CH 36 DIFFRACTION II

Intended Learning Outcomes – after this lecture you will learn:

1. Diffraction pattern from multiple slits and its intensity distribution
2. Diffraction grating and grating spectroscopy, chromatic resolving power
3. Diffraction pattern from a circular aperture, angular resolving power of optical instruments
Textbook Reference: 36.4, 36.5, 36.7

Multiple Slits
𝑁𝑁 slits, each adjacent slit at 𝑑𝑑 apart
Path difference between rays from neighboring slits is 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃.
Wave from all slits add up constructively if:
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑚𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
These are called principal maxima, because they are not the
only maxima 

Claim: between any two principal maxima, there are 𝑁𝑁 − 1

equally spaced dark fringes, and therefore 𝑁𝑁 − 2 equally
spaced secondary maxima

principal
𝑁𝑁 = 2 𝑁𝑁 = 8 𝑁𝑁 = 16
maxima

secondary
maxima

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 1

Reason: take 𝑁𝑁 = 8 as an example
2𝜋𝜋
Rays from adjacent slits have path difference 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃, therefore phase difference 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜆𝜆
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃.
Add up the 8 rays using phasor diagram
If 𝜙𝜙 = 0, all 8 phasors are collinear and add up constructively – a principal maximum
1 2 3 4 7
If 𝜙𝜙 is any one of the 7 values: 8 (2𝜋𝜋), 8 (2𝜋𝜋), 8 (2𝜋𝜋), 8 (2𝜋𝜋), … , 8 (2𝜋𝜋), then the 8 phasors add up
destructively to zero – dark fringes.
𝜋𝜋/2 𝜋𝜋/2
3𝜋𝜋/4 𝜋𝜋/4

𝜋𝜋 0 𝜋𝜋 0 𝜋𝜋 0

5𝜋𝜋/4 7𝜋𝜋/4
3𝜋𝜋/2 3𝜋𝜋/2
𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
when 𝜙𝜙 = 4 , , , when 𝜙𝜙 = 2 , when 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜋𝜋
4 4 4 2

At a principal maximum, amplitude 𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 = 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑁𝑁 2 𝐼𝐼0 . Total energy is only ~𝑁𝑁, ∴
width of principal maximum ~1/𝑁𝑁, sharper when 𝑁𝑁 larger, can be measured with high
precision

A diffraction grating has a large number of slits. Principal maxima are located at angles
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑚𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
𝑚𝑚 = ±1 lines are called first-order lines, 𝑚𝑚 = ±2 are second-order lines, etc
Choose 𝑑𝑑~𝜆𝜆 to produce big enough (to be measurable) 𝜃𝜃
Diffraction gratings used with visible light typically have 1000 slits per mm, i.e., 𝑑𝑑 =
1000 nm
White light passed through a diffraction grating result in a continuous spectrum of color

Example 36.4 P. 1225

The visible spectrum consists of wavelengths from approximately 380 nm (violet) to 750 nm
(red). After passing through a diffraction grating with 600 slits per mm at normal incident:
1st order lines (𝑚𝑚 = 1):
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 380 × 10−9 m
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣1 = sin−1 = sin−1 = 13.2°
𝑑𝑑 (10−3 m)⁄600
750 × 10−9 m
𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟1 = sin−1 = 26.7°
(10−3 m)⁄600
1st order spectrum is from angular position 13.2° (violet) to 26.7° (red).

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 2

2nd order lines (𝑚𝑚 = 2):
2(380 × 10−9 m)
−1
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣2 = sin = 27.1°
(10−3 m)⁄600
2(750 × 10−9 m)
𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟2 = sin−1 = 63.9°
(10−3 m)⁄600
2nd order spectrum is from angular position 27.1° (violet) to 63.9° (red).
Likewise 3rd order lines (𝑚𝑚 = 3): 𝑚𝑚 = 3
3(380 × 10−9 m)
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣3 = sin−1 = 43.0°
(10−3 m)⁄600 𝑚𝑚 = 2
3(750 × 10−9 m) 𝑚𝑚 = 1
𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟3 = sin−1 = sin−1 1.35 not defined
(10−3 m)⁄600
3rd order spectrum is from angular position 43.0° (violet) but red side
is incomplete
st nd
For visible spectrum, 1 and 2 order spectra do not overlap. 1st order spectrum can be
analyzed independently.
nd st
2 order spectrum wider than 1 , easier to see the different colors, but it does overlap
rd
with the 3 order spectrum 

Instead of slits in transmission grating, reflection grating has grooves or ridges of reflecting
surfaces instead. E.g. a DVD surface has circular grooves of radial spacing 740 nm, acts as a
reflection grating for visible light.

Grating Spectroscopy
Typical use: analyze spectrum from a light source, e.g., the sun
- Sun radiates a continuous spectrum of light
- Elements in sun’s atmosphere absorb light with particular
wavelengths (from quantum theory) which appear as dark
lines in grating spectrum, called Fraunhofer lines
- Measure wavelength of dark lines to identify those elements
Helium was first identified in 1868 from sun’s spectrum by Janssen and Lockyer, before it
was identified on earth in 1882. It was named after the Greek sun god Helios
Sodium has two very close lines (called sodium doublet, or D1 and D2 Fraunhofer lines) with
wavelength 589.00 nm and 589.59 nm. Can they be seen as two separate line? → chromatic
resolving power (the ability to resolve colors) 𝑅𝑅 of the grating defined as
𝜆𝜆
𝑅𝑅 =
Δ𝜆𝜆
589
e.g. to see the sodium doublet as two separate lines, require 𝑅𝑅 = 0.59 = 1000

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 3

 Rayleigh criterion – if a principal maximum
(peak) of one line coincide with the first
minimum of the other line, then we can barely
see them as two separate peaks i.e., 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜋/𝑁𝑁

𝜙𝜙
𝜆𝜆
2𝜋𝜋 (𝑑𝑑 cos 𝜃𝜃)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
𝜙𝜙 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑 cos 𝜃𝜃� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⇒ (𝑑𝑑 cos 𝜃𝜃)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆
∴ 𝑅𝑅 ≡ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
More slits means higher chromatic resolving power, since the first minimum is closer to the
maximum
Higher order 𝑚𝑚 means higher chromatic resolving power since the angular width of the
spectrum is larger. But be careful that it may overlap with spectra from different orders.

Question
In order to resolve the sodium doublet in the fourth order, the minimum number of slits required
is (250 / 400 / 1000 / 4000)
Answer: see inverted text on P. 1228

Diffraction from Circular Aperture

𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆
2.68 2.23
𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷

Mathematics is more difficult but

intensity graph qualitatively similar to
𝜆𝜆 0 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆
single slit sin 𝜃𝜃 = 1.63 1.22 3.24
𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
Bright/dark rings are roughly equally spaced.
The central bright spot is called the Airy disk, whose diameter (width) is about 2.5 times the
spacing between consecutive rings, c.f. 2 times for a single slit
Most intensity concentrate on Airy disk, e.g. for 𝐷𝐷 ≫ 𝜆𝜆, Airy disk has 85% of total intensity
PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 4
Angular Resolving Power of Optical Instrument (camera, telescope, your pupils, etc.)
Rayleigh criterion:
circular diffraction
Objects barely resolved if one peak falls on the
distance aperture 𝐷𝐷 pattern
first minimum of the other, i.e.
objects
𝜆𝜆
sin 𝜃𝜃 ≥ 1.22 𝜃𝜃
𝐷𝐷
smaller 𝜆𝜆 has better resolving power, e.g,
Blu-ray (using blue laser) stores more
information than a DVD (using red laser)
larger aperture 𝐷𝐷, better resolving power

same objects observed with increasing aperture

Example 36.6 Resolving power of a camera lens P. 1233

𝑓𝑓
The f-number, or f-stop, of a lens, is defined as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷 where 𝑓𝑓 is its focal length, and 𝐷𝐷 its
aperture. The f-number is usually expressed in the form 𝑓𝑓/𝑥𝑥, or simply fx, or Fx
the larger the f-number, the (larger / smaller) the aperture
𝑓𝑓
A camera lens with focal length 𝑓𝑓 = 50 mm and maximum aperture 𝑓𝑓/2 (meaning 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷 = 2)
forms an image of an object 9.0 m away. Assume 𝜆𝜆 = 500 nm and the resolution is limited by
diffraction.
The aperture is
50 mm
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓⁄2 = = 25 mm
2
The Rayleigh criterion gives
𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆 500 × 10−9 m
𝜃𝜃 = ≈ sin 𝜃𝜃 = 1.22 = 1.22 = 2.4 × 10−5 rad
9.0 m 𝐷𝐷 25 × 10−3 m
The minimum distance between two points on the object that can barely be resolved is
𝑑𝑑 = (9.0 m)(2.4 × 10−5 ) = 0.22 mm
Suppose the lens is “stopped down” to 𝑓𝑓/16, i.e., a (larger / smaller) 𝐷𝐷 than before, the
minimum distance between two points on the object that can barely be resolved becomes 𝑑𝑑 =
1.8 mm, i.e., 8 times as large as before.

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 5

 However, in e.g. camera, smaller aperture makes sharper
images because it minimizes spherical aberration (rays
away from the optical axis do not converge at the focus) –
an effect competing with resolving power

Question: Rank the following telescopes in increasing resolving power:

i) a radio telescope 100 m in diameter observing at a wavelength of 21 cm
ii) an optical telescope 2.0 m in diameter observing at a wavelength of 500 nm
iii) an ultraviolet telescope 1.0 m in diameter observing at a wavelength of 100 nm
iv) an infrared telescope 2.0 m in diameter observing at a wavelength of 10 μm
Answer: see inverted text on P. 1233

Digression: Pointillist painting (neo-impressionism)

Compose a picture using irregular colorful dots

but not at large

at small distance, distance
your eyes can
resolve the dots

same principle behind your LCD/LED Vincent van Gogh, Self Portrait, 1887,
screen (regular array of pixels) using pointillist technique

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 6

Clicker Questions

Ans: Q36.5) E, Q36.7) A

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 7

See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Janssen

PHYS1114 Lecture 24 Diffraction II P. 8