Internal Use

CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Course Component

▪ Course Code: CE161P-5

▪ Course Title: Geotechnical Engineering 1
▪ Credit: 4 units; 4.5 lecture hours and 4.5 laboratory hours per week

▪ Course Description: A course which deals with the study of behavior and properties of soils as
structural material; identification and classification of soils, capillarity and permeability,
compressibility and shearing strength of soils; consolidation and settlement analysis; stability of
slopes and walls; lateral earth pressure; and subsurface explorations. The course also includes
laboratory activities, which deal with the different methods and techniques of laboratory testing of
soils, including methods of data collections, computations, and the presentation of results.

▪ Introduction to Soil Mechanics

▪ Soil Formation and Types of Soils
Chapter 01 Introduction to Soil Mechanics
▪ Composition of Soils
▪ Soil Phase Diagram

▪ Soil Properties; Water Content, Void

Ratio, Porosity, Degree of Saturation Air
Content, Percent of Air Voids, Unit
Chapter 02 Soil Properties Weight of Soil and Specific Gravity of
Soil Solids
▪ Important Relationships between
Properties of Soils

▪ Determination of Particle Size of Soils

Index Properties and Soil
Chapter 03 ▪ Physical States and Index Properties of
Classification
Fine-grained Soils
▪ Soil Classification Schemes

▪ One dimensional flow of water through

Soils
Chapter 04 Permeability ▪ Determination of the coefficient of
Permeability
▪ Soil Investigations

▪ Introduction to Stresses, Strains and

Elastic deformation of soils
Chapter 05 Stresses in Soil ▪ Total and Effective Stresses
▪ Stresses in Soil

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Introduction to Soil Mechanics depend on the stability, strength, and deformation

of soils.
Geotechnical Engineering - a branch of civil
engineering in which technology is applied in the Definition of Soil and Rock
design and construction of structures involving
Rock – a natural aggregate of mineral grains
geological materials.
connected by strong and permanent cohesive
Soil Mechanics – a branch of soil physics and forces.
applied mechanics that describes the behavior of
Soil – a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with
soils that are subject to various loads. It is used to
or without constituents that can be separated by
analyze deformations of and flow of fluids within
gentle mechanical means such as agitation in
natural and man-made structures that are
water. For engineering purposes, soil is defined as
supported on or made of soil, or structures that
the uncemented aggregate of minerals and
are buried in soils.
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with
Soil/Geotechnical Investigation – represents a liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the
method of determining physical properties of soil solid particles.
at a construction site. This procedure is done with
Soil Formation and Principal Types of Soil
the aim of establishing whether the soil is safe and
solid for construction. The principal terms used by civil engineers to
describe soils are gravel, sand, silt and clay.
Gravel and sands are known as coarse-grained
soils, and silt and clays as fine-grained soils.

Why is soil mechanics significant to engineering?

A good understanding of soil behavior is
necessary to analyze and design support systems
(foundations) for infrastructures (e.g., roads and
highways, pipelines, bridges, tunnels,
embankments), energy systems (e.g.,
hydroelectric power stations, wind turbines, solar Particle Size Limits of Size Constituents, ASTM
supports, geothermal and nuclear plants) and Classification (in millimeters)
environmental systems (e.g., solid waste disposal,
reservoirs, water treatment and water
distribution systems, flood protection systems).
The stability and life of any of these systems

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics
Principal Types of Soil Coarse-grained Soils
1. Gravel – particles having a diameter greater A complete verbal description of a coarse-
than 4.75 mm. If the diameter exceeds about grained soil includes more than an estimate of
200 mm (8 in), the term boulder is usually the quantity of material in each size range. The
applied. gradation, particle shape, and mineralogical
2. Sand – particles having a diameter in between composition should also be noted whenever
4.75 mm to 75 microns. The grains are visible possible.
to the naked eye, but are less than about 5 mm
Gradation- may be described as well-graded,
in size. This is usually modified as coarse,
poor-graded, and gap-graded soils.
medium or fine.
3. Silt – particles having a diameter in between
75 microns to 2 microns.
4. Clay – particles having a diameter smaller
than 2 microns. Predominantly an aggregate
of microscopic and submicroscopic flake-
shaped crystalline minerals.
Difference between coarse grained and fine-
grained soils

1. Poorly graded soils – most of the soil grains

are the same size.
2. Well graded soils – particle size is distributed
Coarse-grained Fine-grained over a wide range.
Coarse-grained soils are Fine-grained soils are 3. Gap graded soils – characterized by two or
identified primarily on the identified on the more humps in the grading curve
basis of particle size or grain basis of its plasticity.
size. Fine-grained soils are The average grain size of the soil is D50.
Coarse-grained soils are also divided into two
divided into two groups: Sand groups: Silt and Clay.
and Gravel.
There is no appreciable Strength changes
amount change in strength with change in water
characteristic by change in content.
moisture condition.
Description of coarse-grained Description of fine-
soil is done on the basis of its grained soil is done
gradation (well or poor), on the basis of its dry
particle shape (angular, sub- strength, dilatancy,
angular, rounded or sub- dispersion and
rounded) and mineralogical plasticity.
components. Course-grained soil vs Fine-grained soil

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Fine-grained soils 4. Dispersion- refers to the breakdown of a

substance into its individual particles and the
The distinction between silt and clay cannot be
distribution of these particles within a liquid.
based on particle size because the significant
physical properties of the two materials are Identification of Fine-grained Soil Fractions from
related only indirectly to the size of the particles. Manual Tests
1. Dry strength test - A small piece of the soil is
molded and allowed to dry in the air. It is then
broken and a fragment about 1/8 in. in size is
pressed between thumb and forefinger. The
effort required to break the fragment provides
a basis for describing the strength as very low,
low, medium, high or very high.

Furthermore, since both are microscopic, physical

properties other than particle size must be used
as criteria for field identification.
1. Dry strength – a measure of character and 2. Dilatancy or shaking test - A small amount of
quality of colloidal fraction of soil soil is mixed with water to very soft
a. If breakage is easy, the sample is silt. consistency in the palm of the hand. The back
b. If breakage is difficult, the sample is clay of the hand is then lightly tapped. If the soil is
with low to medium plasticity. silty, water rises quickly to its surface and
c. If breakage is impossible, the sample is a gives it a shiny or glistening appearance.
highly plastic clay. Then if the soil pat is deformed, in some
instances by squeezing and in others by
2. Dilatancy – the phenomenon exhibited by some stretching, the water flows back into it and
fine-grained soils in which they become more leaves the surface with a dull appearance.
viscous or solid under pressure. Usually, the greater the proportion of clay in
3. Plasticity – a property that enables soil to the sample, the slower the reaction to the test.
deform without breaking/disintegrating. The reaction is described as rapid, slow or
none.
a. Strength decreases as water content
increases.
b. As the water content is reduced, the
volume of the soil decreases and becomes
more plastic.

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

3. Plasticity test - At certain moisture content, a The record of plasticity test should indicate
soil that contains appreciable quantities of not only whether a plastic thread can be
clay can be deformed and remolded in the formed, but also the toughness of the thread
hand without disintegration. Thus, if a sample as it nears the crumbling stage. This condition
of moist soil can be manipulated between the is describing as weak and friable, medium or
palms of the hands and fingers and rolled out tough.
into a long thin thread, it unquestionable
contains a significant amount of clay. As 4. Dispersion Test - small quantity of the soil is
moisture is lost during continued dispersed with water in a glass cylinder or test
manipulation, the soil approaches a tube and then allowed to settle. The coarser
nonplastic condition and becomes crumbly. particles fall out first and the finest particles
Just before the crumbly state is reached, a high remain in suspension the longest. Ordinarily,
plastic clay can be rolled into a long thread, sands settle in 30 to 60 seconds. Materials of
with a diameter of approximately 1/8 in., silt size settles in 15 to 60 minutes, whereas
which has sufficient strength to support its that of clay size remains in suspension for at
own weight. least several hours and usually for several
days unless the particles of clay combine in
A silt, on the other hand, can seldom be rolled groups of floccules.
into a thread with a diameter as small as 1/8
Organic silt – a fine-grained, more or less plastic
in. without severe cracking, and is completely
soil containing mineral properties of silt and
lacking in tensile strength unless small
finely divided particles of organic matter.
amounts of clay are present.
Organic clay – a clay soil that owes some of its
significant properties to the presence of finely
divided organic matter.

Identification of Fine-grained Soil Fractions from Manual Tests

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS The results of a mechanical analysis are usually

presented in the form of a particle-size
Index properties may be divided into two general
distribution curve. The percentage P of material
types, soil grain properties and soil aggregate
finer than a given size is plotted as the ordinate to
properties.
a natural scale, and the corresponding particle
Soil grain properties – properties of the individual diameter, D, in mm, is plotted as the abscissa to a
particles of which the soil is composed, without logarithmic scale.
reference to the manner in which these particles
The two most commonly used by engineers are
are arranged in a soil deposit.
designated as D10, the effective grain size, and Cu
▪ Size of grains = D60/D10, the uniformity coefficient.
▪ Mineralogical composition
Effective size – diameter corresponding to
Soil aggregate properties – depend on the P=10% on the particle size plot. Hence, 10% of
structure and arrangement of the particles in the the particles are finer and 90% are coarser than
soil mass. the effective size.

Size of Grains Particle-size distribution curve (Sieve analysis)

The most important grain property of coarse- Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample
grained soils is the particle size distribution. This through a set of sieves that have progressively
is determined by performing mechanical analysis. smaller openings. These sieves are generally 200
mm in diameter.
To conduct a sieve analysis, the soil is first oven-
dried and then all lumps must be broken into
small particles. The soil is then shaken through a
stack of sieves with openings of decreasing size
from top to bottom. A pan is placed below the
stack.

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Composition of Soil
The looseness or denseness of a soil sample may
be determined quantitatively in the laboratory.
Soils are naturally complex, multiphase materials.
It consists of solid particles and voids.
Weight–Volume Relationships

Basic Material Properties

▪ Density - mass per unit of volume

𝑀
Ρ= 𝑉

▪ Unit Weight- mass per unit of volume

W
The phase system may be expressed in SI units γ= = ρg
𝑉
either in terms of mass-volume or weight-volume
relationships. ▪ Specific Gravity of Solids - defined as the
ratio of the unit weight or unit mass of
solids or solid particles (or absolute unit
weight or absolute unit mass of soil mass)
to the unit weight or unit mass of water at
the standard temperature (4ºC).

The following relationships can be made from the

phase diagram shown: density of material ρ𝑠
𝐺𝑠 = =
density of water ρw
Total weight of soil, W = Ww + Ws unit weight of material γ𝑠
𝐺𝑠 = =
unit weight of water γw
Volume of voids, Vv = Va + Vw

Volume of voids, Vv = Va + Vw

Total volume, V = Vs + Vv

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CE161P-5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 01
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Sample Problems
1. The mass of a dry soil sample is 78 g. Find
the volume of voids if the total volume of
4. The following example shows the
the sample is 45 ml and the specific gravity
calculation procedure for sieve analysis.
of solids is 2.65.
Ans. 15.57 ml

2. In its natural state, a moist soil has a

volume of 9.34 × 10−3 𝑚3 and weighs
177.6 × 10−3 𝑚3 . The oven-dried weight
of the soil sample is 153.6 × 10−3 𝑘𝑁. If
𝐺𝑠 = 2.67, calculate the moist and dry unit
weight of the sample.

Ans.
Moist unit weight= 19.01 𝑘𝑁 /𝑚3
Dry unit weight=16.45 𝑘𝑁 /𝑚3

3. Undisturbed soil sample was collected

from the field in steel Shelby tubes for
laboratory evaluation. The tube sample Solution:
has a diameter of 71 mm, length of 558
mm, and a moist weight of 42.5 × 10−3 𝑘𝑁. Sieve No. 4:
If the oven-dried weight was 37.85×
10−3 𝑘𝑁 and Gs=2.69, calculate the moist Cumulative mass retained = 5 g
795−5
unit weight. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔=( 795 )×100%=99.37%

Ans. Moist unit weight= 19.24 𝑘𝑁 /𝑚3 Sieve No. 8:

Cumulative mass retained = 5+45 = 50 g

795−50
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔=( 795 )×100%=93.71%

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