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Hang Lee
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Preface
Researchers who design and conduct experiments or sample surveys,
perform data analysis and statistical inference, and write scientific
reports need adequate knowledge of applied statistics. To build
adequate and sturdy knowledge of applied statistical methods, firm
foundation is essential. I have come across many researchers who had
studied statistics in the past but are still far from being ready to apply
the learned knowledge to their problem solving, and else who have
forgotten what they had learned. This could be partly because the
mathematical technicality dealt with their past study material was
above their mathematics proficiency, or otherwise the studied worked
examples often lacked addressing essential fundamentals of the applied
methods. This book is written to fill gaps between the traditional
textbooks involving ample amount of technically challenging
mathematical derivations and/or the worked examples of data analyses
that often underemphasize fundamentals. The chapters of this book are
dedicated to spell out and demonstrate, not to merely explain,
necessary foundational ideas so that the motivated readers can learn to
fully appreciate the fundamentals of the commonly applied methods
and revivify the forgotten knowledge of the methods without having to
deal with complex mathematical derivations or attempt to generalize
oversimplified worked examples of plug-and-play techniques. Detailed
mathematical expressions are exhibited only if they are definitional or
intuitively comprehensible. Data-oriented examples are illustrated only
to aid the demonstration of fundamentals. This book can be used as a
guidebook for applied researchers or as an introductory statistical
methods course textbook for the graduate students not majoring in
statistics.
Hang Lee
Boston, MA, USA
Contents
1 Description of Data and Essential Probability Models
1.1 Types of Data
1.2 Description of Data
1.2.1 Distribution
1.2.2 Description of Categorical Data
1.2.3 Description of Continuous Data
1.2.4 Stem-and-Leaf Plot
1.2.5 Box-and-Whisker Plot
1.3 Descriptive Statistics
1.3.1 Statistic
1.3.2 Central Tendency Descriptive Statistics for
Quantitative Outcomes
1.3.3 Dispersion Descriptive Statistics for Quantitative
Outcomes
1.3.4 Variance
1.3.5 Standard Deviation
1.3.6 Property of Standard Deviation After Data
Transformations
1.3.7 Other Descriptive Statistics for Dispersion
1.3.8 Dispersions Among Multiple Data Sets
1.3.9 Caution to CV Interpretation
1.4 Statistics for Describing Relationships Between Two
Outcomes
1.4.1 Linear Correlation Between Two Continuous
Outcomes
1.4.2 Contingency Table to Describe an Association Between
Two Categorical Outcomes
1.4.3 Odds Ratio
1.5 Two Essential Probability Distribution
1.5.1 Gaussian Distribution
1.5.2 Probability Density Function of Gaussian Distribution
1.5.3 Application of Gaussian Distribution
1.5.4 Standard Normal Distribution
1.5.5 Binomial Distribution
Bibliography
2 Statistical Inference Concentrating on a Single Mean
2.1 Population and Sample
2.1.1 Sampling and Non-sampling Errors
2.1.2 Sample Distribution and Sampling Distribution
2.1.3 Standard Error
2.1.4 Sampling Methods and Sampling Variability of the
Sample Means
2.2 Statistical Inference
2.2.1 Data Reduction and Related Nomenclatures
2.2.2 Central Limit Theorem
2.2.3 The t-Distribution
2.2.4 Hypothesis Testing
2.2.5 Accuracy and Precision
2.2.6 Interval Estimation and Confidence Interval
2.2.7 Bayesian Inference
2.2.8 Study Design and Its Impact to Accuracy and Precision
Bibliography
3 t-Tests for Two-Mean Comparison
3.1 Independent Samples t-Test for Comparing Two
Independent Means
3.1.1 Independent Samples t-Test When Variances Are
Unequal
3.1.2 Denominator Formulae of the Test Statistic for
Independent Samples t-Test
3.1.3 Connection to the Confidence Interval
3.2 Paired Sample t-Test for Comparing Paired Means
3.3 Use of Excel for t-Tests
Bibliography
4 Inference Using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Comparing
Multiple Means
4.1 Sums of Squares and Variances
4.2 F-Test
4.3 Multiple Comparisons and Increased Chance of Type 1
Error
4.4 Beyond Single-Factor ANOVA
4.4.1 Multi-factor ANOVA
4.4.2 Interaction
4.4.3 Repeated Measures ANOVA
4.4.4 Use of Excel for ANOVA
Bibliography
5 Inference of Correlation and Regression
5.1 Inference of Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient
5.2 Linear Regression Model with One Independent Variable:
Simple Regression Model
5.3 Simple Linear Regression Analysis
5.4 Linear Regression Models with Multiple Independent
Variables
5.5 Logistic Regression Model with One Independent Variable:
Simple Logistic Regression Model
5.6 Consolidation of Regression Models
5.6.1 General and Generalized Linear Models
5.6.2 Multivariate Analysis Versus Multivariable Model
5.7 Application of Linear Models with Multiple Independent
Variables
5.8 Worked Examples of General and Generalized Linear
Models
5.8.1 Worked Example of a General Linear Model
5.8.2 Worked Example of a Generalized Linear Model
(Logistic Model) Where All Multiple Independent Variables
Are Dummy Variables
5.9 Measure of Agreement Between Outcome Pairs:
Concordance Correlation Coefficient for Continuous Outcomes
and Kappa (κ) for Categorical Outcomes
5.10 Handling of Clustered Observations
Bibliography
6 Normal Distribution Assumption-Free Nonparametric Inference
6.1 Comparing Two Proportions Using a 2 × 2 Contingency
Table
6.1.1 Chi-Square Test for Comparing Two Independent
Proportions
6.1.2 Fisher’s Exact Test
6.1.3 Comparing Two Proportions in Paired Samples
6.2 Normal Distribution Assumption-Free Rank-Based Methods
for Comparing Distributions of Continuous Outcomes
6.2.1 Permutation Test
6.2.2 Wilcoxon’s Rank Sum Test
6.2.3 Kruskal–Wallis Test
6.2.4 Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test
6.3 Linear Correlation Based on Ranks
6.4 About Nonparametric Methods
Bibliography
7 Methods for Censored Survival Time Data
7.1 Censored Observations
7.2 Probability of Surviving Longer Than Certain Duration
7.3 Statistical Comparison of Two Survival Distributions with
Censoring
Bibliography
8 Sample Size and Power
8.1 Sample Size for Single Mean Interval Estimation
8.2 Sample Size for Hypothesis Tests
8.2.1 Sample Size for Comparing Two Means Using
Independent Samples z- and t-Tests
8.2.2 Sample Size for Comparing Two Proportions
Bibliography
9 Review Exercise Problems
9.1 Review Exercise 1
9.1.1 Solutions for Review Exercise 1
9.2 Review Exercise 2
9.2.1 Solutions for Review Exercise 2
10 Statistical Tables
Index
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
H. Lee, Foundations of Applied Statistical Methods
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42296-6_1
This chapter portrays how to make sense of gathered data before performing
formal statistical inference. The topics covered are types of data, how to
visualize data, how to summarize data into a few descriptive statistics (i.e.,
condensed numerical indices), and introduction to some useful probability
models.
Qualitative Quantitative
Discrete Nominal categorical (e.g., M = male, Ordinal categorical (e.g., 1 = mild,
F = female) 2 = moderate, 3 = severe)
Count (e.g., number of incidences 0, 1, 2, 3,
…)
Continuous N/A Interval scale (e.g., temperature)
Ratio scale (e.g., weight)
Nonetheless, some definition of the data type may not be clear, among which
the similarity and dissimilarity between the ratio scale and interval scale may be
the ones that need further clarification.
Ratio scale: If two distinct values of quantitative data were able to be
represented by a ratio of two numerical values, then such data are ratio scale
data. For example, two observations xi = 200 and xj = 100, for i ≠ j; the ratio
xi/xj = 2 shows that xi is twice of xj, for example, lung volume, age, disease
duration, etc.
Interval scale: If two distinct values of quantitative data were not ratio-able,
then such data are interval scale data. Temperature is a good example as it has
three temperature systems, i.e., Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. Kelvin system
also has its absolute 0 (there is no negative temperature in Kelvin system). For
example, 200 °F is not a temperature that is twice higher than 100 °F. We can
only say that 200 °F is higher by 100 degrees (i.e., the displacement between
200 and 100 is 100 degrees in Fahrenheit measurement scale).
29. Plin., N. H., 16, 10, 37, Gell., N. A., 15, 27, 4; Dig., 1, 2, 8.