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1.

Introduction to Carbon
• Carbon is a non-metal and is widely found in nature.
• It is the basis of all living organisms.
• Exists in both free state (diamond, graphite) and combined state
(carbonates, hydrocarbons).

2. Allotropes of Carbon
• Crystalline forms: Diamond and Graphite.
• Amorphous forms: Coal, Charcoal, Coke, Lamp black.
• Fullerenes: Spherical molecules like Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀).

3. Properties of Diamond
• Hardest natural substance.
• Does not conduct electricity.
• Transparent and has high refractive index.
• Used in cutting tools, jewelry, and drilling.

4. Properties of Graphite
• Soft and slippery.
• Conducts electricity (due to delocalized electrons).
• Used in lubricants, pencil leads, and electrodes.

5. Uses of Amorphous Carbon


• Coal: Fuel in industries and homes.
• Charcoal: Used in water purification and as fuel.
• Coke: Used in metallurgy for reducing metal oxides.

6. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)


• Colorless, odorless gas, heavier than air.
• Produced by respiration, combustion, and reaction of acids with
carbonates.
• Used in soft drinks, fire extinguishers, and photosynthesis.

7. Carbon Monoxide (CO)


• Poisonous gas formed by incomplete combustion.
• Binds with hemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport in blood.
• Used in the production of methanol and in metallurgy.

8. Hydrocarbons
• Compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
• Types:
• Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) – Single bonds (e.g., methane,
ethane).
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons – Double/triple bonds (alkenes and alkynes).

9. Organic and Inorganic Compounds


• Organic compounds: Contain carbon, mostly covalent, found in living
organisms (e.g., alcohols, carbohydrates).
• Inorganic compounds: Do not have carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., CO₂,
carbonates).

10. Importance of Carbon Compounds


• Found in fuels (petrol, diesel, coal).
• Essential for life (proteins, carbohydrates, fats).
• Used in plastics, medicines
Chapter 4: Atomic Structure

1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory:


• Matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.
• Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
• Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
• Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
• Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.

2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles:


• Electron: Discovered by J.J. Thomson through cathode ray experiments;
electrons are negatively charged particles.
• Proton: Discovered by Goldstein using anode ray experiments; protons
are positively charged particles.
• Neutron: Discovered by James Chadwick; neutrons are neutral particles
with a mass similar to protons.

3. Rutherford’s Atomic Model:


• An atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by
electrons in circular orbits.
• Most of the atom’s volume is empty space.
• This model couldn’t explain the stability of atoms.

4. Bohr’s Atomic Model:


• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits or energy levels
(K, L, M, N…).
• Each orbit corresponds to a specific energy level.
• Electrons can jump between energy levels by absorbing or releasing
energy.

5. Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes:


• Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in the nucleus; defines the
element.
• Mass Number (A): Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers due to varying numbers of neutrons.

6. Electronic Configuration:
• Electrons occupy energy levels based on the 2n² rule, where ‘n’ is the
energy level number:
• K shell (n=1): up to 2 electrons
• L shell (n=2): up to 8 electrons
• M shell (n=3): up to 18 electrons
• Electrons fill from the lowest to higher energy levels.

7. Valence Electrons and Valency:


• Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
• Valency: Combining capacity of an atom, determined by the number of
electrons lost, gained, or shared to achieve a stable configuration.

8. Ions:
• Cations: Positively charged ions formed by losing electrons.
• Anions: Negatively charged ions formed by gaining electrons.

For a more detailed explanation, you might find this video helpful:
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