CE 322 PRINCIPLES OF STEEL DESIGN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
Engr. Joshua Rey A. Joson
STEEL STRUCTURES
bolted/riveted
• Composed of structural steel shapes connected together welded
• popular construction material due to its strength,
durability, and versatility
• used as various structural components:
1. beams
2. columns
3. braces
4. connections

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
HOT-ROLLED STEEL

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
COLD-FORMED STEEL

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
BUILT-UP SECTIONS

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
COLUMN DETAIL

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
GIRDER DETAIL

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
BEAM DETAIL

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STEEL CONNECTIONS

BOLTED RIVETED WELDED

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
• Use bolts to fasten steel plates or members together
ADVANTAGES
• Simple and quick installation
• Easy to disassemble for maintenance or modifications
• Minimal skilled labor required
• Installation is less affected by weather

DISADVANTAGES
• Bolt holes reduce the cross-sectional area
• May loosen over time under vibrations and dynamic loads
• Heavier connections compared to rivets and welds

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
RIVETED CONNECTIONS
• Use rivets (metal fasteners) heated, driven, and deformed to join steel members
ADVANTAGES
• Strong and durable, with excellent fatigue resistance
• Aesthetic
• Performance does not degrade with time

DISADVANTAGES
• Labor intensive and requires skilled workers
• Difficult to assemble

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
WELDED CONNECTIONS
• Fuse steel members by heating and melting the metal at the joint
ADVANTAGES
• High strength & stiffness – creates monolithic connections
• No reduction in cross-sectional area
• Aesthetic, seamless connection
• No need for additional fasteners

DISADVANTAGES
• Requires skilled labor and specialized equipment
• Weather-sensitive
• More complex inspection during installation
• Difficult to disassemble for maintenance
PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STEEL CONNECTIONS

BOLTED RIVETED WELDED

Ease of Installation Easy Labor-intensive Skilled labor required
Strength High Excellent Excellent
Durability Moderate Excellent High
Aesthetic Appeal Moderate High High
Cost Moderate High Moderate to high
Maintenance Easy Difficult Difficult
Flexibility Reversible Permanent Permanent

The choice depends on structural needs, cost, labor availability, and design considerations.

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• linear elements forming two- or three-dimensional frames

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
SHELL SYSTEM
• main elements are steel plates and sheets

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL MEMBER
• high strength
• uniformity
• elasticity
• permanence
• ductility
• toughness
• addition to existing structures
• long span construction
• water- & air-tight

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL MEMBER
• high maintenance costs
• corrosion
• fireproofing costs
• susceptibility to buckling

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)
• Minimum requirements & performance-based provisions of structural systems
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• Specifications for design of structural steel buildings & connections
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)
• Specifications for highway & bridge design
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
• Specifications for cold-formed steel

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

FACTORED STRENGTH ≥ FACTORED LOAD or REQUIRED STRENGTH

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∙ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ≥ ෍ 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∙ 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝜑𝑃𝑛 ≥ 𝑃𝑢

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

ALLOWABLE STRENGTH ≥ REQUIRED STRENGTH

𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
Ω

ALLOWABLE STRESS ≥ APPLIED STRESS

𝜎𝑛
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
Ω

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS

STRAIN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS
ELASTIC
ELASTIC REGION
REGION
• stress and strain are directly proportional to each other
• returns to its original shape when the load is removed
• Maximum stress in the elastic region – PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
• Stiffness of the material – YOUNG’S MODULUS

Rise

Run

STRAIN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS
PLASTIC
PLASTIC REGION
REGION

• point at which the material begins to deform plastically

without any increase in load
• material continues to deform until failure, exhibiting
necking and localized strain concentration
• maximum stress a material can withstand without
undergoing permanent deformation – YIELD STRENGTH

STRAIN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS
STRAIN
STRAIN HARDENING
HARDENING
• Material experiences continuous plastic
deformation under an increasing stress
• Stress and strain are no longer proportional
• Despite the stress increasing, the material
becomes harder and stronger due to the
rearrangement of its internal structure
• maximum stress the material can withstand
before failure – ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH

STRAIN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS NECKING
NECKING
• localized reduction in cross-
sectional area that occurs after the
material reaches its maximum load
• Leads to complete failure of
material

STRAIN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS
ELASTIC PLASTIC STRAIN NECKING
REGION REGION HARDENING

Rise

Run

𝑅𝐼𝑆𝐸
YOUNG’S MODULUS=
𝑅𝑈𝑁

STRAIN

PRINCIPLES OF STEEL
 CE 322 PRINCIPLES OF STEEL DESIGN

RESISTANCE FACTORS &

LOAD COMBINATIONS
Engr. Joshua Rey A. Joson
LRFD
LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

FACTORED STRENGTH ≥ FACTORED LOAD

𝝋𝑷𝒏 ≥ 𝑷𝒖

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

LRFD LOAD COMBINATIONS
1) 1.4𝐷
2) 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿 + 0.5 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
3) 1.2𝐷 + 1.6 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 + 0.5𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.8𝑊
4) 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝑊 + 0.5𝐿 + 0.5 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
5) 1.2𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸 + 0.5𝐿 + 0.2𝑆
6) 0.9𝐷 ± (1.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1.0𝐸)

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

LRFD RESISTANCE FACTORS
YIELDING or COMPRESSION BUCKLING
𝝋 = 𝟎. 𝟗

FRACTURE
𝝋 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

ASD
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

ALLOWABLE STRENGTH ≥ REQUIRED STRENGTH

𝑷𝒏
≥ 𝑷𝒂
Ω

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

ASD LOAD COMBINATIONS
1) 𝐷
2) 𝐷+𝐿
3) 𝐷 + 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
4) 𝐷 + 0.75𝐿 + 0.75 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
5) 𝐷 ± (𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝐸)
6) 𝐷 + 0.75 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝐸 + 0.75𝐿 + 0.75 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
7) 0.6𝐷 ± (𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝐸)

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

ASD RESISTANCE FACTORS
YIELDING or COMPRESSION BUCKLING
𝝋 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕

FRACTURE
𝝋 = 𝟐. 𝟎

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

LOAD COMBINATIONS
PRACTICE 1

A column in the upper floor of a building is subjected to the following loads:

Dead load: 109 kips
Floor live load: 46 kips
Roof live load: 19 kips
Snow: 20 kips

1. Determine the governing load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored
load.
2. What will be the required nominal strength in yielding?
3. Determine the governing load combination for ASD and the corresponding factored
load.
4. What will be the required nominal strength in fracture?

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

LOAD COMBINATIONS
PRACTICE 2

A steel member is subjected to a dead load of 50 kN, wind load of 10 kN, 2 kN earthquake
load, and 19 kN floor live load.

1. Determine the governing load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored
load.
2. What will be the required nominal strength in yielding?
3. Determine the governing load combination for ASD and the corresponding factored load.
4. What will be the required nominal strength in fracture?

RESISTANCE FACTORS & LOAD COMBINATIONS

 CE 322E PRINCIPLES OF STEEL DESIGN

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Engr. Joshua Rey A. Joson
TENSION MEMBERS
• Subjected to axial tensile forces
• Found in bridges, roof trusses, towers, and bracing systems

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

GROSS AREA
• Total cross-sectional area of a tension member
• Used to calculate load carrying capacity

4-22 mm diameter bolt

Section a-a
a a

Bar 180 x 10 mm

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

NET AREA
• effective cross-sectional area of a tension member
• Area of holes or notches are deducted from the gross area
• Used to calculate load carrying capacity

4-22 mm diameter bolt

Section a-a
a a

Bar 180 x 10 mm STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
• governing strength depends on:
1. yielding of the gross section - gross section of the member
reaches its yield strength
- YIELDING happens when the
material undergoes significant
plastic deformation without a
significant increase in load
- cross-sectional area of the
member is sufficient to carry the
applied loads, but the material
itself yields under the stress
The design must ensure that the member can
withstand this yielding without experiencing failure.
STEEL TENSION MEMBERS
DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
• governing strength depends on:
2. fracture of the net section - reduced section of the member
experiences failure
- FRACTURE occurs when the
stress in the material exceeds its
ultimate tensile strength, causing
it to rupture

The design must consider the strength at which the net

section cannot sustain the applied loads.

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
• governing strength depends on:
3. block shear fracture through the connections
- occurs when the combined effects of tension and shear
stresses lead to the simultaneous failure of the connected
elements
- resembles a “block” being sheared off

This failure mode must be carefully considered and designed

against to ensure the stability and safety of the structure.

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
• To prevent yielding, the stress due to loads on the gross section must
be less than the yield stress 𝑃𝑛
𝐹𝑦 ≥
𝐴𝑔

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH
• To prevent fracture, the stress due to loads on the effective net section
must be less than the tensile strength 𝑃𝑛
𝐹𝑢 ≥
𝐴𝑒

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

SLENDERNESS RATIO
• assess the stability of slender structural members
• provides a measure of how slender or squat the member is relative to
its ability to resist buckling

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

SLENDERNESS RATIO
𝑳
𝑺𝑹 =
𝒓

𝐿 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝑟 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

MAXIMUM: 𝑆𝑅 ≤ 300
𝐿
≤ 300
𝑟

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

SLENDERNESS RATIO
• slender members with high slenderness ratios are more prone to
buckling under compressive loads
• shorter, stouter members with lower slenderness ratios are less
susceptible to buckling

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

ALLOWABLE vs ULTIMATE
• Allowable strength/stress is usually a fraction of ultimate
strength/stress
• To provide a safety margin against yielding or fracture

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

TENSILE STRENGTH
LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)
• concept of balancing the structural loads with the structural
resistance
• uses load factors to increase applied loads and resistance factors
to decrease calculated strength of members
• factors are determined based on statistical analyses of loads,
material properties, and structural behavior
• predominant design method used in modern structural engineering
codes – ACI & AISC

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

TENSILE STRENGTH
LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

FACTORED LOAD or REQUIRED STRENGTH ≤ FACTORED STRENGTH

𝑃𝑢 ≤ 𝜑𝑃𝑛

FOR YIELDING: 𝑃𝑢 ≤ 0.9𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔

FOR FRACTURE: 𝑃𝑢 ≤ 0.75𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑒

DESIGN STRENGTH is the least computed 𝑃𝑢

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

TENSILE STRENGTH
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)
• comparing the applied loads directly to the allowable stresses or
forces that the structural components can withstand
• does not use load and resistance factors
• uses explicit factors of safety applied to allowable stresses
• was historically used in older versions of structural engineering
codes, but it has largely been superseded by LRFD

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

TENSILE STRENGTH
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

REQUIRED STRENGTH ≤ ALLOWABLE STRENGTH

𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑎 ≤
Ω

𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔
FOR YIELDING: 𝑃𝑎 ≤
1.67
𝐹𝑢 𝐴𝑒
FOR FRACTURE: 𝑃𝑎 ≤
2

DESIGN STRENGTH is the least computed 𝑃𝑎

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

TENSILE STRENGTH
PRACTICE 1

A 5 x ½ in. A36 steel plate is used as a tension member. It is connected to a gusset plate with
four ⅝ in. diameter bolts as shown in the figure. Assume effective net area is equal to the
actual net area. Fy = 36 ksi; Fu = 58 ksi

A36 plate 5 x ½ in.

4- 5/8 in. diameter bolts

1. Compute the design strength in LRFD & ASD

2. Based from the computed strength, can it withstand a service dead load of 24 kips and
service live load of 10 kips?

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

 CE 322E PRINCIPLES OF STEEL DESIGN

SHEAR LAG
Engr. Joshua Rey A. Joson
SHEAR LAG
• The distribution of stress in the cross-section is uneven or the transfer
of load is not uniform
• Occurs when some elements of the cross-section are not connected
• Only the effective area carries the forces

SHEAR LAG
SHEAR LAG RULES
1. For any type of tension member except plates and round HSS
with ℓ ≥ 𝟏. 𝟑𝑫
ഥ
𝒙 𝑥ҧ -- distance from centroid of connected area to the
𝑼=𝟏− plane of connection
ℓ ℓ -- length of connection in the direction of the load

ഥ
𝒙
ഥ
𝒙 ഥ
𝒙
ഥ
𝒙

ഥ
𝒙

SHEAR LAG
SHEAR LAG RULES
2. Plates
𝑼 = 𝟏. 𝟎

If the member is connected by longitudinal welds on each side without

transverse weld, the following values apply:
• For ℓ ≥ 2𝑤, 𝑈 = 1.0
• For 1.5w ≤ ℓ < 2𝑤, 𝑈 = 0.87
• For w ≤ ℓ < 1.5𝑤, 𝑈 = 0.75

SHEAR LAG
SHEAR LAG RULES
3. Round HSS with ℓ ≥ 𝟏. 𝟑𝑫
• For ℓ ≥ 1.3𝐷 , 𝑈 = 1.0
𝐷
• For D ≤ ℓ < 1.3𝐷 , apply rule number 1 and use 𝑥ҧ =
𝜋

ℓ
𝑫

SHEAR LAG
SHEAR LAG RULES
4. Single Angles (alternative)
• For two or three fasteners in the direction of the loading, 𝑈 = 0.60
• For four or more fasteners in the direction of the loading, 𝑈 = 0.80

SHEAR LAG
SHEAR LAG RULES
5. W, M, S, HP, or Tees cut from these shapes (alternative)
• Connected through the flange with three or more fasteners, with a
width at least 2/3 of the depth, 𝑈 = 0.90
• Connected through the flange with three or more fasteners, with a
width less than 2/3 of the depth, 𝑈 = 0.85
• Connected through the web with four or more fasteners, 𝑈 = 0.70

SHEAR LAG
EFFECTIVE NET AREA
PRACTICE 1

Determine the effective net area for the tension member shown below and evaluate its design
strength using LRFD. Assume A36 steel is used.

L 6 x 6 x ½ in.

5/8 in. diameter bolts

𝟑" 𝟑"

SHEAR LAG
EFFECTIVE NET AREA
PRACTICE 2

A steel plate shown is used as a tension member, determine its design strength using LRFD. Use
Fy = 275 Mpa and Fu = 400 MPa

t = 12 mm

𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒎

𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎

SHEAR LAG
EFFECTIVE NET AREA
PRACTICE 3

A W10x19 beam is connected to a gusset plate on its 2 flanges with 2 rows of 3-7/8 in. diameter
bolts, determine its design strength using LRFD.

SHEAR LAG