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1.INTRODUCTION

Data communication refers to the transmission of digital

data between two or more computers or devices. A
computer network (or data network) is a system that
connects these devices, allowing them to exchange
information. The connection between the devices is made
through physical means, such as cables, or wirelessly using
technologies like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. This enables the devices
to communicate and share data with each other.
Data communications and networking are transforming
business and daily life by enabling faster decision-making
and instant access to information. Businesses rely on
networks to exchange data quickly, replacing slow methods
like mail with near-instant communication. Technological
advances allow for faster, more efficient communication,
expanding services like conference calling and voicemail.
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The goal is to share data—text, audio, and video—globally

and access the Internet quickly and reliably.

A network is a combination of various hardware and

software which allows us to exchange data from one location
to another. The hardware parts are the physical equipments
that carries data signal from one point to another over the
network while the software tells all the physical parts to
follow a set of rules which makes the data communication
possible.

In order to achieve data communication over a network we

have to follow up a significant path which may be levels or
hierarchy at multiple steps i.e Let us suppose that we have
to send a mail to one of our friend so we first write it down
on a paper then put it into the mailbox and the postman
comes and takes the mail to the post office and then it is
send to our friend (following up all the steps receiver side).
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In the same way , there are several steps to be taken both

at sender and receiver side for the data communication to
be possible . Hence, We use the concept of layers in our
daily life.

Each layer at the sending site uses the services of

the layer immediately below it. The sender at the
higher layer uses the services of the middle layer.
The middle layer uses the services of the lower
layer. The lower layer uses the services of the
carrier. The layered model that dominated data
communications and networking literature before
1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. Everyone believed that the OSI model would
become the ultimate standard for data
communications, but this did not happen. The
TCPIIP protocol suite became the dominant
commercial architecture because it was used and
tested extensively in the Internet; the OSI model
was never fully implemented.

 THE OSI MODEL

The International Standards Organization (ISO),
established in 1947, created the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model in the late 1970s
to standardize network communication. The OSI
model defines a framework that allows different
systems to communicate, regardless of their
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hardware or software. It’s not a protocol itself,

but a guide to designing flexible, interoperable
networks that can connect various systems
without requiring changes to their underlying
technologies.
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LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer
The Physical Layer is
the first layer in the OSI
model, responsible for
transmitting raw bits over
a physical medium like
cables or wireless signals.
It handles the actual
movement of data bits
from one device to
another.
Key functions of the
physical layer include:
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 Defining the medium and

interface: It specifies how devices
connect and what type of transmission
medium (like cables or radio waves) is
used.
 Bit representation: It converts data
into signals (electrical or optical) that
can travel over the medium.
 Data rate: It sets the speed at which
bits are transmitted (e.g., how many
bits per second).
 Synchronization: The sender and
receiver must be in sync to correctly
interpret the transmitted bits.
 Line configuration: It decides how
devices are connected—either point-
to-point (one device to another) or
multipoint (multiple devices sharing
the same connection).
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 Physical topology: It defines the

physical arrangement of devices, like
star, ring, or bus configurations.
 Transmission mode: It determines
the direction of communication—
whether it’s one-way (simplex), two-
way but not simultaneously (half-
duplex), or two-way and simultaneous
(full-duplex).

In a nutshell, It works on the hardware

the data it receives is virtual which is
originated by the use of various software
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services and now it uses the hardware to

convert it is bit-form to process it.
Simply, we can take an example of
process of digital to analog and vise
versa.
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The use of cables which may be

guided/wired or unguided/wireless for
the data transmission takes place in
this layer. Also, the concept of
tropology is also taken mesh and bus
tropology for example and also they
make easy for point to point
communication.
Hardware devices like repeater and
hub/switches are used to enable extra
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functionality likes as smart routing ,

path selection and data strength .

Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second
layer of the OSI model, responsible for
providing reliable communication
between two directly connected
devices(i.e node-to-node or hop-to-
hop communication . It ensures that
data is properly formatted and error-
free when transmitted over the
physical network. Specific
responsibilities of the data link layer
include framing, addressing, flow
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control, error control, and media

access control.
The data link layer divides the data
bits received from the network layer
into frames or segments and also ,
adds a header to each frames defining
sender and receiver address of the
frame. If the rate of data receiving at
receiver side is slower than the rate of
data sending at sender side then data
link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to prevent the receiver
from an overload. Moreover, it also
adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged, duplicate, or lost
frames. When multiple devices are
connected to the same network link,
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data link layer protocols help decide

which device can send data at any
given time. These protocols manage
access to the link(communication
pathway) and prevent data from
colliding, ensuring smooth
communication between devices.
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 Framing: It breaks data into

frames, which are smaller,
manageable units for transmission.
 Error Detection and Correction:
It checks for errors in data and
corrects them if possible, ensuring
reliable communication.
 Flow Control: It manages the
speed of data transmission to
prevent data loss, ensuring the
receiver isn't overwhelmed.
 Access Control: It decides which
device can send data at any given
time, especially when multiple
devices share the same link.
 Addressing: It uses MAC (Media
Access Control) addresses to
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identify devices on the same

network, ensuring data reaches the
correct destination.
 Link Establishment and
Termination: It sets up and ends
the communication link between
devices.

 In a nutshell, the Data Link Layer is responsible for ensuring reliable communication
between devices on the same network. It takes the raw data and organizes it into frames,
checks for errors, and controls how data flows to prevent collisions. It also manages who
gets to send data when multiple devices are connected to the same link. This layer uses
hardware devices like switches and network interface cards (NICs) to handle the physical
transmission of data. Additionally, it ensures devices can communicate in different
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topologies, like star or bus, and supports point-to-point connections for direct
communication.

NetworkLayer

Network layer is the third layer in Osi model . This layer

is responsible for the source-to-destination deliver of the
data packet which may be possible for multiple nodes
too. It receives the data from the other layers and then it
does logical addressing on each of it, basically containing
source to destination address which helps to define a
pathway for packer and maintains the quality of data . It
also helps for the routing ( i.e path selection) , selecting
the best possible path that can be used for the
transmission . The network layer offers several services
to ensure reliable communication. It also ensures that
packets arrive in the correct order, as they were sent. To
manage transmission consistency, the network layer
controls jitter, making sure the time between successive
transmissions is the same at both the sender and
receiver. Additionally, the network layer provides security
by encrypting the data payloads with a session key,
ensuring data integrity and authenticating the source, so
only the destination can decrypt and access the data.It is
important as all other layers as it plays a significant role
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in the data transmission basically without it a

communication can’t take place even if all other layers
are used.

Functions of Network Layer

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1. Logical Addressing

 Purpose: Assigns unique addresses (IP addresses) to devices so that the can be
identified easily throughout the network .

 Types of Addresses:

For the logical addressing of it assigns a unique kind of combination

of numbers and may include hexadecimal values which are generally
called Ip addresses . There are currently two versions of Internet protocol
(Ip), they are as follows:

o IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

o IPv6: 128-bit address designed for scalability (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

2. Routing

 Purpose: It simply means a path selection which may be the best path for data
communication. For example: Ram has two routes to get home, Route A and
Route B. He analyses the route such as the conditions of road , will he get taxi ,
nature of the neighborhood ,etc. Suppose , in all of those conditions he finds
route ‘B; as suitable ,so, it is obvious for him to take the route ‘B’ and Same
concept is considered in routing mechanism in network layer.
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 Mechanisms:

A table where all of the possible paths are shown.

o Routing Tables: Contain information about the available routes.

3. Packet Forwarding

 Purpose: Transmits data packets from one node to the next, based on the
routing table and destination address.

 Key Concept: It is the process of moving data packets from the sender to the
receiver across a network. Routers check their routing tables to find the best
path and forward the packet to the next router or device. This process continues
hop by hop until the packet reaches its destination, similar to how a letter moves
through post offices until it gets delivered.

4. Fragmentation and Reassembly

 Purpose: When data is sent over network they are divided into smaller units
called packets/fragments and need to be sent over different types of network ,
each with its own Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit) is the largest data packet size a network can handle without
fragmentation, such as Ethernet's typical 1500 bytes. If a packet exceeds the
MTU, the Network Layer splits it into smaller fragments for smooth transmission.
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 Reassembly: At the destination, the Network Layer (or sometimes higher

layers) takes the received fragments and combines them back into the original
packet.

5. Quality of Service (QoS)

 Purpose: Ensure data packets are transmitted efficiently and meet specific
performance requirements based on their priority. For example, real-time
applications like video streaming or VoIP require higher priority to ensure smooth
delivery, while regular data can tolerate delays.

Key protocols in the Network Layer include IP (IPv4 and IPv6 for addressing and
routing data), ARP (maps IP addresses to MAC addresses), ICMP (for error
reporting and diagnostics like ping),Enables private IP addresses to communicate
with external networks by translating them into a public IP address and NAT
(converts private IP addresses to public ones for internet access).
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In a nutshell, The Network Layer plays a vital role

in the data transport process by managing various
essential functions.
Such as routing defining the best pathway and
breaking down of large data into smaller packets.
Additionally , It also plays a bit part in flow control
too while error-handling mechanism are adopted
sometimes and addressing of data packets are
possible.
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Transport Layer

The transport layer is the fourth(4) layer in the OSI model manages data flow between
hosts and systems, ensuring smooth data transfer. It handles data volume, destination,
and rate through protocols like TCP, UDP, DCCP, and SCTP. It receives packets from the
network layer, checks for errors, and then forwards them to the session layer for use by
the application. The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another. Computer often runs several program or application at a time.
For this reason, the delivery of data not only means source-destination but also there
must be a way to recognize a process on both sides (for example: We are using FTP
which runs on port 20 & 21, to transfer a file to the receiver ; suppose there are several
other processes running on the both sides i.e sender and receive are running services
such as http:80, HTTPS: 443 SMTP: 25 SSH: 22. Etc so , it specifies the port
number to recognize the type of services.)A transport layer protocol can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer protocol treat
each segments as an independent packet and send it to the transport layer at
destination (uses commonly known protocol UDP) while A connection oriented transport
layer first makes a connection to the transport layer at the other end and then process
the data and at last connection is terminated and uses protocols like TCP and SCPT
(combination of the features of UDP and TCP) basically a hybrid with better
functionality.
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Function of TRANSPORT LAYER:

1. End to end/ port to port/process to process delivery of
data:

Let say there are two network A and B and a device from network ‘A’ is
sending a mail through G-mail application as it uses SMTP protocol (Background
process) which runs on a port ‘25’ . The transport layer specify the port number
on data which the device is sending to a device in network ‘B’ and suppose both
devices at Network A as well as Network B are running several services , due to
the help of those port number which were specified by the transport layer device
in network B will be able to know which application data is being received .

2. Reliability :

Whenever we are sending data , the major concern of the Transport

Layer is to maintain data integrity during end-to-end communication.
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It ensures that data is reliably transmitted, correctly ordered, and free
from errors, even if it passes through various networks and devices. It
accounts that by using protocols like UDP , TCP and SCTP , etc . If the rate
of data transmission (speed transmission) is the major concern and we do
much care about any error and flow control then UDP is preferred but If
the integrity of data is major concern with a decent speed and supporting
an error and flow control then tcp and sctp can be taken into action.

3.Error Control( checksum) :

Error control ensures that data transmitted between devices is free from errors and it
uses a checksum to detect errors in the data during transmission. The major concern is
detection of error if it fix it that would be best. A checksum is a calculated value based
on the data, and it’s sent along with the data packet. The receiver performs the same
calculation and compares the result with the received checksum value. If the value
matches then it is considered to be error free but if it doesn’t then there may be errors
and the packet will be discarded, and the retransmission request is sent by the receiver.

4. Congestion and Flow control :

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Congestion is a situation in which too many sources over a network tries to

send data at the same time which causes an overflow of data and buffering in
transmission due to overload loss of packet occurs. As a result , the
retransmission of data from the sources takes place which causes further
congestion. This problem has to be managed so that the transmission can
occur smoothly that is why the transport layer implies a method called
congestion and flow control mechanisms which helps to deal with such
problems. They adopted to prevent network overload and ensure smooth data
flow, help manage the traffic, so all users can enjoy a stable and efficient
network connection. These techniques are essential for maintaining the
performance and reliability of modern networks.

5. Segmentation :

Segmentation is the process of dividing large chunks of data received

from the Application Layer into smaller, manageable units called
segments before sending them over the network. Those data from
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Application layer comes in bits which are transformed into a SEGMENT
through tcp/udp method and then sent it to the Network Layer. TCP
segments data with sequence numbers for reliable and ordered delivery,
while UDP segments data without ensuring reliability or order.

SESSION LAYER

The Session Layer is the 5th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This
layer allows users on different machines to establish active communications sessions
between them. It is responsible for establishing, maintaining, synchronizing, terminating
sessions between end-user applications.

Moreover, once after a successful session connection quite often a term called
‘Authorization’ is used to simply explain , it refers to the process of giving someone
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permission to have access over data.or authorization is the set of privileges
given where we can define range of data that can be accessed. Suppose , a
user is surfing an E-commerce website where he/she will be allowed to a
search items, add-to-cart, apply discount coupons and much more things but
will the user be allowed to edit the items , reduce the price , add or remove
items from the whole e-commerce store and the simple answer to it is ‘No’
because it is not allowed by the e-commerce store host/owner, that’s why
authorization is important.

Functions of Session Layer :

The session layer being the fifth layer in the OSI model performs several different
as well as important functions which are need for establishing as well as
maintaining a safe and secure connection. Some of the most significant functions
are mentioned with a brief explanation as :

1.Authentication:

When user 'A' wants to connect with user 'B,' 'A' sends a request to confirm if 'B' agrees
to the connection. If authentication is enabled, users may need to verify their identities
using credentials like usernames, passwords, or even more secure methods such as
two-factor authentication. This process ensures that only authorized users establish a
connection, preventing unauthorized access and enhancing security. If authentication is
not required, the connection is established once 'B' allows it.

2.Authorization:
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After establishing a session, authorization determines the permissions granted to a

user, defining what actions they are allowed to perform and what data they can access.
For example, in an e-commerce website, a user may be authorized to browse items, add
them to a cart, and apply discount codes but not to modify product prices or inventory.
Authorization ensures that users operate within their permitted roles, safeguarding
sensitive operations and data.

3.Session Restoration:
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It is a feature provided by the session layer to allow the user to resume or restore the
state of application or service which they were previously on . It can simply be achieved
by using the concept of ‘Checkpoint’ where it creates a checkpoint/mark within an
interval time (keeps tracks of) state of user. Suppose, Ram is doing his project work in
google excel sheet and all of a sudden his power supply connection cuts-off and his pc
turns off, now what will he be able to access all of his hard work ; Yes , Session layer
helps to restore a previous session or restore the lost state . Although session
restoration may play a crucial role but only limited services are using such functionality
it is because a malicious attacker can hijack the session info and use it to misuse your
data but this feature is quite often used by the popular services which we are using
nowadays . A time limit should be given so , that the user can restore their lost data
within a time and then a new session may be created for further security.

4.Synchronization:
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Synchronization in the Session Layer means adding checkpoints in the data stream
during communication. Suppose, a user is in a webinar and he/she is speaking
simultaneously what if he speaks a word and it hears after 5 second or may be a second
later will it be any good , so , to prevent from such problems it adopts Synchronization
mechanism to ensure deliver data at the time when it is suppose to be
delivered.

PRESENTATION LAYER
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Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in

the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) model. This layer is also known
as Translation layer, as this layer
serves as a data translator for the
network. The data which this layer
receives from the Application Layer is
extracted and manipulated here as
per the required format to transmit
over the network. The main
responsibility of this layer is to provide
or define the data format and
encryption. The presentation layer is
also called as Syntax layer since it is
responsible for maintaining the proper
syntax of the data which it either
receives or transmits to other layer(s).
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Functions of Session Layer:

The presentation layer, being the 6th layer in the OSI model, performs several types of
functions, which are described below-

 Code Conversion:

It transforms data into a format that the

application layer can understand. Suppose,
User ‘A’ wants to send some data to the user
‘B’ , let the data format sent by ‘A’ uses ASCII
while user ‘B’ only understands data format of
BCDIC ,so, this can cause a problem because ‘B’
won’t be able to understand what ‘A’ is trying to
communicate and will fail to communicate back.
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In order to make communication clearer ,

presentation layer perform code/data conversion
from one format to another and it is done both
at sender and receiver side.

 Encryption/Decryption:

When we are on a network exchanging a lot of

information we always hope that the information
we are sending across the internet remains safe
so that no one alter it or read it . Suppose, a user
sends a message to one of his friend saying
“Hey john, Checkout my school record” , that
user won’t want anybody to read it ,so, to
prevent any security threat a concept of
Encryption and Decryption is used . Encryption
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is converting readable data into a scrambled

format to protect it, while Decryption is
converting the scrambled data back into its
original form using a key and these concept
protects the information from any security
threat.

 Compression:

IT refers to the process of reducing the size of

data before it is transmitted over the network,
making it more efficient. It helps minimize
bandwidth usage and speeds up data transfer by
encoding data in a smaller form, which is then
decompressed back into its original form at the
receiving end.
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 Data format:

Presentation Layer makes sure the data is in a format

that the receiving system can understand. Suppose,
you send a message in this format “Hello, how are
you?” you won’t want it to be send like “Hello? are you
how,”, so , to maintain a proper format , the
presentation layer performs Data formatting over
communication.

APPLICATION LAYER
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The Application Layer of OSI (Open System

Interconnection) model, is the top layer or the 7th layer in
this model and takes care of network communication. The
application layer provides the functionality to send and
receive data from users. It acts as the interface between
the user and the application. The application provides
services like file transmission, mail service, and many
more. A user can access any application either through
Cui or Gui
These both are user interface which helps to access the
services of an application and this functionality has been
provided by the application layer. Every layer is
incomplete in absence of this layer no-layer on this model
can be used if application hadn’t been there, so, it plays a
crucial role in the data communication.

Functions of Application Layer

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The Application Layer, as discussed above,

being topmost layer in OSI model,
performs several kinds of functions which
are requirement in any kind of application
or communication process. Following are
list of functions which are performed by
Application Layer of OSI Model:

Email and File Management Services

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 Application Layer provides a facility by which users can forward several emails
and also provides a storage facility.
 It allows users to access, retrieve, and manage files on a remote computer.
 It provides services which include e-mail, transferring files, distributing results to
the user, directory services, network resources, and so on.
Remote Access and Communication

 This layer allows users to log on as a remote host.

 Application Layer helps us identify communication partners and synchronize
communication.
 It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and
present meaningful data to users.
Network Transparency and Resource Management
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 This layer handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, and
other related tasks.
 It serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
services.
Interaction with Other Software and the Operating System

 This layer allows users to interact with other software applications.

 Application Layer is not just a function, but it performs various application-layer
functions.
 It interacts with the Operating System (OS) and ensures the preservation and
management of data.
Data Representation and Presentation

 In this layer, data is presented in a visual form, which helps users understand the
data more intuitively, rather than remembering or visualizing it in binary format
(0’s or 1’s).
 It receives and preserves data from the previous layer, which is the Presentation
Layer (which carries the syntax and semantics of the transmitted information).
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Protocol and Host Initialization

 The protocols used in this layer depend on the type of information users wish to
send or receive.
 It generally performs host initialization followed by remote login to hosts.
 The application layer is an abstraction layer that specifies the shared protocols
and interface methods used by hosts in a communication network.

Summary Paragraph: The Application Layer is a crucial part of the OSI model,
providing essential services such as email forwarding, file management, remote access,
and communication with other software applications. It manages network transparency
and resource allocation, while interacting with both the Operating System and the
Presentation Layer. This layer also ensures data is represented in a user-friendly format,
allowing for better understanding. It handles protocol management, remote host login,
and communication synchronization, ensuring smooth interactions within the network.