CE161P-2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 03
Index Properties and Soil Classification
INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS Soil Indices
Consistency is the property of a soil by which it
offers resistance to deformation. In other words,
consistency represents the relative ease with
which the soil may be deformed. Consistency
denotes the degree of firmness of a soil and it is
indicated by the terms such as soft, stiff (or firm)
or hard.
Plasticity index – defines the range of water
content for which the soil behaves like a plastic
material. where:
𝜇 = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm (clay
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 size)

Shrinkage Index – the range of water content

Description of soil based on Liquidity Index
from the plastic limit to the shrinkage limit for
which the soil behaves as a semisolid. Liquidity Description
Index
𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
Semisolid state – high strength,
LI < 0 brittle (sudden) fracture is
Liquidity index – a measure of soil strength using expected
the Atterberg limits; gives a qualitative measure Plastic state – intermediate
of strength. 0 < LI < 1 strength, soil deforms like a
plastic material
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 Liquid state – low strength,
𝐿𝐼 = LI > 1
𝑃𝐼 soil deforms like a viscous fluid

Soil strength is lowest at the liquid state and Description of Soil based on Plasticity
highest at the solid state. Index

Consistency Index – a measure of consistency. PI Description

Consistency is analogous to viscosity in liquids 0 Non-plastic
and indicated internal resistance to forces that 1–5 Slightly plastic
tend to deform the soil. 5 – 10 Low plasticity
10 – 20 Medium plasticity
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤
𝐶𝐼 = = 20 – 40 High plasticity
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐼
>40 Very high plasticity

CE161P-2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | ENGR. RUSSEL CARPIO 1

 CE161P-2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Chapter 03
Index Properties and Soil Classification
ATTERBERG LIMITS Laboratory tests
The consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly 1. Liquid limit – water content at which a soil
affected by the water content of the soil. A changes from plastic state to a liquid state.
gradual increase of the water content may
𝑁 𝑛
transform a dry soil from solid state to a 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑤𝑛 ∙ ( )
25
semisolid state, to a plastic state, and after
further moisture increase, into a liquid state. The relationship between moisture content and
log N is approximated as a straight line. This line
The water content at the corresponding junction is referred to as the flow curve.
points of these states is known as the shrinkage
limit, the plastic limit, and the liquid limit, The moisture content corresponding to N=25,
respectively. determined from the flow curve, gives the liquid
limit of the soil. The slope of the flow line is
Atterberg limits are basic measures of the critical defined as the flow index and may be written as:
water contents of a fine-grained soil: its
shrinkage limit, plastic limit and liquid limit. 𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐹𝐼 =
𝑁
log⁡(𝑁2 )
1

where IF=flow index

w1=moisture content of soil, in percent,
corresponding to N1 blows
w2=moisture content corresponding to N2 blows

Casagrande Cup Method

At a very low moisture content, soil behaves

more like a solid. When the moisture content is
very high, the soil and water may flow like a
liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending
on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can
be divided into four basic states—solid,
semisolid, plastic, and liquid.

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 CE161P-2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Chapter 03
Index Properties and Soil Classification

Fall Cone Method

2. Plastic Limit – water content at which a soil
In this test the liquid limit is defined as the changes from a semisolid state to a plastic
moisture content at which a standard cone of state.
apex angle 30° and weight of 0.78N will
2∆𝑤
penetrate a distance d=20 mm in 5 seconds 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑚
when allowed to drop from a position of point log⁡(𝑚2 )
1
contact with the soil surface.
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture
A semilogarithmic graph can then be plotted content in percent, at which the soil crumbles,
with moisture content (w) versus cone when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in diameter.
penetration d. The plot results in a straight line. The plastic limit test is simple and is performed
The moisture content corresponding to d=20 by repeated rolling of an ellipsoidal-sized soil
mm is the liquid limit. mass by hand on a ground glass plate.

Rolling of soil mass on ground glass plate to

determine plastic limit (Courtesy of Braja M. Das,
Henderson, Nevada)

3. Shrinkage Limit – water content at which a

soil changes from a solid to a semisolid state
without further change in volume.

𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑆𝐿 = − ∙ 𝜌𝑤
𝑚2 𝑚2

Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it.

With continuing loss of moisture, a stage of
equilibrium is reached at which more loss of
moisture will result in no further volume change.
The moisture content, in percent, at which the
volume of the soil mass ceases to change is
defined as the shrinkage limit.
Fall Cone Apparatus
CE161P-2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | ENGR. RUSSEL CARPIO 3
 CE161P-2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Chapter 03
Index Properties and Soil

4. Shrinkage Ratio - the ratio of the volume

change of soil as a percentage of the dry
volume to the corresponding change in
moisture content.

5. Specific Gravity of Solids

𝑚2 1
𝑆𝑅 = 𝐺𝑠 =
1 𝑆𝐿
𝑉2 𝜌𝑤
𝑆𝑅 − 100
Where:
∆𝑉 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
∆𝑀 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒⁡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡

6. Specific Gravity of Solids

1
𝐺𝑠 = 1 𝑆𝐿
−
𝑆𝑅 100

Where:
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑆𝐿 = 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

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