PERSONALITY

Psychoanalytic Social-cognitive
Humanism

Freud’s psychosexual theory Reciprocal determinism—interplay

Structure: id (pleasure principle), ego Maslow—self-actualization of
(reality principle), superego (morals, Hierarchy of needs Personal factors/internal cognition
ideals) * Safety—security—love—self- Behavior
Levels of awareness: conscious, pre- esteem—self-actualization Environment
conscious, unconscious Carl Rogers—person-centered Personal control (Julian Rotter)
Development: oral, anal, phallic Genuineness External locus of control
(Oedipal complex, penis envy), la- Unconditional positive regard Internal locus of control
tency, genital Empathy *Without internal locus, learned
Fixations helplessness results
Defense mechanisms - reduce anxiety Explanatory style (Martin Seligman)
Repression (primary) Optimistic
Regression Trait theory Unstable, specific, external
Reaction formation Pessimistic
Rationalization Stable, global, internal
Displacement Bandura
Sublimation Greeks—4 humors (choleric, san- Personality influenced by observa-
Projection guine, melancholic, phleg- tional learning, outside influ-
Denial matic) ences (Bobo doll study)
Neo-Freudians Allport (student of Freud) Self-efficacy (belief in ability to do
Adler—social, not sexual tensions Eysenck—unstable/stable; intro- things that lead to positive out-
* Birth order, inferiority complex verted/extroverted comes)
Horney—rejected penis envy idea Costa & McCrae (Big 5)
Carl Jung—collective unconscious OCEAN (openness, conscien-
Assessment tiousness, extraversion, agree- The self
Projective tests ableness, neuroticism)
Rorschach Assessment
TAT - Thematic Apperception Test MMPI (used factor analysis, em-
pirically derived) Hazel Markus— ―possible selves‖
Draw-a-person Spotlight effect
Sentence completion Cattell’s 16PF
Person-situation controversy Self-referencing effect
Evaluation: Self-esteem
* Repression often not shown (vivid Walter Mischel—emphasizes
power of situational factors Defensive vs. secure
memory often results after trauma) Self-serving bias
* Terror management theory Expressive style—thin slices
Barnum effect—astrology, etc.
 STRESS & HEALTH
Stress response Obesity & health

Coping Physiology
Stressor—leads to eustress or distress
Depends on appraisal Fat cells—30-40 million
Fight-or-flight—Walter Cannon Divide if too full, can’t get rid of
Problem-focused (address fat cells
Adrenal glands
stressor) Set-point/metabolism
* Epinephrine (quick response)
Emotion-focused (seeks support Fat cells—low metabolic rate
* Glucocorticoids (slow response)
from others) Metabolism slows when fat cells
General Adaptation Syndrome—Selye
Exercise are deprived, tries to maintain
Alarm—activation of sympathetic
Biofeedback fat level
nervous system
Meditation Genetics
Resistance—deal with/fight
Spiritual connection Adopted children’s weight not
Exhaustion—breakdown of immune
system (telomeres in DNA affected, correlated to adoptive parents
can’t replicate); hippocampus can’t Identical twins correlation +.72
make new memories as well Fraternal twins correlation +.32
Illness Conflict Chemical effect
Heart (Friedman & Rosenman study) Leptin in rats—when up, weight
Type A—anger, reactive vs. down
Type B—relaxed
Approach-approach Losing weight?
69% of heart attack victims were A
Win-win situation 2/3 of women, 1/3 of men trying
Immune system impaired
Avoidance-avoidance
* B lymphocytes (fight bacteria—
Lose-lose situation
formed in bone marrow)
Approach-avoidance
* T lymphocytes (formed in thymus,
One choice, pros and cons
fight viruses, cancers)
* Macrophages (―big eaters
Conditioning the immune system
(Ader & Cohen study)
* Sweetened water with immune
suppressing drug—created classi-
cally conditioned immune suppres-
sion
* Placebo effect in illness?
 LEARNING

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

Latest contributions

Associative learning
Associative learning - consequences of behavior Latent learning (Tolman)
- allows prediction (associate stimuli) - operant behavior - cognitive maps (demonstrate
- respondent behavior Thorndike’s Law of Effect learning after award is given)
Pavlov’s dogs (1904 Nobel prize) Skinner Intrinsic motivation (desire to do
* US (food) leads to: * Operant chamber (Skinner Box) something for its own sake)
UR (salivation to food) * Shaping - When rewards are given for activ-
* CS (bell) becomes associated with - Successive approximations ity that is intrinsically reward-
US, leads to: * Discrimination ing, enjoyment declines
* CR (salivation to bell) Reinforcement (overjustification effect)
Elements of classical conditioning: Positive reinforcement—pleasurable Extrinsic motivation (desire to do
Acquisition stimulus after a response (strengthens something for reward)
Extinction the response) - Should be recognition for a job
Spontaneous recovery Negative reinforcement—reduces or well done
Generalization removes a negative stimulus Biological predispositions
Discrimination (still strengthens the response) - Easier to condition behaviors that
Implications: * Primary reinforcers (water, food, match natural behavior
Rescorla’s research on predictability etc.) vs. secondary reinforcers Legacy of Skinnerian thinking
Garcia’s research of biological predis- (money, etc.) - Criticism of deterministic philoso-
positions * Schedules of reinforcement phy, dehumanization, loss of
* easier to condition food aversions Continuous (rapid learning) personal freedom
to taste rather than sight or sound Partial (intermittent) Observational learning (modeling)
* easiest to condition behaviors that - Ratio (certain # of behaviors) Mirror neurons (biological basis)
promote survival * Fixed (5 visits to restaurant = - promote empathy
Applications: free meal) Bandura’s Bobo doll study
Aversive conditioning—pairing a * Variable (slot machine) Child watches adult, mimics
negative stimulus with a desired - Interval (certain period of time) Increase of violence, aggression
stimulus can help kick bad habits * Fixed (ex. each day @ 3 p.m.) Media influence
Drug addicts sometimes have cravings * Variable (ex. shooting stars) Violent crimes—87% on TV,
related to environment Punishment 13% real life
Classical conditioning of immune re- Positive punishment (add bad thing) Violent action is correlated to
sponse (Ader & Cohen study) Negative punishment (take away good) viewing violence (media, video
Extinction can help cure phobias *Both create avoidance behaviors games) - leads to desensitiza-
(ex. lie—becomes neg. reinforced) tion
 MEMORY

ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

Controlled by attention Information-processing theory Aids (retrieval cues):

Sensory STM LTM Context
Types: State-dependent
Acoustic Sensory memory (Sperling) Mood-congruent
Visual Iconic Priming
Semantic Echoic
Recognition vs. recall
Affected by: STM
Chunking 7 +/- 2 chunks Retrieval failure:
Self-reference effect Forgetting curve
Elaboration LTM (Ebbinghaus)
Rehearsal Explicit (declarative) Tip-of-the-tongue
Spacing Semantic memory (facts) Reconstructive memory
Hierarchies Episodic memory (incidents) (Elizabeth Loftus)
Next-in-line effect Flashbulb memory *Misinformation effect
Serial position effect (emotional incidents) *Source amnesia
Primacy effect Prospective memory (remember *Rosy retrospection
Recency effect to do something in the future) Interference
Mnemonic devices Proactive
Peg-words Retroactive
Method of loci Amnesia
Alliteration Anterograde
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Music Retrograde
Lashley’s research
Repression
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Long-term potentiation
Cerebellum
Stress hormones
 DEVELOPMENT
PHYSICAL
SOCIAL COGNITIVE MORAL
Prenatal
Zygote
Embryo (2-8 wks) Lev Vygotsky (social-cognitive) Schemas Kohlberg’s theory
Fetus (8+ wks) Zone of proximal development Assimilation Preconventional morality
Mentors Accommodation Avoiding punishment
Teratogens Lorenz’s study of imprinting Conventional morality
Fetal alcohol syndrome Harlow’s research on touch Sensorimotor stage (0-2) Accepting rules of society
Radiation Stranger anxiety Object permanence (6 mos) Postconventional morality
(8-15th week, migration) Ainsworth’s attachment theory Ethics, abstract morality
Radiation: stops short Strange situation paradigm Preoperational stage (2-7) No absolutes
FAS: too far Secure attachment (60%) Egocentrism Carol Gilligan
Insecure attachment Animism Men - Rules & ethics
Reflexes Ambivalent Symbolic thought begins Women - Relationships
Moro Avoidant
Rooting Baumrind’s parenting styles Concrete operational stage (8- Jonathan Haidt
Babinski Authoritarian 12) Social intuitionist theory
Palmar Authoritative Conservation Gut-level reactions
Permissive Volume (limbic system)
Maturation Erikson’s stages (psychsocial) Area
Cephalocaudal Trust vs. mistrust Number
Proximodistal (0-1) basic trust Reversibility
Autonomy vs. shame & doubt METHODS OF
Puberty (1-2) independence Formal operational stage (12+) STUDY
Primary sex characteristics Initiative vs. guilt Hypothesis testing
Secondary sex characteristics (3-5) initiation of tasks Abstract thinking
Frontal lobe development Competence vs. inferiority Megacognition Longitudinal research
(6-12) accomplishment
Old age Identity vs. role confusion Self concept Cross-sectional research
Recall vs. recognition (13-20s) sense of self 18 mo.—rouge test
Decay of fluid intelligence Intimacy vs. isolation
Consistency of crystallized (20s to 40s) relationship
Intelligence Generativity vs. stagnation
Dementia (40s to 60s) contribution STAGES OF DEATH/DYING (Kubler-Ross)
Alzheimer’s disease Integrity vs. despair
Denial … Anger … Bargaining … Depression … Acceptance
 NEUROSCIENCE
Neural communication
Organization of the nervous system
CNS Peripheral nervous system
Resting potential
-70 mV inside The brain Autonomic nervous
Neuron is polarized
Brain and Somatic nervous system
spinal system
Action potential (all-or-none) cord
Neurotransmitters bind to Afferent Efferent
neurons neurons Sympathetic Parasympa-
dendrites Plasticity—neurons can be used for
Interneurons nervous thetic nervous
Neuron reaches –55 mV new purposes
system system
Becomes depolarized
Sodium/potassium ions Hindbrain:
Signal moves down the axon Cerebellum—coordination Hemispheric specialization
Neurotransmitters release to Medulla—breathing, heartbeat
synapse Pons—sleep, arousal, dreams
Must repolarize Reticular formation—arousal Split-brain surgery (corpus callosum severed)
Reuptake of neurotransmitters Midbrain: *Used to treat uncontrolled seizures
Return to –70 mV At the intersection of forebrain & Seen in left visual field, processed in rt. hemisphere
Refractory period (can’t fire) hindbrain (spatial awareness)
Forebrain:
Myelin sheath Thalamus—sensory switchboard Left hemisphere Right hemisphere
Limbic system—emotion Language/logic Nonverbal/spatial/
Insulates motor neurons musical/recognition
Speeds message Hippocampus (memory)
Decay of myelin sheath Amygdala (fear, anger)
- multiple sclerosis Hypothalamus (biological needs,
Intelligence e.g. hunger, sex, thirst) Methods of study
Cerebrum/cerebral cortex
Excitatory neurotransmitters Prefrontal cortex (planning, or
Acetylcholine (skeletal muscles) ganization, risk assessment) Structure Function
Serotonin (depression/general Frontal lobes (motor cortex, Lesions EEG
well-being) mirror neurons) CT scan PET scan
Dopamine (high - schizophrenia; * Broca’s area (speech) MRI fMRI
low—depression) Parietal lobes (somatosensory
Norephinephrine (Alertness, cortex)
* Angular gyrus Pituitary—master gland
linked to fight-or-flight) (directed by the hypothalamus)
Endorphins (pain relief) Temporal lobes (auditory cortex) The endocrine sys- Biochemically the same as neu-
* Wernicke’s area
Inhibitory neurotransmitter (GABA)
Occipital lobes (visual cortex)
tem rotransmitters
Adrenal gland—stress hormones
Effect of agonists/antagonists
 Perspectives HISTORY & Experimentation
RESEARCH
Introspection Cause & effect
Wilhelm Wundt—1st lab, Germany Psychological
Procedure:
Structuralism research Blind study
William James—1st text, Harvard Double-blind study
Functionalism Experimental condition vs.
Gestalt—total experience ―the whole‖ Control condition
Perception Limits of intuition
Hindsight bias Independent variable
Psychoanalysis—Freud Experimenter manipulates
Behaviorism—Watson (Little Albert), Overconfidence
Confirmation bias Dependent variable
Skinner (operant conditioning) Experimenter measures
Humanism (Maslow, Rogers Confounding variables
Biological—brain chemistry, hor- Scientific attitude
Curiosity Random selection
mones, etc. Random assignment
Evolutionary (sociobiology) —impact Skepticism
of traits that promote survival of Humility
species
Cognitive—thinking patterns Scientific method Measuring data
Sociocultural—environment Theories
Hypothesis
Operational definitions Descriptive statistics
Ethics Replication Central tendency (averages)
Mean
Methodology Median
Animal research Case study Mode
Clear scientific purpose Survey Normal curve
Humane treatment Wording effects Correlations (relationships)
Legal acquisition of subjects Random sampling Scatterplot
Limit suffering to least feasible False consensus effect Correlation coefficient
Naturalistic observation Variation
Human research * Must avoid Hawthorne Effect Range
Informed consent Correlational studies Standard deviation
Limit deception Prediction Inferential statistics
No coercion NOT CAUSATION Do my results matter?
Protect from harm Illusory correlation * Sample size influence
Confidentiality Superstition * Significant differences
Debrief afterwards Experiment p<.05 (alpha level)
(see experimentation)
 SENSATION
The basics Audition (hearing)
Vision
Sensation vs. perception Sound energy
Bottom-up processing Frequency (pitch)
Top-down processing Light energy
Amplitude (loudness)
Prosopagnosia Wavelength (color)
Measured in dB (decibels)
Thresholds Amplitude (brightness)
Every 10 dB = 10 times louder
Psychophysics Parts of the eye
Parts of the ear
Absolute threshold Cornea
Outer ear
Signal detection theory Pupil
Pinna (visible part)
Subliminal messages Lens
Auditory canal
Difference threshold (JND) Accommodation
Middle ear
Weber’s Law/Fechner’s Law Retina (transduction here)
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Sensory adaptation Rods (120 million)
Ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup)
Transduction Cones (6 million)
Inner ear
Receptors Fovea
Oval window
Bipolar cells
Cochlea
Ganglion cells
Basilar membrane
Optic nerve to occipital lobe
Other senses Blind spot
Hair cells (transduction here)
Organ of Corti
Visual acuity
Semicircular canals (NOT for
Nearsightedness/farsightedness
Touch hearing)
Feature detectors
Pressure, temperature, pain Auditory nerve to temporal lobe
Parallel processing
Nociceptors Perceiving sound
Blindsight
Gate-control theory Place theory
Change blindness
Taste (gustatory sense - chemical) Frequency theory
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami Volley principle
Retina to thalamus to cortex
Taste buds Sound localization
Sensory interaction Hearing loss
Color interpretation
McGurk effect Sensorineural hearing loss
Young-Helmholtz theory
Smell (olfactory sense - chemical) Cochlear implant
Subtractive color mixing
Does not go through the thalamus Conduction hearing loss
Additive color mixing
Direct route to limbic system Opponent-process theory
Kinesthesis Afterimages
Vestibular sense Color constancy
semicircular canals
Synaesthesia
 PERCEPTION
The basics Other principles
Visual perception
Sensation vs. perception Perceptual adaptation
Bottom-up processing Perceptual set
Top-down processing Depth perception
Context effects
Prosopagnosia Binocular cues
Selective attention Retinal disparity
Human factors
Cocktail party effect Convergence
Inattentional (change) blindness Visual cliff
ESP (extra-sensory perception)?
Choice blindness Monocular cues
Parapsychology
Visual capture Linear perspective
Telepathy
Relative size
Clairvoyance
Interposition
Precognition
Relative clarity
Psychokinesis
Texture gradient
Way to test: Ganzfeld procedure
Perceptual Relative height
Light & shadow
organization Motion perception
Relative motion (motion parallax)
Stroboscopic movement
Figure-ground relationship Phi phenomenon
Constancies
Gestalt principles Color constancy
Proximity Size constancy
Similarity Shape constancy
Continuity Lightness constancy
Connectedness Illusions
Closure Muller-Lyer illusion
Cultural influence
Ponzo illusion
Moon illusion
Sensory deprivation
Critical periods
 STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Biology of sleep Dreaming

Psychoactive drugs

Freud’s analysis
Biological rhythms Manifest content vs. Tolerance/withdrawal
Circadian rhythm (25 hr cycle) Latent content Involves neuroadaptation
Light (superchiasmic nucleus) Information-processing theory Addiction
Pineal gland (near thalamus) Filing experience
Melatonin Synthesizing memory Depressants
Adenosine (sleep-inducing) Pruning connections Alcohol
Sleep stages Build neural pathways Reduces inhibitions
Prior to stage 1 (alpha waves) Activation-synthesis theory Impairs activity of frontal lobe
Stage 1 (theta waves) 5 min. Pons generates neural firing Disrupts formation of LTM
Hypnagogic sensations Lucid dreams Barbiturates (tranquilizers)
Stage 2 (K-complexes, sleep spindles) Conscious awareness of dream Reduce anxiety, mimic alcohol
Approx. 20 minutes state Opiates (endorphin agonists)
Stage 3 (<50% delta waves) Morphine, heroin, oxycontin
Stage 4 (>50% delta waves)
Stage 3 & 4—slow wave sleep Stimulants
Order of stages Hypnosis Amphetamines/meth
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, Cocaine—rush/crash
REM Ecstasy—also a hallucinogen
REM—paradoxical sleep Mesmer (18th century) Stimulates serotonin
Active brain, paralyzed body Susceptibility Interferes w/sleep, impairs
Benefits Creativity, desire influences memory, reduces immune re-
Memory consolidation Therapeutic capacity sponse
Concentration Posthypnotic suggestions
Mood Pain alleviation Hallucinogens
Moderates hunger/reduces obesity Selective attention? LSD—serotonin agonist
Improves immune response Theories: Marijuana—cannabinoid agonist
Disorders Social influence theory Disrupts memory formation
Insomnia (10-15% of adults) Emphasizes desire of subjects Reverse tolerance
Narcolepsy to do well
Sleep apnea Divided consciousness theory
Night terrors (stage 4) Emphasizes dissociation
Sleepwalking (stage 4) Hilgard’s ―hidden observer‖
 MOTIVATION
Physiology of hunger Theories of motivation Physiology of sex

Keys’ research Instinct theory (evolutionary) Kinsey report

Cannon’s research - fixed patterns, unlearned Masters & Johnson research
Body chemistry Drive-reduction theory (Clark Hull) Sexual response cycle
Insulin up, glucose down Object is homeostasis Excitement—plateau—orgasm—
Hypothalamus stimulation - Pulled by incentives (external) resolution (refractory period)
Lateral—hunger increases Arousal theory Sexual disorders
Orexin produced Yerkes-Dodson Law Premature ejaculation
Ventromedial—hunger declines Easy task—high arousal Erectile dysfunction
Hormones Difficult task—moderate Orgasmic disorder
Ghrelin—hunger increases Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Hormones
PYY—suppresses hunger Physiological at base, then safety, Estrogen / androgens (testosterone)
Proteins belonging & love, esteem,
Leptin—decreases hunger self-actualization, transcendence
Orexin—increases hunger Need to belong Psychology of sex
Ostracism—activates anterior cin-
gulate cortex (also activates with
pain)
External stimuli
Psychology of hunger Habituation occurs
Decreased satisfaction w/sexual part-
Achievement motivation ners
Neophobia (avoidance of unfamiliar Gender roles/gender identity
food) Sexual orientation
Eating disorders Flow Estimated 3-4% men, 1-2% women
Anorexia nervosa I/O psychology But could be higher (response bias)
At least 15% underweight Personnel psychology Identical twin studies support genetic
Continue to view self as fat To avoid the interviewer illusion basis
Bulimia nervosa Structured interviews Hypothalamus differences (LeVay)
Binge-purge pattern 360-degree feedback Anterior commissure differences
Not necessarily low weight Grit (determination, breeds success) Fraternal birth order effect
Obesity (30% in US) Theory X vs. Theory Y Same sex attraction in animals
Task leadership vs. social leadership (6-10%)
Great person theory Finger length/fingerprint ridges
Transformational leadership (7th/16th week of development)
 EMOTION
Theories Expressed emotion Experience of emotion

Emotion—arousal, expressive behav- Emotion = valence (pleasant/

ior, and conscious experience Nonverbal communication unpleasant) and arousal (low/high)
Easily detect threatening cues
James-Lange theory: physiological re- Thin slices (quick views of interac- Fear—learn early, through condition-
sponse 1st, emotion 2nd tions) - some better at reading ing, observation
Cannon-Bard theory: physiological re- Gender differences * Amygdala key
sponse at the same time as experi- Women tend to be more able to * Anterior cingulated cortex
ence of emotion read non-verbal cues
Schachter’s two-factor theory: physio- Also tend to communicate emotion Anger -
logical arousal, then appraisal better Catharsis hypothesis—release
(cognition) creating emotion label Ekman’s research But creates more anger
Spillover effect: Stirred up Microexpressions Reinforcement
physiological state can be misin- Universal emotional expressions How to control?
terpreted as emotional state Happiness, surprise, fear, sad Waiting to act
Zajonc’s theory: Subliminal processing ness, anger, disgust Exercise
of emotions (neural pathway is Facial feedback: we feel the emotion Forgiveness
from thalamus to amygdale) we show
Lazarus: Cognitive appraisal controls Behavior feedback: we feel the emo- Happiness (subjective well-being)
emotion tion our body looks like it’s feel- * Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
ing * People who value love over money
Empathy: feeling another’s emotion report higher life satisfaction
Mirror neurons
Nervous system Reading emotion: autistic people
* Adaptation-level phenomenon
* Relative deprivation principle
show problems in reading emo- Predictors: high self-esteem, opti-
tional states of others mism, close friendships/marriage,
Autonomic arousal
engaging work, meaningful faith,
Sympathetic nervous system: pupils
good sleep, exercise
dilate, dry mouth, perspiration, fast
Contributors: know that wealth
breathing, accelerated heart rate,
doesn’t make you happy, control
slowed digestion, stress hormones
your time, act happy, seek enjoyable
released (fight-or-flight)
work, exercise, sleep, make relation-
ships a top priority, help others, be
Parasympathetic nervous system: re-
grateful, seek spiritual fulfillment
turns body to original calm state
 COGNITION
Concepts Intuition Theories of language
development
Metacognition—wow! Factors:
Organization: Blindsight
Hierarchies Right-brain thinking Skinner—nurture
Prototypes Moral thinking (Haidt’s theory) Behaviorist explanation
Automatic processing/implicit memory Follows usual learning pattern
Creativity (Reinforcement/punishment)
Problem solving Thin slices Chomsky—nature
Subliminal stimulation Language acquisition device (innate)
Microexpressions Evidence:
Barriers: Dual attitude system * Overregularization of language
Fixations: Unconscious/conscious (or overgeneralization)
Functional fixedness Implicit/explicit Ex: ―I goed to the store.‖
Mental set Gut-level/rational * Common elements
Confirmation bias Surface structure (syntax)
Overconfidence Deep structure (semantics)
Approaches: * Critical period
Trial and error About Language Age 7 for language acquisition
Insight Cochlear implants
Algorithm Best results 2-4 year olds
Heuristics Structure
Representativeness heuristic Phonemes
Based on prototypes Morphemes Language & Thinking
Availability heuristic Grammar
Based on vivid experience Semantics
Issues: Syntax
Framing (wording) Appearance Whorf’s linguistic determinism theory
Belief bias Babbling (approx. 4 months) (or linguistic relativity theory)
Belief perseverance One-word stage (1 year) - language shapes thinking
Illusory correlation Two-word stage (telegraphic speech) Evidence: bilingual advantage
Memory reconstruction At 1 1/2 years Thinking in images (process simulation)
Self-serving bias No 3 word stage Animal thinking
* Concept formation
* Theory of mind—similar to 2 yr. old
* Language: honeybees, ape language
 INTELLIGENCE
Creating tests
Theories of intelligence Neurological evidence
Standardization
It’s conceptual, not a thing Brain anatomy: Representative sample, compare scores
(reification—assuming it’s a thing) Larger brain (thickening of cortex due to Chart on normal curve
Single intelligence theory enhanced connections?) 68-95-99.7 (standard deviation)
Spearman: ―g‖ represents related clus- 17% more synapses (maybe better neural Flynn effect
ters of skills (used factor analysis) plasticity?) IQ scores improving over time
Multiple intelligence theories Einstein’s brain—thicker in parietal lobe Principles of test creation
* Based on evidence from savants (math/spatial intelligence?) Reliability: test needs to get same results
Thurstone: primary mental abilities Brain function: each time it’s given
7 clusters Frontal lobe activity during IQ test ques- Test-retest reliability
Gardner: 8 intelligences tions Split-half reliability
- linguistic, logical-mathematical, Perceptual speed correlates positively Validity: test needs to measure what it’s
musical, spatial, kinesthetic, in- Neurological speed (evoked brain re- designed to measure
trapersonal, interpersonal, natural- sponse faster) Content validity (material reflects what
istic More efficient glucose consumption should be tested)
Stenberg’s triarchic theory Uses less, processes more efficiently? Face validity
- analytical, creative, practical Genes: Criterion-related validity (matches in
Emotional intelligence (EQ) Identical twins highly correlated dependent measure of what the test is
Relates to success in family, career Adopted children, little correlation designed to measure)
Heritability Concurrent validity
Predictive validity
May be affected by range of scores
Creativity Assessing intelligence tested
Construct validity (use a previous vali-
dated instrument and correlate to that
Convergent vs. divergent thinking test’s results
Binet’s test (to identify special needs) Extremes of intelligence:
How to maximize: Terman (Stanford)
Develop expertise Mental retardation:
Supported eugenics (Social Darwinism) Mild (50-70 IQ), moderate (35-50 IQ),
Keep a venturesome personality American version (Stanford-Binet)
Stay intrinsically motivated Severe (20-35 IQ)
MA/CA X 100 = IQ Down syndrome (extra 21st chromosome)
Live in creative environment Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Gifted (Terman’s study — ―Termites‖)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Healthy, well-adjusted, successful
(WISC) No tracking, special treatment in China/
Bias: Stereotype threat, gender bias Japan
 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Medical model Anxiety disorders (#7) Mood (affective) disorders (#6)

Foundation Panic disorder Depression (common cold of disorders)

U—unjustifiable - strikes suddenly Major depressive disorder (more than 2
M—maladaptive - panic attacks (seem like heart attacks) weeks of debilitating depression)
A—atypical - often linked to agoraphobia Dysthymic disorder (more than 2 years
D—disturbing to self or others Phobias—focused fear feeling bad most days)
Measurement Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Bipolar disorder
DSM-IV-TR (classification of disor- Obsessions—thoughts Mania (restlessness, risk-taking, craziness,
ders) Compulsions—behaviors fast talking) alternates with depression
Axis 1—clinical syndrome? PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) - May be fast cycling or slow cycling
Axis 2—personality disorder or GAD (generalizaed anxiety disorder)
mental retardation? Free-floating anxiety Explanations:
Axis 3—general med. Condition? Genetic predispositions (linkage analysis,
Axis 4—psychosocial or environ- Source: association studies)
mental problems? - Behavioral interpretation Brain chemistry (serotonin, norephineph-
Axis 5—global assessment of func- * Classical conditioning & generalization rine, dopamine; decreased activity in left
tioning (0-100) * Negative reinforcement maintains the frontal lobe
fear Social-cognitive
Diagnostic labeling - Observational learning? Self-defeating beliefs (learned helpless-
Advantages: - Biology (natural selection, genes, activity in ness)
Appropriate treatment anterior cingulated cortex, activity in Optimistic Explanatory Style
Stimulate research amygdale, GABA) Stable, global, internal (depressed)
Payment of insurance Temporary, specific, external
Disadvantages: (non-depressed)
Rosenhan’s study—labeling leads to Dissociative disorders (#10) Vicious cycle of depression:
self-fulfilling prophecies? Cause Stressful experience….leads to
interpretations of behavior? Negative explanatory style... leads to
Dissociative identity disorder Depressed mood… leads to
Insanity—when? - multiple personality More stressful experiences...and the
M’Naughten rule—is the defendant Dissociative fugue cycle begins again
unable to distinguish right from - person doesn’t remember past,
wrong because of mental defect? wakes up in strange location Fight depression by: changing environment,
90% of those with disorders are not Dissociative amnesia reducing self-blame, making positive pre-
dangerous to others - person doesn’t remember past dictions about the future, exercise, become
No biological explanations focused on helping others, laugh more
 DISORDERS (CONTINUED)
Personality disorders (#16)
Schizophrenia (#5)
Explanations of
Cluster A (eccentric)
schizophrenia Paranoid personality disorder
Considered the ―cancer‖ of disorders
1% of population worldwide (suggests Schizoid personality disorder—odd, with-
biological basis) drawn behavior
Involves a break with reality Schizotypal personality disorder—with some
Brain abnormalities schizophrenic-like symptoms
(psychosis) Dopamine overactivity
NOT multiple personality Cluster B (dramatic)
* D4 receptors 6 X normal Antisocial personality disorder—lack of re-
Glutamate—may relate to negative morse, empathy (mirror neurons); typical
Common symptoms: symptoms
* Disorganized thinking - onset about 8 yrs.
Enlarged ventricles Borderline personality disorder—on the bor-
Delusions (false beliefs) Shrunken thalamus
Paranoia (persecution) derline of psychosis
Environmental factors Histrionic personality disorder—dramatic
Word salad (bizarre speech) * Low birth weight, famine, oxygen
* Disturbed perceptions personality
deprivation? Narcissistic personality disorder—extreme
Hallucinations (auditory most of- * Virus during pregnancy? Flu link
ten) self-absorption
during 2nd trimester Cluster C (anxious)
* Inappropriate actions/emotions Genetic factors
Reactivity Avoidant personality disorder—stays away
* Much higher chance of shared from others
Flat affect schizophrenia with identical vs.
Catatonia Dependent personality disorder
fraternal twins Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
- Subtypes of symptoms: Psychological factors/warning signs
Positive symptoms (exhibit odd be- * Birth complications
havior) * Mother with schizophrenia
Negative symptoms (normal behav- Somatoform disorders (#8)
* Separation from parents
ior absent) * Disruptive or withdrawn behavior
- Either chronic (process—develops * Poor muscle coordination
slowly) or acute (reactive— Somatization disorder—body problem
* Poor attention span
develops quickly) caused by psychological problem
* Poor peer relationships/solo play
Patterns: (ex. ulcers)
* Emotional unpredictability
Paranoid schizophrenia Conversion disorder—psychological
Disorganized schizophrenia problem converted to non-biological
Typical onset—teens or early 20s
Catatonic schizophrenia physical problem (ex. paralysis in
Undifferentiated schizophrenia ―Heidi‖)
Residual schizophrenia Hypochondriasis
 THERAPIES
Psychoanalysis Behavioristic Effectiveness

Classical conditioning applications:

Based on Freudian ideas - Counterconditioning—replace previous fear People report that therapy is effective
Repressed ideas must be accessed response with new relaxation response * But regression toward the mean?
Insight is the goal - Exposure therapy (Mary Cover Jones) * Selective recall
Methods Gradual exposure to feared object * Eysenck’s research: 2/3 improved with or
Free association - Systematic desensitization (Wolpe) without therapy
Resistance Anxiety hierarchy, then relaxation Depression: cognitive, interpersonal, behavior
Dream analysis - Virtual reality exposure therapy Anxiety: cognitive, exposure, behavioral
Latent content most important - Implosion therapy Bulimia: cognitive-behavioral therapy
Transference Includes flooding Other unusual treatments:
Duration - Aversive conditioning (substitute neg. re- EMDR— For trauma victims
Years sponse for unwanted behavior) Light exposure therapy—for SAD
Operant conditioning applications:
Psychodynamic therapy—same founda- - punishment (bed-wetting buzzers)
tion, less intense - behavior modification Biomedical therapy
* token economy

Humanistic 1950’s—deinstitutionalization
Antipsychotic medications (D2 antagonists):
Cognitive therapy Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) - pos. symptoms
Clozapine (Clozaril) - negative symptoms
Focus: boost self-actualization (Maslow) * Problem: tardive dyskinesia
Become more self-accepting Aaron Beck (cognitive triad)
Atypical antipsychotics (D2 & serotonin an-
Method: Albert Ellis (RET)
tagonists) - fewer side effects
Client-centered therapy Stress inoculation training (change in thinking
Antianxiety meds: Xanax, Valium, Ativan
- active listening (no judgment) patterns to stress)
(GABA agonists)
Reflect feelings of client Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Antidepressants: also for OCD, anxiety
- non-directive SSRI’s—Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, etc.
Therapist: genuineness, unconditional Mood stabilizers
positive regard, empathy Group/family therapy Lithium—bipolar
Goal: promote personal growth, personal Depakote—bipolar (originally for seizures)
responsibility Brain stimulation
Saves time/money ECT (electroconvulsive therapy)
Humanistic foundation rTMS (magnetic stimulation)
Often as effective as individual therapy Surgery: Lobotomy (Moniz)
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Attribution theory Aggression and conflict
Group behavior
Internal vs. external attributions Biology: genetics, amygdala, decreased fron-
* Fundamental attribution error tal lobe activity, testosterone levels
* Actor-observer bias Social facilitation vs. social inhibition Psychology
* Self-serving bias * related to Yerkes-Dodson Law * Frustration-aggression principle
* Modeling (observational learning)
Social loafing * Social scripts (mental tapes on how to act)
* Video games?
Deindividuation * Catharsis hypothesis (builds more anger)
Attitude change * loss of identity, others don’t know who you Conflict
are * Social traps
- pursue self-interest, everyone loses
Cognitive/affective components of atti- Group polarization * Enemy perceptions
tudes (attitude vs. opinion) * movement to more extreme positions - mirror-image perceptions
Action affecting attitudes
* Foot-in-the-door Groupthink (Janus)
* Door-in-the-face * influenced by desire for harmony
Persuasion Attraction and altruism
* Central route to persuasion Minority influence
* Peripheral route to persuasion * self-confidence, determination key
Role playing (Zimbardo prison study) Passionate love (two-factor theory)
Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) Prejudice (attitude) — leads to discrimination vs. companionate love (key is equity, self-
(behavior) disclosure)
* Social roots: social inequality, blame-the- * Physical attractiveness key
victim, in-group vs. out-group leading to * Similarity
Group influence in-group bias * Proximity (mere exposure effect)
* Emotional roots: Fear, anger (leads to Altruism
scapegoating) Bystander affect
Conformity (Asch study) * Cognitive roots: Categorization, availability * diffusion of responsibility
* chameleon effect heuristic, just-world phenomenon * pluralistic ignorance
* mood linkage (mimicry) * Jane Eliot study—children and stereotyping * Explained by social exchange theory
Normative social influence vs. Informa- - self-fulfilling prophecies * Reciprocity norm
tional social influence * Social responsibility norm
Obedience (Milgram’s study) Peacemaking, GRIT
*Superordinate goals