Tensile Test and Universal Testing Machine (UTM): A Comprehensive

Overview

1. Tensile Test: Definition and Importance

A tensile test (also known as a tension test) is a fundamental mechanical test in which a
material is subjected to a uniaxial tensile force (pulling or stretching) to determine how it will
react to stress and strain. The primary purpose of the tensile test is to measure the material's
strength, ductility, and elasticity, which are important parameters for selecting materials in
engineering and design applications.

Principle of Tensile Testing

The principle of tensile testing is to measure the response of a material to a unidirectional

pulling force (tensile load) until failure, to understand its mechanical properties. The test
involves stretching a specimen of material and recording the relationship between the applied
force (load) and the resulting elongation (strain). This helps determine key mechanical
properties such as strength, ductility, stiffness, and elasticity.

Step-by-Step Principle of Tensile Test:

1. Specimen Preparation:
o A standard specimen, typically with a dog-bone shape (for metals) or a
cylindrical shape (for polymers and other materials), is prepared.
o The specimen has a known cross-sectional area and gauge length (the central
portion that will undergo elongation).
2. Loading the Specimen:
o The specimen is placed between the grips of a Universal Testing Machine
(UTM), which applies a tensile force.
o The load is gradually increased at a controlled rate, either by applying a
constant speed or by a constant rate of elongation.
3. Measurement of Force and Elongation:
o The UTM records the force (measured in Newtons) applied to the specimen as
the load increases.
o The elongation (or change in length) of the specimen is also measured,
typically using an extensometer or by measuring the displacement of the
crosshead of the machine.
o These measurements are used to calculate stress and strain.
4. Stress-Strain Relationship:
o The applied force (load) divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen
gives the stress (measured in Pascals, Pa or N/m²).
o The elongation divided by the original gauge length gives the strain
(dimensionless).
o Stress and strain are plotted on a stress-strain curve.
5. Analysis of the Stress-Strain Curve:
o Elastic Region: In this region, the material behaves elastically, meaning it
returns to its original shape when the load is removed. The slope of this region
represents the Young’s Modulus (stiffness of the material).
 o Yield Point: The stress at which the material begins to deform plastically,
marked by a yield strength (σy). This is the point beyond which permanent
deformation occurs.
o Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The highest point on the stress-strain
curve, where the material can withstand the maximum tensile stress before
necking starts.
o Fracture Point: After the material reaches the UTS, it starts to fail or break,
marking the fracture point.
6. Determination of Key Properties:
o Tensile Strength (UTS): The maximum tensile stress the material can
withstand.
o Yield Strength: The stress at which noticeable plastic deformation occurs.
o Elongation: The percentage increase in length of the specimen at fracture.
o Young’s Modulus: The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region,
representing the stiffness of the material.

Key Concepts Involved in Tensile Testing:

 Stress (σ): Stress is the force applied per unit area of the specimen. It is calculated as:

σ=FA\sigma = \frac{F}{A} σ=AF

where:

o FFF = Applied force (in Newtons)

o AAA = Original cross-sectional area of the specimen (in square meters)
 Strain (ε): Strain is the deformation (elongation) of the specimen relative to its
original length. It is calculated as:
 Elastic Region: The initial part of the stress-strain curve where the material returns to
its original shape after the load is removed.
 Plastic Region: The part of the stress-strain curve where permanent deformation
occurs.
Summary of the Tensile Test Principle:

The principle of the tensile test is to measure the relationship between the applied tensile
force and the material's elongation, providing key information about the material's strength,
ductility, and elasticity. By conducting a tensile test, we generate a stress-strain curve,
which is used to determine:

 Elastic Modulus (Young’s Modulus),

 Yield Strength,
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), and
 Fracture Properties (such as elongation and reduction in area).

These properties are critical in material selection and design for engineering applications
where materials are subjected to tensile forces.

Key Properties Determined from a Tensile Test:

1. Tensile Strength (Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS): The maximum stress a

material can withstand before failure.
2. Yield Strength (σy): The stress at which permanent deformation begins. It marks the
transition between elastic and plastic deformation.
3. Young’s Modulus (E): A measure of a material's stiffness or resistance to elastic
deformation.
4. Elongation: The percentage increase in length before the specimen fractures,
indicating ductility.
5. Fracture Toughness: The ability of a material to resist crack propagation.
6. Poisson’s Ratio: The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain in the material during
deformation.

2. Process of a Tensile Test

The tensile test is carried out using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The general steps
involved in tensile testing are as follows:

1. Specimen Preparation:
o A test specimen is typically prepared in the shape of a dog-bone or
cylindrical shape. The gauge length (usually marked in the central portion of
the specimen) is defined, and the cross-sectional area is uniform.
o The dimensions of the specimen are specified according to the material being
tested and the standard used (e.g., ASTM E8 for metals or IS 1608 for
metallic materials in India).
2. Machine Setup:
 o The specimen is placed into the grips of the Universal Testing Machine
(UTM). These grips hold the specimen tightly to apply a controlled tensile
force.
o The testing machine is calibrated to apply the load at a constant rate of strain
or constant displacement (depending on the standard).
3. Application of Load:
o The UTM applies the tensile load gradually to the specimen. The machine
records the force applied to the specimen and its elongation (or displacement).
o The rate of loading is typically specified in the standards, and the material may
be loaded at a constant rate of elongation or load (typically 0.1% elongation
per minute for metals).
4. Data Recording:
o The UTM measures the force (in Newtons) and elongation (in millimetres or
micrometres). This data is plotted as a stress-strain curve.
o The stress is calculated by dividing the applied load by the cross-sectional
area of the specimen.
o The strain is calculated by dividing the elongation by the initial gauge length.
5. Test Results:
o The stress-strain curve is analysed to determine:
 Elastic Limit: The point where the material stops behaving elastically
and starts to deform plastically.
 Yield Strength: The stress corresponding to the onset of plastic
deformation.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The highest point on the stress-
strain curve.
 Fracture Point: The point at which the material breaks.
6. Fracture Observation:
o After fracture, the specimen is examined to study the nature of failure. Ductile
materials typically show necking and elongation, while brittle materials
fracture without significant elongation.

3. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is an advanced piece of laboratory equipment used to

test the mechanical properties of materials by applying tensile, compressive, or shear forces.
UTMs can conduct tensile testing, compression testing, flexural testing, and shear testing,
with tensile testing being the most common application.

Components of UTM:

1. Load Frame:
o The frame holds the specimen and the testing mechanism. It is designed to
withstand the forces applied during the test.
2. Crosshead:
o The crosshead is the part of the machine that moves in response to the applied
force. It holds the grips that secure the specimen.
3. Load Cell:
 o The load cell is a sensor that measures the force applied to the specimen. It
sends this information to the machine’s control system, which displays the
load on the screen.
4. Grips:
o The grips are used to hold the specimen during testing. They can be
hydraulic, mechanical, or pneumatic.
o The grips must hold the specimen firmly without damaging it.
5. Extensometer:
o The extensometer is used to measure the elongation or deformation of the
specimen during the test. It can be attached to the specimen or built into the
UTM.
o Digital extensometers are commonly used for precise measurements.
6. Computer and Software:
o Modern UTMs are interfaced with computers for control, data collection, and
analysis.
o Software connected to the machine can generate real-time stress-strain curves,
display results, and allow for further analysis.

Types of UTM Machines:

1. Electromechanical UTM:
o These machines use electric motors to apply the force and move the crosshead.
o They are suitable for low to medium load testing and provide high precision.
2. Hydraulic UTM:
o These machines use hydraulic systems (fluid pressure) to apply the force.
o They are often used for higher load applications and are more robust in
handling large specimens.
3. Servo-hydraulic UTM:
o A hybrid system that uses a hydraulic actuator controlled by a servo motor.
o This allows for precise control of strain rates and is often used for high-load,
high-performance materials testing.

Applications of UTM:

 Material Testing: To evaluate materials like metals, plastics, polymers, rubber, and
composites.
 Quality Control: To ensure the mechanical properties of materials meet industry
standards and specifications.
 Research & Development: For studying new materials and their behavior under
stress.
 Engineering Design: For determining material behavior and selecting the right
materials for specific applications, such as in automotive, aerospace, and construction
industries.

4. Indian Standards (IS) Relevant to Tensile Testing and UTM ALSO 1786:

The Indian Standards (IS) provide guidelines for performing tensile tests, machine
calibration, and reporting of results. Here are the most important standards:
IS 1608: 2005 – Method for Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials:

 This standard provides the method for performing tensile tests on metallic materials.
 Scope: Describes the procedure for determining tensile properties, including specimen
preparation, test procedure, and calculation of results.
 Key Elements:
o Specimen dimensions and preparation methods.
o Test conditions such as temperature and loading rate.
o Measurement of elongation and stress.
o Reporting of results (tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, etc.).

IS 14858: 2000 – Universal Testing Machines:

 This standard specifies the requirements for Universal Testing Machines used for
testing materials under tensile, compression, and bending forces.
 Scope: Describes the design, construction, and performance requirements for UTMs.
 Key Elements:
o Load capacity and accuracy.
o Crosshead movement speed.
o Calibration and precision.
o Requirements for test grips and extensometers.

IS 2062: 2011 – Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel:

 This standard provides the mechanical properties for structural steel, including those
obtained from tensile tests.
 Scope: Defines yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation for steel used in
structural applications.

IS 1891: 2002 – Specification for Machine Tools – Testing of UTM:

 This standard provides the testing procedures for machines used in material testing,
including UTMs.
 Scope: Provides guidelines for evaluating the performance of UTM machines,
including calibration and testing accuracy.

IS 1599: 1997 – Steel Wire Ropes – Testing:

 This standard specifies the methods for tensile testing of steel wire ropes, determining
ultimate strength, elongation, and other parameters.

5. Conclusion

The tensile test is one of the most crucial tests in material science, providing valuable
insights into a material’s strength, ductility, and elasticity. The Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) is a versatile machine capable of performing a wide range of mechanical tests, with
tensile testing being one of the most common applications. Adhering to Indian Standards
(IS) such as IS 1608 for tensile testing and IS 14858 for UTM ensures the reliability and
accuracy of the test results, which are critical for material selection, design, and quality
control in various industries.