involving a sociopolitical analysis of communication patterns within the society. The next stages
in the language planning process involve the selection of a language or language variety for
planning purposes. These stages are sometimes referred to as "status planning" and include:
o Codification. Characteristics or criteria of a "good" language are established.
 43

o Standardization. A unified variety of the language is established, if necessary.

"Fine-tuning" the selected language or language variety is referred to as "corpus planning"
and includes the following stages:
o Elaboration. Any of a variety of developments, including expansion of vocabulary, expansion
of stylistic repertoire, and creation of type fonts, allow the language to function in a greater range
of circumstances.
o Cultivation. The establishment of arbiters, such as dictionaries or language academies,
maintains and advances the status of the language.
In addition to the establishment and implementation of changes through status and corpus
planning, evaluation and feedback provide a mechanism for determining how well the
language planning efforts are progressing.

WHAT SPECIFIC AREAS OF LANUGAGE USE DO THESE STAGES AFFECT?

Language planning may affect all areas of language use but typically concentrates on the more
observable ones.
o Writing. The written form of a language may have to be developed, modified, or standardized.
For example, Turkish was written for centuries with the Arabic alphabet, which does not represent
vowels. Since Turkish has eight vowels, writing with the Arabic alphabet was very difficult, and, in
the 1920s, Ataturk responded to this problem by mandating that Turkish be written using the
Roman alphabet.
o Lexicon. The vocabulary of a language may need to expand to keep pace with increasing
technological development. For example, the primary function of institutions such as the Swedish
Center for Technical Terminology is to coordinate standard spoken and written forms for new
terminology in media, government, and industry.
o Syntax. The syntax of the language may need to expand as the language takes on a national
function. Tok Pisin started as a pidgin in Papua New Guinea. However, as Tok Pisin became a
lingua franca for the New Guinea area, the small vocabulary, restricted syntax, and lack of tense
markings forced a necessary syntactic development of the former pidgin to accommodate the
more widespread use of the language in legal documents and in governmental proceedings.

HOW DO EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS RESPOND TO LANGUAGE PLANNING LEGISLATION?

The response of educational systems to government language planning legislation may either
promote or reduce linguistic diversity. Responses that reduce linguistic diversity include:
o Monolingual instruction in the target language.
o Transitional bilingual education, in which instruction time in the child's native language is
gradually reduced. Responses that promote linguistic diversity include:
o Language maintenance programs that emphasize equally the child's native language and
culture and the target language and culture.
 44

o Immersion programs, such as the St. Lambert program in Quebec, where English-speaking
children are taught in an entirely French-speaking environment (Lambert & Tucker, 1972).

WHO IS INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE PLANNING EFFORTS?

Because language planning typically responds to problems that are sociopolitical in nature,
sociologists or political scientists may first identify and assess the need for some sort of action.
Linguists can properly participate in the needs assessment stage to determine if the languages
or dialects chosen adequately address the problem. Linguists may suggest ways in which syntax
or morphology may be standardized, or may assist in expanding technical vocabularies.
Educators incorporate language planning legislation into action and develop programs to fulfill the
needs identified.
Writers keep up the tradition of writing in a dying language or complete written works in a
previously unwritten language. This stylistic expansion makes possible the formulation of
governmental documents in the planned language.
National language academies may oversee one or more phases of the language planning
process. For example, the Acadamie Francaise works for continued cultivation of the French
language largely through attempts at purification. The Turkish Linguistic Society pursues the
continued codification and standardization of Turkish through the elimination of Arabic and
Persian influences.

EXAMPLES AND OBSERVATIONS

"Language planning and policy arise out of sociopolitical situations where, for example,
speakers of various languages compete for resources or where a particular linguistic minority is
denied access to basic rights. One example is the U.S. Court Interpreters Act of 1978, which
provides an interpreter to any victim, witness, or a defendant whose native language is
not English. Another is the Voting Rights Act of 1975, which provides for bilingual ballots in areas
where more than 5 percent of the population speak a language other than English..."
The French Academy. "The classical example of language planning in the context of state-
into-nationality processes is that of the French Academy. Founded in 1635--i.e., at a time well in
advance of the major impact of industrialization and urbanization--the Academy, nevertheless,
came after the political frontiers of France had long since approximated their current limits.
Nevertheless, sociocultural integration was still far from attained at that time, as witnessed by the
facts that in 1644 the ladies of Marseilles Society were unable to communicate with Mlle. de
Scudéry in French; that in 1660 Racine had to use Spanish and Italian to make himself understood
in Uzès; and that even as late as 1789 half of the population of the South did not understand
French."
Contemporary Language Planning. "A good deal of language planning after the Second World
War was undertaken by emerging nations that arose out of the end of colonial empires. These
nations faced decisions as to what language(s) to designate as an official for use in the political
and social arena. Such language planning was often closely aligned with the desire of new nations
to symbolize their newfound identity by giving official status to the indigenous language(s)
 45

(Kaplan, 1990, p. 4). Today, however, language planning has a somewhat different function. A
global economy, growing poverty in some nations of the world, and wars with their resulting
refugee population have resulted in great linguistic diversity in many countries. Thus, language
planning issues today often revolve around attempts to balance the language diversity that exists
within a nation's borders caused by immigration rather than by colonization."
Language Planning and Linguistic Imperialism. "British policies in Africa and Asia have aimed
at strengthening English rather than promoting multilingualism, which is the social reality.
Underlying British ELT has been key tenets--monolingualism, the native speaker as the ideal
teacher, the earlier the better etc.--which [are] fundamentally false. They underpin linguistic
imperialism."

Activities/Assessments:
Activities and assessments will be on the next unit.

LESSON 5 – Language Policy Choices in Multilingual Societies

UNIT 2 – Language Policies and Multilingualism

Introduction:
The consecutive waves of large-scale immigration, EU free movement and, lately, rapid
globalization have increased linguistic diversity across Western Europe. This linguistic diversity
can also be observed in schools and classrooms. It occupies the minds of schools, teachers and
society as a whole.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Differentiate monolingual from multilingual education;
2. Identify the issues being faced in the increasing linguistic diversity;
3. Produce an interview video.

Course Materials:
A lot of schools are struggling with their emerging multilingual identity. Specialists emphasize the
importance of multilingualism and multilingual school policies: it is an added value for all who aim
to work and function in Europe. Children are encouraged to learn French, English, German,
Spanish and Italian and, if possible, to use these new languages at home, with friends and on
holidays. On the other hand, we see that the multilingualism of immigrant minority children,
adolescents and their parents is often considered to be an obstacle to school success. Parents
are sometimes encouraged to abandon their own language in their conversations with their
 46

children and give priority to the majority language. In some cases, children are discouraged or
forbidden to speak any language other than the majority language while at school.
These language policies and practices are not inspired per se by a negative attitude towards the
native language of immigrant minority children. Schools are truly concerned about the learning
opportunities available to these children. And, therefore, children have to be submersed in a
‘language bath’: they will absorb the school language by hearing and speaking it all day long.
However, by opting for this approach we must ask ourselves what the impact is on children when
they hear/experience that learning foreign languages is an important asset and, at the same time,
their mother tongue is but a ‘handicap’ for their future. So what is the impact of a monolingual
school policy? And is a bilingual education model the only valid alternative? Can one ignore or
even suppress the multilingual reality in schools and classrooms? How do schools have to deal
with the multilingual reality?
Monolingual versus multilingual education
Supporters of monolingual education policies are convinced that it is best to submerse non-
native children in the majority language as soon and as often as possible. Within this perspective
the home language of these children has no place in the classroom or elsewhere in school, and
is not included in the curriculum. They are convinced that the use in school of the home languages
of children from underprivileged immigrant backgrounds will obstruct the development of
proficiency in the majority language.
On the other side of the argument, the ‘supporters’ of bilingual (or multilingual) education policies
are convinced that children benefit from an education in their own language – in addition to or
in combination with education in the majority language of schooling. They argue that education in
the mother tongue provides a more effective basis for learning the language of schooling and on
children’s well-being and self-confidence than total submersion.
Bi/multilingual education in contexts of migration in Western Europe: A brief history
From the 1970s onward, a variety of small-scale experiments in mother tongue
instruction/bilingual education involving small proportions of immigrant children have been
conducted across Europe. Over the years, bilingual education (i.e. the migrant languages used
alongside the majority language as media of instruction in a variety of school subjects) in migrant
languages reached a peak in Western Europe in the late 1970s/early 1980s. More specifically,
the idea was taking root that teaching literacy and subject matter through the first language is
desirable for immigrant children for pedagogical reasons rather than political and cultural reasons.
In other words, it is the valorisation of the first language as a tool for learning which contributes to
improving the school performance of immigrant children from socio-economically disadvantaged
backgrounds. However, nowhere in Western Europe bilingual education in migrant languages has
been able to establish itself as a fully valued teaching model within educational practice.
An important development of relatively recent date is the implementation of two-way
immersion (TWI) models offering migrant languages in partnership with the dominant national
language. In TWI learners have two different backgrounds (native speakers of the majority
language and speakers of a minority language) and children are taught in relatively balanced
groups.
Responding to language diversity at school: Going beyond binary thinking
 47

Since the turn of the century, a return to cultural assimilation in Western Europe has marked a
renewed emphasis on policies focusing only or mainly on learning the majority languages through
hard-core submersion programmes. Under the pressures of a politically unfavourable climate and
budgetary restrictions, education in migrant languages has increasingly come under attack.
However, backpacked with – among other valuable competencies - their multilingual repertoire,
children enter the school. So, it is better to unpack and exploit it than to leave it in their rucksack
and ignore or ban it.
This puts a language submersion policy and a multilingual education policy in a binary
position. However, given the fact that both the language submersion models as the
compartmentalised bilingual education models cannot present a cum laude school report; given
the increased language diversity in schools and classrooms; given the fact that translanguaging
or code-switching can be considered as the discursive norm in multilingual spaces and given the
current highly polarised and rather unproductive debate about dealing with linguistic diversity in
education, one can argue to go beyond the binary discussion for a new approach to multilingual
learning at school. An approach which integrates exploiting children’s linguistic repertoires and
learning the ‘language of schooling’, in which ‘translanguaging’ – as in other spaces – is used as
the discursive norm at school and in the classroom. Or rephrased, ‘a multilingual social interaction
model for learning’ as an alternative for a ‘language learning model’.
Among many other things, this implies a policy and interactive classroom practice that make
children receptive to linguistic diversity and to create a positive attitude towards all languages and
language varieties. This is called language awareness. It stands for making children (and
teachers) sensitive to the existence of a multiplicity of languages, and the underlying cultures and
frames of reference, in our world, and, closer, in the school environment. Functional multilingual
learning is a step further in the positive dealing with children’s linguistic repertoires at school and
in the classroom. It implies that a mainstream school adopts a policy and a teacher the practice
of exploiting children’s full linguistic repertoire to enhance the opportunities for learning, as well
as to reinforce their well-being, self-confidence, motivation and school and classroom
involvement. The linguistic repertoire of children can be seen as didactic capital that explicitly can
be drawn on to strengthen their (educational) development. Their linguistic repertoire can be a
scaffold for learning the language of schooling and more general, for acquiring and unraveling
new knowledge.
There are no simple recipes or policies in addressing inequality, inequity and language in
education. We have to move beyond the binary discussion of an exclusive language
submersion model versus a traditional bilingual education model. In developing a
language policy for multilingual schools, it is important to recognise that besides the school
repertoire that children need to acquire, they also bring several additional repertoires to
school. Repertoires that are not seen as a ‘problem’ or ‘a handicap’ for school success,
but as ‘a richness,’ as an asset or an opportunity for learning and promoting equal
opportunities.

Activities/Assessments:
3. What is the importance of language planning in implementing language policy?
Elaborate your answer.
 48

4. Based on your research and observation, in the last ten years, does the Philippine
government execute a concrete language plan? Why? Why not?
5. Is multilingualism good or bad? Explain your answer.
This activity is a pair work. One of you will be the host, and the other one will be
the interviewee. The output is the manuscript and the interview video.

Note: Format will be discussed on our

Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.
 49

LESSON 6 – Involvement in the Education of Emergent Bilinguals

UNIT 1 – The Teacher and The Student in Multilingual Education

Introduction:
You may not realize it at first glance, but teaching is a lot like acting. Both trades require
a high-energy performance that necessitates a person to act as a role model. While teaching and
acting rely on many of the same principals, as teachers go through training and professional
development, the performance aspect of the job is rarely emphasized or taught.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
1. Identify the roles of teachers and students in multilingual classroom.
2. Explain the concept of “teachers as a language program actor.”

Course Materials:
The Role of the Teacher
The role of the teacher undergoes fundamental changes with the delivery of a multidimensional
second-language program. As the Core French classroom moves from teacher-centred to
student-centred and from a language-based to a needs-based approach, the teacher's
responsibilities also change.
The primary role of the teacher in a multidimensional language class is to establish conditions
and develop activities so that students are able to practise the language in a meaningful context.
It is one of the teacher's greatest responsibilities to develop in the students a positive attitude.
It is the teacher who acts as facilitator, resource person and language model for the second-
language classroom. If developing units, the teacher needs to predict the possible needs of the
students and have communicative language activities readily available to meet these needs. The
activities should be designed so that the students experience a high degree of success. Teachers
will also experience greater success when activities are planned around the students' interests
and take into account subjects that they have some knowledge about.
The teacher is also instrumental in creating a positive and supportive learning environment within
the class. Students who feel safe and secure are much more willing to practise a second
language. A healthy classroom climate promotes risk-taking and allows the students to
experiment. Positive experiences in the classroom lead to an excellent attitude toward language
and culture.
The constant re-entry and review of linguistic content throughout the different units enable the
students to practise and internalize the language. Although this spiral approach is ideal in
language learning, the teacher must be aware of the program objectives and ensure that the
objectives are being met. Instruction and evaluation must reflect these objectives.
 50

The teacher will continue to serve as a language model for the students. While remaining the
person with whom the students will communicate most often, one of the main functions of the
teacher will now be to discover or invent ways to encourage students to communicate
meaningfully with each other. Instead of actively directing and controlling all activities the teacher
will aim to set up conditions for meaningful practice and then take on the role of a resource person.
The classroom becomes student-centred rather than teacher-centred; the students do most of the
talking and the role of the teacher is to facilitate, advise, assist and offer direction. As the students
most often work in small groups the teacher will observe the activities, noting problem areas for
future work. During these activities, the teacher will interrupt to correct students only if the errors
are so serious as to block communication. The role of the teacher in the classroom has
traditionally been to convey knowledge. As the teacher moves toward being a facilitator of
language learning, the students acquire skills that will enable them to be independent language
learners.
Teachers are encouraged to become more knowledgeable about theories and methods of second
language instruction. This can be done through reading and attending workshops, professional
development days and conferences whenever the opportunity lends itself. Mini-immersion or
immersion courses are instrumental in providing the opportunity for improvement/maintenance of
communicative competence. Meeting with colleagues, formally or informally, also provides an
opportunity for discussion, sharing and practicing the language on another level.

The Role of the Student

The role of the students is also evolving in the second language classroom. Students are
becoming more active in their role as learners and are playing a major part in many aspects of
the Core French class.
One significant development is the amount of student input and decision-making that naturally
occurs in the development of the unit. In the initial phase of a unit, students are asked for their
input and the knowledge that they possess on a particular subject. It is this input phase that begins
to motivate the students. Students are encouraged to make a number of decisions. They need to
decide what vocabulary and structures are important for their activities and projects. The
decisions that are made regarding the projects reflect the interests and strengths of the students.
Although there are specific objectives and guidelines that need to be met in the second language
classroom, students who are allowed some freedom to move within the parameters are more
likely to remain motivated and on task.
The experiential goal at the end of the unit gives the students the opportunity to work toward their
potential. The students become aware of this project in the early stages of the unit. They
are then able to tailor their vocabulary, their activities and their thinking toward the final task. As
the students realize that the work they do within the class leads them toward their final goal, they
are much more inclined to stay on task. Students are able to personalize their projects and use
their personal abilities and talents. Students with a strong French background may wish to expand
on the oral or written aspect of the projects. Students with artistic or creative talents may wish to
add an original dimension to the finished product. Students with a lesser degree of language skill
will also be able to work toward their own potential. Students learn in different ways and at a
different pace and their final projects will reflect these unique differences.
 51

As students become more responsible for their own language learning, their success in the
second language class increases. The work that students do in the Core French class takes on
new meaning as the students work toward a final task. Student self-evaluation becomes more
common as the students reflect on what they have learned, how they have learned and what they
still need to learn.

WATCH: Multilingual Teaching

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIiYMWW4kgQ
Note: Kindly turn on the subtitle to better
understand the concepts being discussed in
the video clip..

Activities/Assessments:
1. On the 21st century, many researchers say that “teachers are the language program
actors.” What do we mean by that statement? Explain your answer and give an example
or situation showing teachers as a language program actor.
2. What do you think is the common and the most important trait of a teacher and the
student to promote a better multilingual classroom?

Note: Format will be discussed on our

Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

LESSON 6 – Involvement in the Education of Emergent Bilinguals

UNIT 2 – Involving Parents and Communities

Introduction:
Both folk wisdom and research over the years have supported the notion of parental
involvement in their children’s schooling, the premise being that several caring adults (school
personnel and family members), working together, can accelerate their learning. It is “the mantra
of every educational reform program”. Research has shown the benefits of such collaboration:
parent involvement leads to better attendance, higher achievement, improved attitudes about
learning, and higher graduation rates. In addition, of particular importance for this review, children
from minority and low-income families gain the most from parent involvement.

Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this instructional material, the student should be able to:
 52

1. Identify the roles of parents and community in multilingual classroom.

2. Explain the importance of parent and community involvement in the emergent bilinguals.

Course Materials:
Stigmatization of Ethnolinguistic Minority Parents and Children
Despite these findings, the parents of emergent bilinguals, who in many cases have limited formal
schooling themselves and may not communicate proficiently in English, continue to be
stigmatized and considered incapable educational partners (Ramirez, 2003).This deficit view is
also applied to their children. Yet, the research demonstrates that, in fact, it is their schools that
are deficient — schools with the least funding and limited resources as well as teachers who have
not been prepared to work with families for whom English is not their first language and to engage
effectively with the parents (Gibson, Gándara, & Koyama, 2004).We argue that the schools have
to revise their valuation of these parents’ educative role and redouble their efforts at involving the
parents in order to help pave the way for greater educational equity for emergent bilinguals.
Ways of knowing and speaking begin at home. We all know that education begins in the home,
and because children in U.S. schools come from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds,
family educational practices can take on distinctive characteristics. In other words, emergent
bilinguals’ families possess endogenous knowledge and skills that are often overlooked by
educators who too often ignore John Dewey’s much earlier call to arrange teaching to take into
account children’s prior experiences (Dewey, 1938).
Research has demonstrated variation in ways of knowing among families from different
backgrounds. Philips’s (1983) classic work on the Warm Springs Indian reservation in Oregon
showed that Indian children learn participation structures at home that are different from the
participation structures in the school, resulting in white teachers’ misinterpreting the children’s
turn-taking behaviors and other ways of speaking. Heath (1983) demonstrated how practices in
the home sometimes clash with school practices in her research describing the homeschool
relationship of three communities in the Piedmont Carolinas: Maintown (representative of the
middle class) and Trackton and Roadville, representing working-class black and white mill
communities, respectively. Literacy activities in the working-class communities differ from the
literacy taught in schools, which represent middle class “ways with words.” Heath (1983) argues
that literacy is practiced in all three communities in situations with rich mixtures of orality and
literacy, but that teachers often fail to recognize and build upon the literacy practices of some
communities, particularly those most marginalized in the larger society.
Other studies have shown how teachers can learn about communication patterns in the home,
which can be adapted for improved learning opportunities in the classroom. For example,
Rosebery, Warren, and Conant (1992) found that native speakers of Haitian Creole use certain
discursive practices that are culturally congruent with the discourse of argumentation in science,
thus demonstrating how the home language can be a resource rather than an impediment for
learning, as is often assumed.
In a similar vein, Au (1993) described efforts to meet the needs of native Hawaiian children, with
particular attention to children’s reading development, demonstrating that these students’ reading
improves when the participation structure of reading lessons maintains a close fit with the
discourse of talk-story, part of the Hawaiian storytelling practice. These and similar studies show
 53

that, working with parents, teachers can effectively draw on family and community linguistic and
other knowledge to guide students towards educational attainment.
Exclusion of community funds of knowledge. Many educators still consider family practices
to be barriers to student achievement. For example, parents are often exhorted to “speak English
at home,” in the mistaken belief that this will improve their children’s English at school.This advice,
while well intentioned, devalues the home language and at the same time encourages
inconsistent, often poor, “linguistic input” from nonnative speaking parents (see Ross & Newport,
1996). In a major effort to counteract the stigmatization of families of emergent bilingual children,
a group of anthropologists from the University of Arizona have developed a program of research,
spanning nearly two decades, on “funds of knowledge” for schooling (e.g., Greenberg, 1989,
1990; González,Moll,& Amanti, 2005;Moll,Amanti, Neff, & González, 1992; Moll & Greenberg,
1990).
The concept of “funds of knowledge” refers to different strategies and ways of knowing needed
for a household to function effectively. It is based on the notion that everyday practices, including
linguistic practices, are sites of knowledge construction and that these resources can be brought
into the classroom.These scholars’ program of research has focused on teachers’ visits to the
homes of Latino families to learn about a variety of skills that they possess, such as carpentry,
mechanics, music, knowledge about health and nutrition, household and ranch management, and
extensive language and literacy skills and practices. López (2001) describes parents’ efforts at
teaching their children the value of hard work, a value that is transferable into academic life.The
central communicative resource children learn at home is the home language, and their first
exposures to print include “local literacies” such as Bible reading, reading and writing family
letters, record-keeping, and following recipes (Delgado-Gaitan &Trueba, 1991; Mercado, 2005b).
Mercado (2005a) describes funds of knowledge in two New York Puerto Rican homes as
developing in three areas: intellectual, social, and emotional resources. The families draw on both
Spanish and English literacy to address their needs in health, nutrition, legal matters, and for
spiritual development. Browning-Aiken (2005) and Tenery (2005) both describe how social
networks are formed with extended family, friends, and the wider community. In short, parents of
emergent bilinguals have a great deal to teach teachers about knowledge and skills that originate
in their households that can and should be translated into academic success in schools.

BROADENING THE VIEW OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

There is, of course, the question regarding what parental involvement in the schools means. The
“mainstream” view of parental involvement includes parental presence at school or their
assistance with students’ academic work. In general, it is the school that decides how parents can
become involved with their children’s education, which, according to Seeley, is a “delegation”
model (Seeley, 1993).39 One definition that takes into account family and community practices is
that of Pérez Carreón, Drake, and Calabrese Barton (2005), who developed the concept of
ecologies of parental engagement to refer to the participation of parents in a child’s schooling in
a manner that goes beyond the physical space of the school and is rooted in the understanding
of a family’s cultural practices.The ecologies of parental engagement view takes into account the
different styles of action taken by parents of diverse ethnolinguistic backgrounds. The authors
offer the examples of Celia, a mother who engages with the teacher as a helper inside the
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classroom, and Pablo, an “undocumented” immigrant father, who engages with a network of
neighbors and his son’s teacher outside the classroom to question what is happening in school.
For the sake of brevity, we focus on studies of Latino families’styles of action. Zentella’s (1997,
2005) research in New York and Valdés’s (1996) research in California provide evidence that
parents of various Spanish-speaking backgrounds are involved in their children’s education in a
variety of ways, including rich linguistic exposure to story-telling and print in the native language
at home. Zentella explores the lives and rich, varied language patterns of working-class Puerto
Rican families with a focus on five girls, whom she follows from childhood until they become young
adults. Zentella’s (1997) observations of family language practices lead her to emphasize the
importance of teachers building on students’ home language for learning — including vernacular
varieties — to support students’ self-worth/identity and to help children see connections with the
standard variety, in this case, standard Spanish. For Zentella (2005), becoming bilingual
maintaining the home language and developing strong English language and literacy
competencies —gives students a chance at economic advancement. She states that parental
goals for their children also include becoming bien educado [well educated], a term that
encompasses moral values and respect along with having book knowledge.
Valdés (1996) describes first-generation Mexican parents’ beliefs about their role in their
children’s schooling. For these parents, the teachers were to be entrusted with the children’s
academic skills. Mothers and fathers, who did not feel that they had the academic preparation to
help with these skills, focused instead on giving advice, instilling respect, and fostering moral
values (see also Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Valdés makes a strong argument in
this research that school officials’ and teachers’ response to these parental beliefs has been that
the parents are disinterested in the children’s education. As we have seen in the research reported
throughout this section, this notion is far from the truth; parents want to learn how to help their
children at home (Epstein, 1990), yet they have in some cases felt disregarded and left powerless
in their attempts to be involved in the school (Pérez Carreón, Drake, & Calabrese Barton, 2005).

COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
Research shows that language-minority parents are beginning to question the existing power
relations in the home-school relationship. Some parents have begun to form grassroots
organizations to address their schools about concerns they have regarding their children’s
education. These groups have grown in numbers over the last several years. Delgado-Gaitan
(2001) studied a Latino parent organization, Comité de Padres Latinos/Committee of Latino
Parents (COPLA), where parents learned to make sense of the school system, build leadership,
and become their children’s advocates. Delgado-Gaitan (2001) explained: “Shaped by the lesson
of their own pain, [the] parents placed their children’s needs center stage, giving rise to and
sustaining their activism in the community” (p. 8). Community organizations like these are
beginning to require more equitable and responsive actions by the public education system. In
short, the literature we report here suggests that there be a balance of power with school
personnel, parents, and community working to achieve closer mutual engagement for the
education of emergent bilinguals.
 55

Activities/Assessments:
1. Is parents and the community involvement really necessary for the development of the
emergent bilinguals in the multilingual classroom? Why or why not? Support your
answer with facts and research.
2. Start to compile all of the activities and assessments you have done in the course.
Submission of the E-Portfolio will be announced soon.

Note: Format will be discussed on our

Facebook Messenger Group Chat. Questions
related to the activity/s will also be entertained
in the group chat.

REMINDER: One of your final requirements is to create a timeline of the journey of the English language.
You need to watch Birth of a Language - BBC Documentary | Ep.1 The Adventure Of English
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36V-c_Kd8R8) in YouTube. After watching the documentary, you need
to submit a comprehensive timeline of the English Language and attached to it is your reflection paper.
Details will be announced in our first set of meetings.

COURSE GRADING
Class Standing - 70%
• Written Quizzes
• Performance
• Activities
Midterm/ Final Examination - 30%
100%

Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = FINAL GRADE

2
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References:
Lesson 1
Characteristics and Features of Language. NEOEnglish. Retrieved from:
https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/16/characteristics-and-features-of-language/
Language and Education. Retrieved from:
https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2154/Language-Education.html
Lynch, M. (2016). 4 Reasons Why Classrooms Need Diversity Education. Retrieved
from: https://www.theedadvocate.org/4-reasons-classrooms-need-diversity-education/
The Importance of Diversity in Education. Retrieved from:
https://www.euruni.edu/blog/diversity-in-education/

Lesson 2
Arunachalam, N. (2011). What is Multilingualism? How is it useful or harmful for
students? Retrieved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_Multilingualism_How_is_it_useful_or_harmful_for_s
tudents
Esen, S. (2019). Code Switching: Definition, Types, and Examples. Owlcation. Retrieved
from: https://owlcation.com/humanities/Code-Switching-Definition-Types-and-Examples-of-
Code-Switching
Koyfman, S. (2017). What’s The Difference Between A Pidgin And A Creole? Retrieved
from: https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/whats-the-difference-between-pidgin-and-creole
Multilingual Practices. University of Groningen. Retrieved from:
https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/multilingual-practices/0/steps/22665
Nordquist, Richard. (2020, February 11). Social Dialect or Sociolect Definition and
Examples. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/social-dialect-sociolect-1692109
Nordquist, R. (2020). What Is the Meaning of Language Death? Retrieved from:
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-language-death-1691215
Nordquist, R. (2019). Language Change? Retrieved from:
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-language-change-1691096
Second Language Learning Bilingualism and English as a Second Language. Retrieved
from: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1789/Bilingualism-Second-Language-
Learning-English-Second-Language.html
https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/language_change.html
https://www.weareteacherfinder.com/blog/national-official-language-difference/
Vernacular and standard language. Retrieved from:
https://dayupurnami.wordpress.com/vernacular-and-standard-language/

Lesson 3
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Besmel, P., Singh, N., and Zhang, S. (2012). Globalization and language policies of
multilingual societies: some case studies of south east Asia. Retrieved from:
https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1984-63982012000200007
Falchi, L., Garcia, O., and Kleifgen, J. (2008). From English Language Learners to
Emergent Bilinguals. Teachers College, Columbia University
Spolsky, B. (2005). Language policy. Retrieved from:
http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/168ISB4.PDF
Symaco, L. (2017). Education, language policy and language use in the Philippines.
Retrieved from: https://benjamins.com/catalog/lplp.41.1.05sym/fulltext/lplp.41.1.05sym.pdf
Ingram, D. (2005). An International Perspective on Language Policies, Practices and
Proficiencies. Fédération Internationale des Professeurs de Langues Vivantes: Australia.

Lesson 4
Grunland, S., and Mayers, M. (n.d.). Enculturation and Acculturation. Retrieved from:
http://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/encultur.htm
Falchi, L., Garcia, O., and Kleifgen, J. (2008). From English Language Learners to
Emergent Bilinguals. Teachers College, Columbia University
Janir, L. (2019). Bilingualism and Academic Achievement for Kids — Closing the Gap.
Retrieved from: https://medium.com/@llanirfreelance/bilingualism-and-academic-achievement-
for-kids-closing-the-gap-233b8e706b59

Lesson 5
Avermaet, P.(n.d.). Language policies and multilingualism. University of Groningen.
Retrieved from: https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/multilingual-practices/0/steps/22643
Nordquist, Richard. (2020, February 11). What Does Language Planning Mean?
Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-language-planning-1691098
Robinson, D. (n.d.). Language Policy and Planning. ERIC Digest. Retrieved from:
https://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9210/planning.htm

Lesson 6
Briggs, M. (2014). Second Language Teaching and Learning: the Roles of Teachers, Students,
and the Classroom Environment. Retrieved from:
https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1387&context=gradreports
Falchi, L., Garcia, O., and Kleifgen, J. (2008). From English Language Learners to
Emergent Bilinguals. Teachers College, Columbia University
https://www.k12.gov.sk.ca/docs/francais/frcore/sec/inst1.html