PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SEN

Let the children have their say:

children with special educational
needs and their experiences of
Physical Education – a review
JANINE COATES and PHILIP VICKERMAN
This paper reviews literature examining the perspec- of recent legislation aiming to increase the number of chil-
tives of children with special educational needs related dren with special educational needs educated in mainstream
education, by improving practice in mainstream schools,
to their experiences of Physical Education (PE). The
addressing assessment, and removing barriers to inclusion
extent to which literature addresses inclusion in PE was (DfES, 2001b, 2004).
determined and emerging themes arising from consul-
tation with children with special educational needs With political concern over physical activity and health
regarding PE were examined. Qualitative studies, con- issues increasing, there too has been a significant increase in
centrating on consultation with special educational both political and public awareness about the importance of
needs children, were reviewed and six key themes were Physical Education (PE) for children and young people in
identified: children’s experiences of PE; their experi- Britain. As such, strategies which aim to improve fitness,
decrease levels of obesity and increase activity levels of all
ences of PE teachers; discrimination by others; feelings
school children, whatever their circumstances or abilities,
of self-doubt; barriers to inclusion; and empowerment have been introduced. These include the Physical Educa-
and consultation. Findings indicate children with tion, School Sport and Club Links Strategy (PESSCL)
special educational needs enjoy PE when fully (DfES, 2002), and the National Curriculum for PE (NCPE)
included; however, participation is restricted by dis- (DfEE/QCA, 1999; QCA, 2007a).
crimination, limited teacher training and material
barriers to inclusion. Consequently, teacher training in Sport England (2001), however, highlights the fact that
young children with disabilities take part in a narrower
special educational needs and the education of non-
range of PE activities compared with their non-disabled
disabled children about special educational needs peers, and highlights that 10% of their sample of children
requires extensive consideration. with disabilities had not taken part in any sport as part of the
school curriculum over the previous year. As such, it is of
Keywords: inclusion, Physical Education, pupil voice, particular importance to examine the inclusion of children
consultation, empowerment. with special educational needs in PE lessons, in order to
gain a full understanding of their experiences of physical
activity and assess how successful inclusion strategies
Introduction and context regarding PE have been.

According to Alcott (2004), special educational needs have This paper examines current literature regarding the percep-
been a concern at the forefront of British education policy tions of children with special educational needs on their
since the early 1970s, ensuring that all children have the experiences of PE, both in mainstream and special educa-
right to be educated, in special or mainstream schools. Thus, tion. Research examining inclusion, however, has tended to
whilst special educational needs has been a key feature of rely on the perspectives of teachers and teacher training
educational policy since the 1970s, the return of the Labour providers regarding their experiences and beliefs about
Government in 1997 has seen inclusive education rise up the including children with special educational needs, for
political agenda. This has been exemplified through a surfeit example Morely et al. (2005) and Vickerman (2007). These

© 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and
350 Main St, Malden, MA, 02148, USA.
studies provide a starting point for understanding the found some teachers had not had any training to work with
perspectives of children with special educational needs children with special educational needs, whilst only a few
regarding their own experiences of PE, and as such, require had opportunities to attend limited and generally ad hoc
note. However, in contrast, the aim of this paper is to deter- training sessions. Similarly, Smith and Green (2004) indi-
mine the extent to which literature addresses inclusion in PE cate that the limited special educational needs training
whilst assessing emerging themes arising from consultation received at ITT and through continued professional devel-
of children with special educational needs regarding their opment was construed to be one of the most restrictive
lived experiences of PE. influences upon teaching practice. Moreover, Vickerman
(2007), in research examining the views of PE ITT provid-
ers, found that only limited importance is placed on special
Special educational needs and inclusion educational needs in ITT; and further highlighted a consid-
practice in Physical Education: the teacher’s erable lack of available training to student teachers.
perspective
This evident dearth of training, according to Morely et al.
Within PE much of the research undertaken on special edu- (2005), has ‘serious repercussions for the quality of support
cational needs inclusion has either focused upon ‘official experienced by children with special educational needs’
line’ Government perspectives and/or the views of teacher (Morely et al., 2005). Furthermore, this leads to a lack of
trainers and teachers (see Vickerman, 2002; Morely et al., confidence on the part of the teacher (Smith and Green,
2005; Smith and Thomas, 2006; Vickerman, 2007). The 2004), which in turn adds further disadvantage to the expe-
research tends to indicate that teachers and training provid- riences of the child. Although government strategy claims to
ers perceive inclusion as something which would be be improving the quality of training available to teachers
favourable but is somewhat unobtainable in the present both at the ITT level and through continued professional
climate (Smith and Thomas, 2006). This is echoed in the development (DfES, 2004), it is clear that this training is,
work of several researchers. Morely et al. (2005), for firstly, not meeting the contextual requirements of teachers,
example, in research examining teachers’ perceptions of in particular PE teachers; and secondly is not accessible
inclusion in PE using semi-structured interviews, found enough to teachers to ensure and encourage further special
teachers tended to feel they could not adequately provide for educational needs training.
children with special educational needs. It was reported that
the teachers did not understand how to provide the best While a plethora of research has investigated the perspec-
support to children with additional needs, despite wanting to tives of teachers, and other education professionals (see
be able to help them. Moreover, student teachers have high- Vickerman, 2002; Morely et al., 2005; Vickerman, 2007),
lighted their concerns about teaching children with a range only a small amount has investigated the perspectives of the
of diverse needs, and indicate their belief that an inclusive child (see Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000; Kristen et al.,
classroom, whether in PE, or other subjects, is ‘impossible’ 2002; Fitzgerald et al., 2003a; Fitzgerald, 2005). A focal
(Lambe and Bones, 2006). area for the Every Child Matters Agenda is the National
Framework for Local Change, which places the outcomes
In addition to this, PE teachers have reported feelings of of inclusion for children and families at the ‘heart of the
constraint caused by an increased presence of learning process’ (DfES, 2005). Moreover, key government policy
support assistants (LSAs) in PE lessons, who are inexperi- states that children with special educational needs should
enced in the subject area, and provide impractical support have the opportunity to air their views with regard to their
(Smith and Green, 2004; Morely et al., 2005). Smith and education (DfES, 2001a). This emphasis on the child and
Green (2004) further indicate that these restrictions are due to consultation highlights the importance of examining the
a lack of PE training for LSAs, resulting in LSAs being perspectives of children with special educational needs, and
regarded as ‘more of a hindrance than a help’ (Smith and this can be undertaken in order to understand the successes
Green, 2004). Furthermore, Morely et al. (2005) illustrate of inclusion policy as well as raising attention and aware-
how LSAs tend to be more prevalent in other lessons, but are ness of areas for improvement.
not often present in PE lessons, where, it is argued, their
presence would be greatly beneficial. Nevertheless, while
teachers regard LSAs’ inexperience and absence from Methodology
lessons negatively, they do point out that when present, LSAs
take the pressure off teachers, allowing them to focus more on The purpose of this study was to examine ‘what current
the lesson and other children in it (Smith and Green, 2004). literature says about the perspectives of children with
special educational needs regarding their experiences
There appears to be a widespread lack of training and pro- of PE’. A systematic review of relevant literature was
fessional development opportunities available not only for undertaken using the Academy for Cerebral Palsy and
LSAs, but also for teachers in mainstream schools. Evidence Developmental Medicine (AACPDM) review guide. As part
from teachers (Smith and Green, 2004; Morely et al., 2005) of this systematic review the intention was to examine the
and from Initial Teacher Training (ITT) providers (Vicker- extent to which the perspectives of children with special
man, 2007) support this. In their study, Morely et al. (2005) educational needs have been identified within literature,

© 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN Support for Learning · Volume 23 · Number 4 · 2008 169
with the aim of illustrating key areas of commonality and/or However, studies also indicated that children’s experiences
difference in previous research findings. of PE were limited and somewhat restricted by the behav-
iour of others, leading to negative self-image and emotional
The aim of the review was to identify, appraise, select and distress (Blinde and McCallister, 1998; Goodwin and
synthesise all the relevant research evidence presented Watkinson, 2000; Fitzgerald et al., 2003b). It is worth
during the last ten years. Whilst it is recognised that litera- noting though that the majority of the reviewed studies
ture in the area of inclusive education dates back to the examined the perspectives of children with physical dis-
1970s, the rationale for reviewing only the last ten years is abilities (Blinde and McCallister, 1998; Goodwin and
twofold. Firstly, during the last ten years issues of empow- Watkinson, 2000; Hutzler et al., 2002; Kristen et al., 2002;
erment and self-representation of children with special Fitzgerald et al., 2003a; Fitzgerald, 2005) and as such may
educational needs has risen up the agenda in part due to a not prove representative of the full sphere of special educa-
plethora of legislation. Secondly, the National Curriculum tional needs. In addition to this, all of the reviewed studies
(DfEE/QCA, 1999) established a statutory inclusion state- implemented qualitative methodologies including informal
ment nearly ten years ago in which the rights of children interviews with the children, and/or small group discus-
with special educational needs were at the forefront. sions. As such, no quantitative data is available and this may
limit the generalisability of the results. Nevertheless, given
Search criteria determined studies must be written in the nature of special educational needs and the aims of the
English and be concerned with the perspectives of children studies (consultation with children), the use of formal
with special educational needs related to their experiences methods of data collection may not have been suitable for
of inclusion in PE. Key search terms focused upon the the purposes of these studies.
following terms in the titles of research studies: special
educational needs; disability; learning difficulties; chil- Consequently, in examining literature from the last decade,
dren’s perspectives; attitudes; PE; and sport. six key themes were identified as recurring issues within the
literature relating to the experiences of children with special
A series of international journals relating to special educa- educational needs regarding their experiences of PE. These
tional needs, disability or PE/sport were searched for were:
relevant articles and reports. These included:
● experiences of PE;
● Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly ● experiences of PE teachers;
● Disability and Society ● discrimination by others;
● European Physical Education Review ● feelings of self-doubt;
● British Journal of Special Educational Needs ● barriers to inclusion;
● Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance ● empowerment and consultation.
● Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs
● Support for Learning

Seven research articles were identified which met the key

Experiences of PE
word and journal selection inclusion criteria. These were
Literature tends to illustrate that children with special edu-
subsequently analysed using the AACPDM guide in terms
cational needs have positive experiences of PE when they
of research findings, and key themes were drawn out,
are fully included in lessons. Goodwin and Watkinson
grouped and applied to the research question.
(2000) indicated that children with disabilities report they
have both good days and bad days in PE. Good days tended
Findings and discussion to occur when children felt they had skilfully participated in
the activities, when they had a sense of belonging amongst
The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (DfES, their peers, and when they were able to share in the benefits
2001a) states that children with special educational needs of the activities. These more positive perceptions of PE,
should have the right to make their views heard with regard to however, resound from feelings of acceptance in the activi-
any decisions made regarding their education. However, to ties to which the child is taking part, which resonates from
date there has only been a limited amount of research under- the PE teacher and other children in the class welcoming the
taken related to the views and perspectives of children with child and assisting them in fully integrating into the lesson.
special educational needs regarding their experiences of PE According to Hutzler et al. (2002), this not only improves
(Blinde and McCallister, 1998; Goodwin and Watkinson the general PE experience, but also empowers the child,
2000; Hutzler et al., 2002; Fitzgerald et al., 2003a, 2003b; allowing them to interact with classmates, and make their
Fitzgerald, 2005). Of the research which has been conducted, own decisions regarding participation.
findings tend to identify reoccurring themes. Indeed it is
evident children with special educational needs gain enjoy- Bad days, however, tended to be caused by feelings of social
ment, as well as social, learning and physical benefits, from isolation, restricted participation and when the child had
taking part in integrated and inclusive sporting activities their competence questioned (Goodwin and Watkinson,
(Kristen et al., 2002; Fitzgerald et al., 2003a). 2000). The negative experiences of PE for these children

170 Support for Learning · Volume 23 · Number 4 · 2008 © 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN
often resulted from bullying in the lesson, or from the over, PESSCL states that all children, despite any additional
child’s inability to take part fully due to a lack of lesson needs, must receive at least two hours of high quality PE and
adaptation to suit the needs of the child. These findings school sport per week. This consolidates the need for inclu-
emphasise the need for teachers to modify lesson plans to sive practices in schools and highlights the expectation that
accommodate the needs of the child (National Curriculum teachers must vary their teaching practice to include all
Online, 2007), as it is evident that without this, the child is children regardless of how diverse their needs are (Penney,
unable to fully enjoy and participate in lessons. 2002).

Children with special educational needs not only enjoy While these policies conceptualise inclusion in PE and across
being a part of PE lessons, but also acknowledge the physi- the curriculum as a whole, research has shown that in the
ological and psychological benefits of participating. Kristen classroom, these expectations are not being met consistently,
et al. (2002) found that children with special educational nor are they fully understood by teachers. Smith and Thomas
needs reported getting to know friends, learning about the (2006), in a literature review of research examining inclusion
world and strengthening their physique as important factors in PE, highlight that some PE teachers expect pupils to adapt
related to taking part in inclusive PE. Similarly, Fitzgerald to existing programmes, rather than them needing to adapt
et al. (2003a) indicate that children with special educational the curricula to the children. As such children with disabili-
needs in special schools enjoy taking part in PE at school, ties tend to co-exist separately from their peers in the same PE
and highlighted a number of activities which were favou- lessons, rather than experiencing full inclusion (Hodge et al.,
rites, including team sports such as basketball. This 2004). This indicates that while it is necessary to adapt policy
enjoyment could be translated into mainstream schools, and school curricula to emphasise inclusive practice, this is
given the correct support and facilities for children with not realisable unless teachers and education practitioners are
special educational needs attending these schools. trained to teach inclusively. This has also been highlighted in
Government literature, and according to the Government’s
In both of these studies, children indicated that they were special educational needs strategy, all teachers should expect
aware of the physical benefits of PE and wanted to take part to teach children with special educational needs and will be
in more activities. Despite this, Sport England (2001) trained to do so (DfES, 2004).
reports that only 20% of young people with disabilities
participate in two hours worth of PE per week, compared It is evident from research that teachers do not feel prepared
with 33% of non-disabled children. This can be attributed to to teach children with special educational needs, due to a lack
the unwillingness of PE practitioners to acknowledge the of professional training and programme development (see
importance of engaging with children about their own expe- Croll and Moses, 2000; Vickerman, 2007). This is further
riences in order to improve their own practice and provision echoed by some children with special educational needs who
for children with special educational needs (Fitzgerald state that some experiences of PE are minimal to non-existent
et al., 2003a). It is too often assumed by adults that children (Blinde and McCallister, 1998). The children in their study
with special educational needs do not have the ability to experienced exclusion on a number of occasions, and this
participate fully, resulting in negative experiences of PE. was often attributed to teacher practice. It is noted that some
Therefore a significant education and awareness-raising teachers of PE did not modify their lesson plans to include the
process needs to occur to change adult views and opinions children with special educational needs, which in turn
related to the lived experiences of PE of children with resulted in negative experiences and/or complete exclusion
special educational needs. from lessons (Blinde and McCallister, 1998). Moreover,
Goodwin and Watkinson (2000) indicate children in their
study experienced PE teachers in similar ways. One child in
Experiences of PE teachers particular stated: ‘[The teacher]’s like go pump up the balls
in the storage room. And they’re playing volleyball and I’m
PESSCL and, particularly, the National Curriculum for like – grrrr!’ (Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000, p. 152)
schools has followed Government initiatives and introduced
a more inclusive curriculum, with the goal of providing a These experiences of exclusion in PE lessons can be attrib-
more accessible education to children with additional needs. uted to the lack of special educational needs experience and
It integrates inclusive practice in its framework, and high- training undertaken by practicing and student PE teachers. It
lights the educability of children with special educational is therefore apparent that training programmes and stan-
needs, particularly those with more severe needs, leading to dards developed by policy-makers are either inaccessible to
a more functional approach to the education of children with teachers, or are ineffective in fully preparing teachers for
special educational needs (Bines, 2000). Furthermore, the inclusive education. Blinde and McCallister (1998) state, for
National Curriculum inclusion statement draws attention to example, that focusing on individualised outcomes for PE
the need for teachers to provide a broad and balanced cur- rather than emphasising team sports would allow teachers to
riculum, accessible to all pupils (National Curriculum adapt curricula to meet the needs of individual children
Online, 2007). As such teachers are required to take respon- more effectively. This could be achieved through the new
sibility for the modification of teaching programmes to National Curriculum (QCA, 2007b), which states that
ensure all children are able to meet the challenges set. More- subject content will be less prescribed, and will allow for

© 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN Support for Learning · Volume 23 · Number 4 · 2008 171
teachers to personalise the curriculum, providing experi- to take part, by providing support and adapting game rules to
ences more relevant to individual children. suit the child. This provides support for strategies emphasis-
ing the importance of lesson adaptation to teachers, such as
the National Curriculum (QCA, 2007). Not only would this
Discrimination by others enhance the experiences of the child with special educational
needs taking part in activities, but would also provide positive
According to Goodwin and Watkinson (2000), children with role models for other children interacting with children with
special educational needs have ‘bad days’ in PE when they special educational needs, therefore decreasing feelings of
feel socially isolated by their classmates. This is character- difference (Fitzgerald, 2005).
ised by rejection, neglect and bullying by peers in the lesson.
Similarly, Fitzgerald (2005) investigated the ways in which
PE impacts on how ‘abilities are recognised, valued, nur- Feelings of self-doubt
tured and accepted’ (Fitzgerald, 2005). Using data collected
from focus groups with children with disabilities, Fitzgerald As a result of exclusion from lessons and discrimination by
(2005) notes that children are aware of their perceived dif- others, children with special educational needs have
ference to other children in school. The children reported reported negative emotions relating to their perception of
being made to feel invisible by some PE teachers, particu- their own ability to participate in PE (Blinde and McCallis-
larly those with a lack of special educational needs ter, 1998; Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000; Fitzgerald, 2005).
experience. In addition, Connors and Stalker (2007) report Several children in the reviewed studies reported feeling
that children in their study felt discriminated against by embarrassed by their disability, stemming from the behav-
others. The discrimination experienced by children with iour of others towards the children (Blinde and McCallister,
special educational needs participating in PE tended to stem 1998; Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000). Goodwin and Wat-
from staring and curiosity by other children, leading to kinson (2000) indicate that the physically disabled children
negative feelings, such as embarrassment (Blinde and in their study were aware of their bodies, but also under-
McCallister, 1998; Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000). More- stood that their bodies were ‘objects of attention that further
over, Connors and Stalker (2007) indicate that the labelling isolated them from their classmates’ (Goodwin and Watkin-
of children with special educational needs by teachers and son, 2000), which resulted in children feeling ashamed of
peers has led to an over-emphasis of difference between their personal appearance around others. Embarrassment
children. The authors state that when this ‘difference’ was can be a factor which limits a child’s motivation to take part
badly managed by teachers, the child’s feelings of being in PE. As Blinde and McCallister (1998) point out, some
excluded were increased. Goodwin and Watkinson (2000) children in their study indicated that they would prefer not to
further state that teachers are the stakeholders responsible attend PE lessons due to embarrassment. This leads to feel-
for using these situations to educate and redirect behaviour ings of self doubt and lowers the child’s perceived
in order to minimise the hurt felt by students with special competence (self-efficacy) in the activities, which further
educational needs experiencing discrimination. It is evident restricts the child’s ability to perform comfortably in PE:
from research, however, that a lack of special educational
needs training has negatively affected the experiences of ‘Because I can’t walk well, I can’t run well, I can’t do
children with special educational needs as a result of such volleyball well, I can’t do any kind of sport well . . . I’m
discrimination. More surprisingly, however, as indicated by just no good. I call myself a no good person, you know
Connors and Stalker (2007), it is not only other children when I get there in the PE class.’
who discriminate, but the teachers themselves, which (Blinde and McCallister, 1998, p. 67)
further limits the potential success of inclusion policy.
Self-efficacy has been shown to have an effect on the like-
According to Barton (1993), PE promotes physicality lihood of an individual continuing with a particular task
which in many cases is not obtainable for children with (Bandura, 1977). Lavallee et al. (2004) indicate that low
certain special educational needs, particularly physical dis- self-efficacy and unfavourable experiences can therefore
abilities. A child should have every opportunity to succeed in result in withdrawal from sport and exercise. In order to
education regardless of their ability, as stated in special avoid this, teachers need to set effective and attainable goals
educational needs strategies across the UK (for example, for children with special educational needs in order to raise
DfES, 2004), yet evidently, at present, this is something their confidence in PE and encourage participation.
which needs improvement if education is ever going to be as
inclusive as policy aims for it to be. Improvement should take According to Cabral and Crisfield (1996), effective goal
the form of better special educational needs training for setting can assist in improving confidence and helps to
current and trainee PE teachers (Vickerman, 2002), as well as reduce anxiety and improve skills. As such, it is necessary
improving the education of children regarding special edu- for teachers to provide a personalised curriculum for chil-
cational needs. Nevertheless, when managed well, difference dren with special educational needs to ensure that the targets
can be used as a method for empowerment of children with set are achievable by the children. Personalised learning
special educational needs. Hutzler et al. (2002) indicate that calls for individualisation and flexibility in teaching and
some children in their study were often encouraged by peers learning, and is considered to be the route required to raise

172 Support for Learning · Volume 23 · Number 4 · 2008 © 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN
the quality and equity of the British education system, tai- other children, allowing them to excel. Moreover, Fitzgerald
loring curriculum content to meet the needs, interests and et al. (2003a) indicate that children with special educational
skills of each individual pupil (Miliband, 2005). However, needs in their study tended to opt for sedentary activities in
in order for personalised learning to be effective in PE, their free time, which could indicate the impact of material
teachers should focus more on the individual talents of their and physical barriers on their ability to attend and partici-
pupils, which can be achieved through consultation with pate in sport outside of school. As such, it is evident that the
their pupils in order to become knowledgeable about the facilities available, and the nature of the surfaces on which
views, opinions and interests of their pupils, making PE as PE and sport are played, has a profound impact on the
enjoyable as possible for every child (Miliband, 2004). likelihood of children with special educational needs par-
ticipating in and enjoying sport inside and outside of school.
Moreover, children with special educational needs too often As such, it is vital to remove as many barriers as possible
compare themselves to a normalised ideal, whereby the child both in the community and in schools, to ensure children
believes they should be able to be and do the same as other with special educational needs have the best opportunity to
children (Fitzgerald, 2005). This too needs to be challenged. participate in physical activity.
Thus, children with special educational needs should be
encouraged to acknowledge what they can do as opposed to
what they are unable to achieve, and this can be done through Empowerment and consultation
effective goal setting, and suitable lesson management.
A key feature of inclusion policy is the empowerment and
consultation of the children, ensuring their views are consid-
Barriers to inclusion ered within ‘planning, delivery and evaluation of inclusive
practice’ (Vickerman, 2002). As such, individuals and agen-
Removing Barriers to Achievement, the Government strat- cies involved in inclusion practice should seek to remove
egy for special educational needs (DfES, 2004), identifies a barriers to inclusion erected in all subject areas (Vickerman,
number of targets and methods for ensuring children with 2002). However, in attempting to remove barriers to inclu-
special educational needs are fully included in mainstream sion, certain strategies have effectively introduced barriers to
education across all curriculum subjects. However, research teaching in subject areas such as PE. The use of special edu-
indicates children with special educational needs are still cational needs learning support assistants, for example, has
encountering a number of barriers which restrict their par- increased the number of constraints on PE teachers’ everyday
ticipation in PE as well as sporting and leisure activities practice, due to inexperience in the subject area (Smith and
outside of school. Goodwin and Watkinson (2000) indicate Green, 2004). Furthermore, there is a general feeling among
that while for regular PE lessons, taught in either a gym or PE teachers that there is a lack of support from learning
sports hall, physical access to facilities was suitable, for support assistants in PE, compared with other subjects, such
special activities, there were often physical barriers to in- as English and Maths (Morely et al., 2005). Arguably, PE
clusion. These barriers ranged from a lack of ramps for should be a subject in which children with special educa-
wheelchair users to the length of grass on playing fields tional needs are welcomed and encouraged fully, given both
(Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000). the physical and psychological benefits of PE (DfES, 2002;
Kristen et al., 2002; Fitzgerald et al., 2003a).
Moreover, inclusion in outdoor education, a national cur-
riculum activity (DfEE/QCA, 1999), was limited due to Children with special educational needs, however, while
inappropriate access and facilities, particularly for children reporting perceived benefits of taking part in PE, have also
with physical disabilities (Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000). indicated feelings of difference and alienation, from other
In addition, Connors and Stalker (2007) report children with students and teachers (Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000;
special educational needs experience material barriers to Fitzgerald et al., 2003b). It is evident, given these findings,
inclusion in their general school lives as a result of their that children with special educational needs are not being
needs, and this leads to inaccessibility to extra-curricular included fully, and highlights the need to address consulta-
activities and leisure services. Transport to leisure facilities tion with inclusive practice further. By involving the child
was highlighted in their research as limiting children’s ability further in decision-making and planning, it may be possible
to take part in activities outside of school (Connors and to limit discrimination, and heighten positive experiences of
Stalker, 2007). Gaining access to facilities and areas where PE.
lessons are being conducted is vital for positive experiences
of PE and sport outside of school (Goodwin and Watkinson, Moreover, children and young people with special educa-
2000), and, if not addressed, results in limited participation in tional needs want to have their views heard. Lewis et al.
PE, and lowered levels of physical activity outside of school. (2006) showed that children in their study valued indepen-
dence and autonomy. They were aware of what their needs
Goodwin and Watkinson (2000) further point out that a are and wanted to be able to make their feelings heard. This
number of the children in their research preferred swimming was often, however, overridden by the perspectives of adults
to other sports due to its accessibility for the children, and who made assumptions about the needs of pupils without
because it allowed children an equal playing ground with consulting directly with the young person (Lewis et al.,

© 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN Support for Learning · Volume 23 · Number 4 · 2008 173
2006), which can often lead to exclusion from regular staff. While general special educational needs training does
lessons (Blinde and McCallister, 1998). The role that teach- appear to be available, it is clear that it is either not relevant
ers take by making uninformed choices about children with or not accessible enough for PE staff, from the perceptions
special educational needs is in effect a method of disem- of PE teachers (Vickerman, 2002; Smith and Thomas,
powerment. By taking choices and decisions away from the 2006). As such, extensive restructuring of teacher training
child, teachers are ignoring the importance of children’s programmes to incorporate more focused special educa-
lived experiences of their own difficulties, which limits tional needs training and professional development training
teachers’ understanding of that child’s needs, and essen- needs to be considered.
tially restricts successful inclusion (Depauw and Doll-
Tepper, 2000). Furthermore, Hutzler et al. (2002) indicate In addition to this, the PE curriculum must be further tailored
children with special educational needs who experience to incorporate the needs of children with special educational
exclusion, or only limited inclusion in PE lessons, report needs in setting targets, in the activities children participate
feelings of disempowerment. The authors state that a child in, and in the assessment of PE for children with special
requires the chance to fail in order to feel empowered by a educational needs. The new National Curriculum, introduced
situation. This allows the child the opportunity to learn to in September 2008, aims to provide teachers with more
cope with the situation, and assess his/her own ability to flexible teaching opportunities to ensure personalised cur-
participate in certain activities (Hutzler et al., 2002). ricula for children with special educational needs (QCA,
2007); however, the effects of this will not be noticeable in
Fitzgerald et al. (2003b) examined empowerment through a the very near future. Moreover, without training teachers to
student-led piece of research. They noted that, given extra provide personalised programmes for children with special
responsibilities, the children in their study flourished. They educational needs, this target is unlikely to be met.
were encouraged by the positive remarks of the researchers
and teachers, and therefore were motivated to participate. In examining experiences of PE of children with special
This provides evidence of the impact that adult behaviour educational needs it is evident that they are not receiving the
can have on children. By allowing children with special experiences they deserve. The literature indicates children
educational needs to take on challenges, and encouraging enjoy PE when they feel they are making a valuable contri-
them to participate, children will succeed. As such, the con- bution to lessons; however, discrimination by both their
sultation and empowerment of children with special classmates and adults in the school setting is jeopardising
educational needs with regard to their education is of great children’s ability to become fully included in PE lessons.
importance. It allows the child a chance to accept and cope Furthermore, physical and material barriers to inclusion
with their disability, as well as providing fundamental infor- have been shown to have a limiting effect on the participa-
mation to adults regarding the child’s experiences. This is tion of children with special educational needs in PE, and
central in understanding the successes of inclusive practice sport outside of school. This has a damaging effect on physi-
in PE lessons, and can be used as a method of developing cal well-being (Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000), and leads
and delivering strategies intended to increase and improve to emotional distress due to exclusion from lessons, bullying
inclusion in mainstream schools. and a poor self-image (Blinde and McCallister, 1998;
Goodwin and Watkinson, 2000). As such, it is necessary to
educate non-disabled children about special educational
Concluding comments needs in order to break down normalised behaviours, and
encourage social inclusion, as well as physical inclusion.
This paper has set out to examine and review current litera- This will promote confidence in children with special edu-
ture on the perceptions of children with special educational cational needs and motivate them to participate in PE more
needs, both in mainstream and special education, regarding willingly.
their experiences of PE. The aim was to determine the extent
to which literature addresses inclusion in PE in mainstream In conclusion, research indicates that children with special
schools, and assess emerging themes arising from consulta- educational needs feel empowered when given the opportu-
tion with children with special educational needs about PE nity to make their own decisions regarding their participation
attending both mainstream and special schools. It is evident in PE. Disempowerment stems from teachers, parents and
from the dearth of literature available examining the percep- other children removing options for the child with special
tions of children with special educational needs about their educational needs, resulting in exclusion (Hutzler et al.,
experiences of PE that more research needs to be done to 2002). Moreover, it is evident that children with special
assess children’s beliefs and feelings about inclusion and educational needs want to be part of the consultation process
participation as well as their level of access to relevant in terms of making decisions about their education. Consul-
extra-curricular activities. Despite this, research which has tation and empowerment work hand-in-hand, and both can
examined perspectives on PE of children with special edu- have beneficial effects on the child’s ability to cope with
cational needs has highlighted a number of areas for his/her disability, and develop mechanisms to overcome dif-
concern. The research indicates the experiences of PE of ficulties. As such, it is necessary to include the child as much
children with special educational needs are being restricted as possible in all areas of his/her education. Children should
by an apparent lack of training for PE teachers and support be allowed the opportunity to fail, and judge for themselves

174 Support for Learning · Volume 23 · Number 4 · 2008 © 2008 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2008 NASEN
where their abilities lie. Furthermore, it is not possible for teachers’ behaviours and beliefs associated with inclusion. Sport, Edu-
teachers to personalise PE programmes without knowledge cation and Society, 9, 3, 395–420.
HUTZLER, Y, FLIESS, O., CHACHAM, A. and AUWEELE, Y. (2002)
of the child’s needs and abilities, and it is the children Perspectives of children with physical disabilities on inclusion and
themselves who know these needs and abilities better than empowerment: supporting and limiting factors. Adapted Physical
anyone else. As such, it is necessary for researchers to Activity Quarterly, 19, 3, 300–317.
continue to consult with children with special educational KRISTEN, L., PARTIKSSON, G. and FRIDLUND, B. (2002) Conceptions
needs about their experiences of PE, and school life in of children and adolescents with physical disabilities about their par-
ticipation in a sports programme. European Physical Education
general, because without doing so it will not be possible to Review, 8, 2, 139–156.
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inclusive classroom teaching in Northern Ireland prior to teacher prac-
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