NAMES

MACHINGURA TINOTENDA R2111436

MACK JONATHAN R212878H

MADZIMURE TATENDA R212873Y

MAHWINDO RUTH R218887K

MODULE INDUSTRIAL PHARMACOGNOSY

QUESTION

The role of Pharmacognosy in Personalized Medicine. Tailoring herbal treatments based on

individual patient profiles.
The word 'pharmacognosy' is derived from the Greek words: pharmakon-a drug, and
gignosko-to acquire a knowledge of.

Pharmacognosy is that section of pharmaceutical research that deals with the scientific study
of crude drugs and active principles including its structural, physical, chemical and
biochemical, therapeutic and economic properties.

It is the study of natural materials' chemical, physical, and biological qualities, as well as
their potential medical or therapeutic advantages.

Scope

Pharmacognosy will provide safe and effective medication through a modern

pharmacological system. Pharmacognosy offers information about pharmaceutical safety, as
well as toxicity, side effects, and drug interactions, which improves the efficacy of new
therapies. Pharmacognosy is an important link between material medicine and medicinal
chemistry. It is the basis for the development of new medicines. The majority of chemicals
derived from natural products are used to generate new medications with a high level of
activity and fewer toxicants. Pharmacognosy is the process of distributing, developing, and
manufacturing natural products in a way that is acceptable to the modern drug system.

The advancement of pharmacognosy also leads to the advancement of phytology, taxonomy,

plant biotechnology, plant biology, plant pathology, pharmacy, material medical,
photochemistry, and other fields of science.

Classification of Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants are classified in many ways based on the criteria used.

Medicinal plants are classified according to

1. the usage
2. the active constituents
3. the period of life
4. their taxonomy
1. According to the usage

The herbs are classified in four parts

a) Medicinal herbs
b) Culinary herbs
c) Aromatic herbs
d) Ornamental herbs.

a) Medicinal Herbs

Medicinal herbs possess therapeutic properties and are applied in the manufacture of
medicines. Traditional herbal remedies form a significant component of alternative medicine.
Herbal medicine aims to return the body to its natural balance whereby the body heals itself.
Various herbs influence different parts of the body.

For example, in ginger, antiviral activity is combined with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
effects. Coriander is used in gastrointestinal disorders.

b) Culinary Herbs

The Culinary herbs are those plants that have a strong flavour, for example, mint, cinnamon,
and basil. These are the most commonly used in cooking. Dietary herbs act as flavor
enhancers for food. An herb is also known as a culinary herb, an aromatic, fresh or dried,
annual or perennial woody plant, which bears leaves or blossoms that are used, whole,
processed , or ground as seasoning in foods to give it taste and fragrance .They are usually
leafy preparations, but may be floral, fruity, or even of a root. Some popular herbs that have
been commercially cultivated include cilantro and coriander.

c) Aromatic Herbs

Aromatic plants produce chemical substances called essential oils, which are aromatic,
volatile, hydrophobic, and highly concentrated. Aromatic herbs are often utilized just for their
fragrant flowers or foliage. The aromatic plant oils can be used for the production of
perfumes, cosmetics, toothpaste, soap beverages, and foodstuffs. The most familiar aromatic
plants include oregano, rosemary, sage, anise, and basil. These are obtained from various
parts of the plant that includes flowers, buds, seeds, leaves, twigs, bark, wood, fruits, and
roots.
d) Ornamental Herbs

Ornamental herbs include lavender and chives, which are used only for decoration on account
of their brightly colored flowers and foliage. Ornamental herbs have many different uses
besides aesthetics in garden design. Plants can be put into a formal knot garden to a casual
bed and container planting.

2. According to the active constituents

The herbs are divided into five major categories:

a) Aromatic (volatile oils),

b) Astringents (tannins),

c) Bitter (phenol compounds, saponins, and alkaloids)

d) Mucilaginous (polysaccharides)

e) Nutritive (food stuffs)

a) Aromatic (volatile oils)

The name reflects the pleasant odor that many of these herbs have. These pleasant odors can
be employed both therapeutically as flavorings and fragrances. Volatile oils may be made up
of a combination of two or more terpene structures that can be separated into two isoprene
units via the acetate mevalonate pathway. They are soluble in chloroform. Volatile oils are
heat-sensitive. They are mostly utilized in the production of personal care goods such as
perfumes or as skeletal structures for the synthesis of other chemicals.

b) Astringent Herbs

Astringent herbs include tannins, which are plant polyphenols that bind to proteins, resulting
in a dry, puckering sensation in the mouth. They influence the digestive, urinary, and
circulatory systems, and high doses are toxic to the liver. They are analgesic and antiseptic.
For example, peppermint with red raspberry. Many popular herbs have astringent effects,
including witch hazel, bayberry, and oak bark.

c) Bitter Herbs
Depending on the presence of phenols and phenol glycosides, alkaloids, or saponins, the
bitter herbs can be divided into four types. The categories include the laxative herbs such as
liver barberry; diuretic herbs such as parsley; saponin-containing herbs that are alfafa; and the
one containing an alkaloid is poppy family. Most of the traditional healing systems use the
bitter herbs for the treatment of many digestive diseases, the effects of which are considered
to be reflex physiological responses given through the stimulation of oral receptors.

d) Mucilaginous Herbs

The characteristics of mucilaginous herbs are due to the polysaccharides contained within the
herb, which create a slippery texture and generally mild flavor that turn sweet in water. In
general, mucilaginous plants will contain polysaccharides with various therapeutic attributes.
Many of these plants are part of groups such as Cruciferae and Plantaginaceae, which often
have mucilaginous seed coatings, affecting the distribution and germination of seeds.
Examples of mucilaginous herbs include licorice root, aloe vera, flaxseeds, and chia seeds.

e) Nutritive Herbs

Nutritive herbs have other innumerable health benefits apart from their nutritional value since
they represent both food and medicine. Such nutritive herbs represent a wide variety of
bioactive ingredients, including antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals that
form their medicinal value. These herbs get their name and classification from the nutritional
value they add to the diet. For example, apples, bananas, broccoli, cabbage, carrots,
cauliflower, onions, oranges, and pineapple.

3. According to the period of life

a) Annual herbs

Complete their life cycle in one year; start them from seed (Annuals bloom once and then
die). There are some annual herbs that show different types of growth patterns and ecological
adaptations. Generally, the aerial organs store dry materials in annuals

b) Biennial herbs

Biennial herbs have various growth patterns and ecological adaptations. They often exhibit a
perennial-like pattern in their first year and an annual-like pattern in their second year
Biennial herbs are plants that complete their life cycle in two years, sprouting leaves in the
first year and flowers in the second, before dying. They are often resilient and self-seeded.
Once developed, include (fennel, lavender, and rosemary).

c) Perennial herbs

Perennial herbs are those that can thrive for many years and require trimming to keep their
shape and size. Perennials, which live over the winter and bloom every season, include
parsley, mint, and thyme. Perennial herbs have showed potential in a variety of applications,
including urban agriculture and natural ecosystems.

4. According to their taxonomy

Most of the medicinal and aromatic plants are belonging to the following families

a) Compositae family

The Compositae family, popularly known as the Daisy family, contains medicinal plants such
as chamomile. The Compositae family, generally known as the Asteraceae, is the biggest
group of flowering plants. It has a substantial economic impact on food, cosmetics, and
pharmaceuticals. The family is noted for its anti-inflammatory characteristics, which have
been utilized in traditional medicine to treat a variety of diseases.Compositae offers over 60
homoeopathic remedies for the treatment of shock, spasms, and respiratory issues.

b) Labiatae family

The Labiatae family, generally known as the mint family, is a very significant medicinal plant
family. This family of plants includes herbs and shrubs, many of which have a fragrant
scent.They are prevalent in Mediterranean nations because some of species produce a large
amount of essential oil, which helps them survive the hot summer months. This family
includes lavender, mints, thyme, and rosemary.Basil, mint, rosemary, and sage are among the
many aromatic plants in this family that are utilized for culinary, medicinal, and ornamental
uses. The family contains many secondary metabolites, including as essential oils, terpenoids,
iridoids, and phenolic chemicals.These plants have a variety of biological activity, including
antibacterial, antirheumatic, and anticancer effects.

Essential oil production in Labiatae plants is dictated by genetic and environmental factors,
growth regulators of plant growth, biosynthesis of oil, and storage structures.

c)Umbelliferae family
The Umbelliferae, or carrot family, is generally described as a group of plants with fruits
showing a peculiar resemblance to an umbrella.These plants frequently generate essential oil,
which helps them survive the scorching summer days. In reality, the oil has a cooling impact
on plants. Examples of this family include wild carrot (Daucus carota), fennel (Foeniculum
vulgaris), and anise (Pimpinella anisum).Many Umbelliferae species serve as staple foods,
herbs, spices, and sources of gums and medications. The phytochemicals of this family have
been demonstrated to have apoptotic, antibacterial, anticancer, and hepatoprotective
properties.

d)Leguminosae family

The Leguminosae, or pea family, includes many native and naturalized plants that are grown
for fodder, food, and ornament. The medicinal plants include white and red clovers
(Trifolium repens and pratense) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa). It is subdivided into six
subfamilies, of which Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae are monophyletic. Legumes are
unusual in having root nodules which are able to fix nitrogen; it is probable that this ability
has been acquired several times within the family. Leguminosae is one of the largest
medicinal plant families in the world, with an extremely high density regarding secondary
metabolites like flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoids. Most of them have been reported
to possess key bioactive properties like antioxidant, antibacterial activities, and anti-
inflammatory.

e)Rosaceae family

The Rosaceae family is composed of economically important fruits and ornamental crops.
Rosaceae is known to be the rose family, which is an economically important family
comprised of species bearing high-value fruits and ornamental plants. Other fruit varieties
within the family include peach, apple, raspberry, and achenetum. It produces a number of
fruit types, including a drupe, pome, drupetum, and achenetum, all of which evolved
independently from dry fruits. Easy access to genetic data and resources in Rosaceae will
accelerate research into the diversity, evolution, and development of fruits for both
consumers and the discipline of plant biology.

f)Rutaceae and Solanaceae families

This family includes commercially significant plants such as tomatoes, potatoes, and tobacco,
which have been extensively studied using proteomics techniques to better understand their
physiology and boost crop yields.Solanaceae plants have a wide range of pharmacological
activities, including antibacterial, anti-ulcerogenic, antiviral, and antioxidant
properties.Molecular phylogenetic studies have indicated that the Rutaceae family, which is
closely related to the Solanaceae, is paraphyletic.However, it is critical to understand that
some Solanaceae species contain dangerous alkaloids that can be mildly irritating to
potentially fatal in small amounts.

g)G. Cruciferae family

The Cruciferae or Brassicaceae family are important vegetables, ornamentals, and sauces.
Cruciferae or cress family are characterized by having plants that possess flowers with
crosslike petals. This family contains a number of therapeutic plants, including black mustard
Brassica nigra, white mustard Sinapis alba, and wild radish Raphanus raphanistrum. These
plants are characterized by containing high amounts of glucosinolates, which possess both
injurious and therapeutic properties.

h) Liliaceae family

This family embraces structurally complex and biologically active steroidal alkaloids, the
majority of which occur in Veratrum and Fritillaria species.Because of their presumed anti-
cancer properties together with their various bioactivities, these steroidal alkaloids have been
regarded as very important compounds within the realm of phytochemistry and
pharmacology. This family includes Aloe vera, garlic.

i)Caryophyllaceae and Boraginaceae families

Flowers of the Caryophyllaceae, or pink family, have four to five petals, and are generally
white or pink.Examples are: sandwort Arenaria serpyllifolia, common chickweed Stellaria
media, sand spurrey Spergularia rubra, nail wort Paronychia argentea, smooth rupture-wort
Herniaria glabra, and viscid sandwort Alsine tenuifolia.

j) Ranunculaceae and Papaveraceae families

The Ranunculaceae is the family of buttercups, nearly always bearing flowers that are five-
petaled. pheasant's eye Adonis annuus lesser celandine Ranunculus ficaria poppy anemone
Anemone coronaria love in the mist Nigella damascena short-spurred larkspur Delphinium
staphysagria larkspur Delphinium ajacis traveller's joy Clematis vitalba evergreen traveller's
joy Clematis cirrhosa.
k) Malvaceae and other families

The Malvaceae or mallow family groups those plants that have five-petalled flowers and a
nutlet-like fruit. Examples include cotton, Gossypium herbaceum.

Pharmacognosy’s role in drug discovery

Medicinal plant pharmacognosy is a vital field of research that will lead to the identification
of bioactive molecules from plants, fungi, bacteria, and marine species for medicinal use. It
usually represents the conversion of ethnobotanical knowledge into modern therapeutics;
chromatography and mass spectrometry are some of the different techniques used for the
isolation and analysis of bioactive chemicals. Pharmacognosy is, therefore, the study of
medicinal compounds obtained from natural sources; hence, the study of pharmacognosy
becomes an essential step in drug discovery and development. Natural products represent an
immense variety of chemical structures and biological functions, thus acting as an influence
for new therapies. Many important drugs, such as morphine and galanthamine, have been
derived from natural sources. In many developing countries, traditional medicine is
essentially based on herbal drugs. While the study of pharmacognosy has made its colossal
contributions to modern medicine, further research is necessary to establish the clinical
efficacy and possible risks of many phytomedicines. Advanced techniques of analysis and
new approaches in screening are being employed in an effort to discover interesting lead
compounds. Sustainable sourcing along with continued exploration of nature's pharmacopeia
are some of the challenges being faced by this discipline. Overall, pharmacognosy is still a
viable option in drug development as it bridges tradition with modern scientific
methodologies.

Definition and principles of personalized medicine

Personalized medicine also referred to as precision medicine. It is a specific treatment for the
right person at the right time.

Principles of personalized medicine include

 1. Individualization of treatment: It helps to change healthcare with treatments
customized to suit the genetic makeup and health profile of the person
intended. This can lead to improved health results.

2. Use of Genetic Information: Genetic and genomic data is being used in

clinical practice to produce personalized medicine. It helps to identify people
who will benefit from the therapies.

3. Focus on Biomarkers: These are used to identify and spot how a patient will
respond to a specific treatment designed for them. This helps for precise and
effective strategies to tackle the problem. There are certain treatments
effective to patients whose tumors shows specific biomarkers.

4. Holistic approach: this method considers a patients lifestyle , hobbies,

employment and other health factors for effective customization of
personalized medicine. It leads to more effective management of chronic
diseases.

5. Collaboration across disciplines: Various fields become involved so as to

produce effective personalized medicines for example pharmacology,
genomic and clinical practice. This improves patients care

Genomic-based Medicines

use genetic information to personalize treatments. Key aspects include:

1. Pharmacogenomics studies how genes affect drug responses, combining

pharmacology and genomics for safer, more effective medications based on
genetic profiles.

Applications in Medicine

1. Cancer Treatment :Genetic testing identifies tumor mutations for targeted

therapies, like trastuzumab for HER2-positive breast cancer.

2. Cardiovascular Diseases: Pharmacogenomic testing helps determine

appropriate dosages for drugs like warfarin.
 3. Psychiatric Disorders: Gene variants influence medication metabolism,
leading to personalized treatment strategies.

4. Infectious Diseases: Genomic information guides antiviral drug use based on

individual genetic makeup.

Uses of Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics helps create personalized medicine based on a patient's genes. This leads
to better treatments with less unwanted effects, as drugs can be matched to each person's
genetic makeup that impacts how they process and react to medicines.

By knowing genetic factors that cause harmful drug reactions, doctors can skip prescribing
drugs likely to hurt certain patients. For example, gene tests can spot people at risk for severe
reactions to drugs like carbamazepine, which can cause a dangerous skin condition in some
people.

Genes can change how drugs break down in the body. Pharmacogenomic tests can help find
the right dose for drugs like warfarin, where genes can cause big differences in how much
patients need.

In cancer care, pharmacogenomics helps find specific gene changes in tumors. This info
guides the use of targeted drugs, like trastuzumab for HER2-positive breast cancer, which
only works in patients with that exact gene profile.

Genes can affect how patients respond to psychiatric drugs. For instance, changes in the
CYP2D6 gene can impact how the body handles antidepressants and antipsychotics, allowing
for more tailored treatment plans that work better and cause fewer side effects.

INTERACTION BETWEEN HERBAL MEDICINES AND GENETIC VARIATIONS

Understanding the interactions between herbal remedies and genetic differences is essential
for comprehending individual responses to these treatments. Genetic variations can greatly
affect how herbal components are processed, resulting in differences in effectiveness and
safety.
Interactions between herbal medicines and genetic variations can significantly influence the
efficacy and safety of treatments involving these natural products. Genetic polymorphisms,
particularly in drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters, can alter how individuals
respond to herbal medicines and their interactions with conventional drugs

- Genetic variations can affect the pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism,

and excretion) of herbal medicines. For instance, polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 (CYP)
enzymes can lead to differences in how herbal constituents are metabolized, potentially
resulting in varying therapeutic effects or adverse reactions among individuals
[[1]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4363646/).

Studies have shown that certain herbal medicines can induce or inhibit the activity of CYP
enzymes, which are crucial for drug metabolism. For example, St. John's wort is known to
induce CYP3A4, affecting the metabolism of various drugs
[[3]](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7400069/).

The expression of transporters like P-glycoprotein (P-gp) can also be influenced by genetic
factors, impacting the bioavailability of herbal medicines and their interactions with other
drugs. Understanding these genetic variations is crucial for personalized medicine. Patients
with specific genetic profiles may require adjusted dosages of herbal medicines or
conventional drugs to avoid adverse effects or therapeutic failures.

PHARMACOGENOMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR HERBAL MEDICINE

The study of pharmacogenomics, or how genes influence a person's reaction to medications,

has important ramifications for herbal remediesWith the increasing use of herbal remedies
along with regular medications, understanding herb-drug interactions is important.
Pharmacogenomics plays a crucial role in this. (Remirez, 2022; Liu et al., 2015).

Genetic differences can affect how medications are processed in the body, including how
they work or are absorbed (Liu et al., 2015; Thomford et al., 2015). In African countries,
traditional health systems are often the main healthcare providers, and t

here is a significant blending of conventional and herbal medicine (Thomford et al., 2015).

Pharmacists can offer specialized pharmacogenomic counseling to patients who use herbal
supplements. This counseling includes examining the effects on how the body processes and
responds to medications. (Wieruszewski & Schuh, 2017). This method uses personal
genetic traits to ensure the safe use of herbal products.

EXAMPLES OF GENETICALLY INFLUENCED HERBAL MEDICINES

RESPONSES

Individual variances in genetic composition can result in a wide range of genetically

influenced reactions to herbal medications.

St. John's Wort. Genetic variations in the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) can affect
serotonin levels and mood regulation, which in turn can change how well St. John's Wort
works for depression.

Echinacea

The way that people react to echinacea in terms of improving immune function and changing
susceptibility to colds may be influenced by genetic variances in immune response genes.

Curcumin, or turmeric

Differences in genes linked to metabolism and inflammation (such as CYP enzymes and
TNF-alpha) can impact how well curcumin's anti-inflammatory effects are experienced by
various people.

Garlic -Genetic Influence: Variations in the gene that breaks down allicin can have a variety
of cardiovascular advantages, affecting blood pressure and cholesterol levels in individuals.

Ginger

Individuals' perceptions of ginger's ability to reduce pain may vary depending on genetic
variations in the TRPV1 receptor, which could result in varying degrees of effectiveness for
treating inflammation or nausea.

Chamomile

Variations in the GABA receptor genes may be the cause of some genetic markers that affect
how well chamomile works for anxiety and sleep.

Tailoring herbal treatments

This is the development of custom herbal formulations that are specific for a patient this is
done based on the patient’s pharmacogenomics data profile, age, lifestyle, and environment.
Individuals vary in their genetic makeup hence their reactions to drugs differ. Hence,
thorough analysis is done in order to determine whether the patient will experience full
recovery from a particular herbal formulation and the specific side effects to expect. Herbal
formulations contain phytochemicals which cure and prevent various health conditions for
example, flavonoids such as quercetin which is found in apples, garlic, onions and tea
exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects as well as anti-cancer properties. These
phytochemicals are used to formulate herbal treatments based on the proportion of a drug
substance which enters the circulation when introduced into the body and so is able to have
an active effect. Synergism in herbal treatments is when two or more bioactive compounds
are combined in order to attain a greater therapeutic effect or rather combined therapeutic
effects. Synergy also reduces side effects of herbal medicines as lower doses of the combined
phytochemicals can be used hence is is very important in tailoring herbal treatment

The role of Next-generation sequencing (NGS) in Personalized Herbal Medicine

Next-generation sequencing is a new technology for DNA and RNA sequencing and the
detection of variants/mutations. NGS can sequence hundreds and thousands of genes, even
the whole genome, in a rather short time period.

This modern sequencing methodology proposes rapid and economical analysis of large-scale
genomic data, thereby enabling detailed investigation of the genetics of a disease. The NGS
identifies novel disease-associated genes and variants that help in developing targeted
treatments and personalized treatment methods. NGS enables the identification of particular
molecular markers for disease subtypes, allowing for targeted medicinal therapies based on
individual characteristics.

These sequence variants/mutations detected is widely used for disease diagnosis, prognosis,
therapeutic decision, and follow up of patients. The capacity of its massive parallel
sequencing offers new opportunities for personalized precision medicine

1.Genetic Profiling

NGS enables the rapid sequencing of millions of DNA fragments at once, enabling complete
insights into genome structure, genetic variants, gene expression levels, and epigenetic
alterations. An understanding of these properties enables us to forecast how patients may
respond to particular herbs and to construct compatible treatment programs. A classic
example would be oncology, where doctors sequence their patients' tumours to match them
with medicines meant to target the genetic changes driving tumor growth, or persons with
particular variations in cytochrome P450 enzymes, which play a key role in the metabolism
of a large number of phytochemicals; they might metabolize certain herbal treatments
differently. By sequencing these genes, practitioners can select herbs that are more
compatible with each patient’s metabolic profile, thereby enhancing therapeutic outcomes.

2.Pharmacogenomics

It is the study of how our genes influence our response to drugs. Many drugs work in a
complex interaction of many genes and environmental factors; therefore combination of
genotyping effects (genetic profile) is necessary, which is referred to as pharmacogenomics.
Drugs change the gene expression in cells so genetic profiling using Next Generation
Sequencing enables the identification of pharmacogenomic indicators that predict how a
patient will react to specific herbal medications. This aids in the selection of herbs that are
compatible with the patient's genetic profile, improving therapeutic outcomes, and can assist
avoid some herbs that may produce adverse side effects in people with particular genetic
characteristics.

For example, certain CYP3A4 genotypes may be more rapid metabolizers of St. John's Wort,
which, because of reduced efficacy, may precipitate interactions with other medications, such
as antidepressants or birth control. Using NGS, the practitioner can identify such genetic
variations and allow for personalized herbal therapy, with the provision of St. John's Wort
only to patients whose genetic background supports this treatment, thereby enhancing
efficacy and safety.

3.Identifying Biomarkers for Herbal Efficacy and Toxicity

NGS allows researchers to find genetic biomarkers linked with susceptibility or resistance to
certain phytochemicals. For example, biomarkers related with antioxidant response can
predict how effectively a person will react to antioxidant-rich plants such as green tea or
turmeric. These biomarkers guide the selection of herbs, which would be more effective and
have fewer chances of inducing unwanted effects in each patient.

4.Herbal Safety and Minimizing Side Effects

NGS plays an important role in the identification of genetic predispositions to adverse

reactions. For example, because of genetic variations, some people have an increased
predisposition to hepatotoxicity from herbal medicines such as kava and chaparral. By
sequencing relevant genes, health professionals can determine the risks and avoid providing
herbs that can be harmful to individual patients.

The role of MS in Personalized Herbal Medicine

Mass spectrometry (MS) is important in pharmacognosy because it allows for the accurate
characterisation of bioactive chemicals in medicinal plants. It observes, quantifies, and
characterises complex chemical constituents, guaranteeing that herbal formulations are
consistent, pure, and matched to each patient's specific needs.With its great specificity and
sensitivity, it is well positioned to serve this role, providing answers to many of the limits
encountered by older analytical techniques.MS intersects in several areas of personalised
medication therapy. MS-based technologies have altered precision medicine, allowing for a
thorough understanding of disease causes and patient-specific therapy responses. MS-based
technologies will be critical in tackling the problems of personalised patient care, driving
improvements in diseases diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment options.

1.Pharmacogenomics

MS assists in the detection of genetic variations that affect medication metabolism and
response. The combination of genetic and proteomic data has enabled more targeted and
successful medicinal options. As we approach closer to the era of precision medicine, the
continuing development and improvement of MS-based technologies will be critical in
solving the complex difficulties of personalised patient care. MS stands as the only method
capable of providing complete molecular profiles of biological samples and therefore is an
essential tool in efforts designed to personalize medical therapies. Specific herbs-for
example, St. John's Wort-can trigger or inhibit the drug-metabolizing enzymes and may lead
to undesirable interactions. MS allows healthcare providers to monitor levels of both drugs
and herbal compounds to avoid potential combinations that could lead to toxicity or a loss in
efficacy by offering a safer way of integrating herbal treatments.

2.Herbal Extracts Profiling by Their Bioactive Compounds

MS enables complete profiling of active compounds in plant extracts and brings out definite
constituents such as alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenes. For example, saponins in Sansevieria
trifasciata exhibit antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the content of
such chemicals depends on the conditions under which the plant is grown and also the
processes involved in its extraction. Using mass spectrometry, the practitioner will be able to
verify the exact amounts of these bioactive chemicals in every dose, ensuring that the patient
is getting a very consistent and powerful formulation.

3.Patient Metabolism and Absorption Assessment

MS can analyze the metabolites in a patient's blood, urine, or tissues, showing how well they
absorb and metabolize various herbal ingredients. This becomes of particular use for a patient
with genetic abnormalities influencing metabolic enzymes, such as CYP450, which involves
the metabolism of many herbs. For example, MS can identify whether or not a patient is a
fast or slow metabolizer by analyzing the herbal metabolites in one's system; this would
allow the practitioner to make adjustments in dosages.

4.Targeting Herbal Treatments to Biochemical Markers

Mass-spectrometry allows identification of biochemical markers that tell which

phytochemicals, and in what doses, a patient's body can use most effectively. MS has been
employed in the identification of disease biomarkers and quantification of biomolecules for
both diagnosis and prognosis. The unique advantages brought about by MS in identifying and
quantifying a wide variety of molecules with high accuracy have made this technique a
goldmine in developing personalized medicine. For instance, in cases of cancer or
inflammatory diseases, MS would reveal molecular marks that may suggest if the patient
would respond well to anti-inflammatory or antioxidant herbs such as turmeric. Such a level
of biochemical insight would enable practitioners to choose the herbs that are most likely to
be effective in view of the particular metabolic and biochemical profile of each patient.
Quality control and standardization of herbal products represent important fields of
application for MS in ensuring quality and safety for herbal formulations. Verification
through MS of the purity and potency of herbal extracts would ensure that formulations
provided to patients have predictable effects and minimize risks of impurities or variations in
potency that could alter the treatment outcome.

The role of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy in Personalized Herbal

Medicine

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy plays an important role in

pharmacognosy, particularly in the advancement of personalized medicine through the
identification and characterization of bioactive chemicals in herbal remedies. It contributes
significantly to customized therapy by offering precise insights into the molecular structure,
dynamics, and interactions of bioactive substances. The information needed, thus, is that
NMR spectroscopy can make herbal remedies suit the requirements of specific profiles in
patients.

1.Identification and Quantification of Compounds

NMR is very effective in identifying and quantitatively determining the bioactive chemicals
present in complex herbal combinations, like extracts of medicinal plants. In personalized
medicine, precise dosing of certain active substances is essential. Mangiferin, a chemical
recognized for its antifungal and antioxidant activities, may be measured using NMR in
Sansevieria trifasciata extract. By knowing the precise amount of phytol in the extract,
healthcare professionals can adapt dosages to specific patients depending on characteristics
such as body weight, metabolic rate, and health state, resulting in a more tailored therapeutic
strategy.

2.Chemical Fingerprinting

Chemical fingerprinting creates the individual profile of the individual constituents of a plant
extract. This is employed in pharmacognosy with the aim of determining the chemical
composition of herbal items. NMR spectroscopy stands out to be one of the techniques for
obtaining these fingerprints since it yields signals from all the constituent chemicals over an
extended range. This approach makes it possible for better treatment by identifying the best
ratios and interactions of chemical varieties that would improve the treatment outcome. For
instance, other chemicals, which when used together with phytol, may have enhanced
antifungal activities, may be present in Sansevieria trifasciata. Through the use of an NMR
fingerprint of the extract, practitioners are assured that the patient gets the correct mix and
balance of the chemicals according to the health status of the patients.

3.Metabolomic Profiling

NMR-based metabolomics is essential for figuring out a patient's metabolic profile and
potential reactions to particular herbal remedies. Tiny molecules produced through
metabolism, metabolites, can be quantified in personalized medicine to estimate the extent of
digestion a patient's body is likely to carry out on particular phytochemicals. This particularly
holds in cases where medication processing involves genetic polymorphisms, or gene variants
affecting the metabolism process. Its value is such that it compares the metabolic profile of
the patient with the various profiles of herbal substances to allow the practitioner to infer
which treatments will work best and with minimum deleterious effects. For example, one
would compare phytol's metabolic pathway with the patient profile to predict efficacy and
adjust the dosage accordingly.

4.Quality and Consistency

One of the biggest challenges of pharmacognosy involves ensuring the quality and
consistency of herbal products; their plant-based components vary widely depending on the
growing circumstances and different methods of processing. By using NMR spectroscopy,
one is able to confirm that each and every batch will contain consistent levels of the bioactive
components.Quality control is critical for personalised treatments. Variability in the
quantities of active chemicals can result in unpredictable therapeutic outcomes, particularly
when tailored to specific individuals. NMR may confirm that each batch of a herbal extract,
such as Sansevieria trifasciata, includes a stable concentration of mangiferin and other active
components, ensuring that patients receive a consistent and dependable formulation each time

5.Structural Analysis of Bioavailability

A compound's structural features determine its bioavailability, or how well it is absorbed and
used in the body. NMR spectroscopy allows scientists to examine the structure of bioactive
compounds in depth. This gives them insights into things that affect how well the body can
use these compounds, like how they dissolve and how stable they are. Knowing these features
helps scientists change how they make medicines to improve absorption based on each
patient's body. Let's say a patient has difficulty absorbing a particular type of mangiferin.
NMR here applies changes in the way scientists come up with a different form or way of
giving a drug which may be more effective. So, they might make one that'll mix with water,
or they might even change how they make it to make it spread out over time.

Challenges

1. Complexity of Natural Products

Natural products consist of large and different complex structures which makes it difficult to
identify and characterize the bioactive compounds. This makes it difficult to isolate specific
compounds from crude and bulky extracts. The availability of natural compounds is affected
by the environment in which the organism is exposed this can cause many natural products to
be produced in low yields. This makes it difficult to obtain enough amounts to carry out the
research (C.N Teijaro et al, 2018).

2. Standardization and quality control

Natural products vary due to factors like cultivation methods, geographical location and
harvesting times among others. This causes inconsistencies in the concentrations and
composition of the natural medicines making it difficult for standardization. Also due to
absence of internationally accepted standards to categorize herbal products it makes
regulatory approval process difficult and can lead to low medicines of low standard and
quality. Quality control measures are important as they ensure safety and effective herbal
medicines. This involves testing of contaminants and accurate identification bioactive
compounds. The complexity of natural products makes it difficult to establish approved
standard testing protocols that can be internationally accepeted (H Wang et al, 2023)

3. Limited research and evidence

Many natural products they lack well designed clinical reports or studies that give evidence
that they are safe and effective. This lack of evidence makes it difficult to prove their
function in personalized therapies. Due to their variability in patients, it makes it difficult to
predict patient responses to the medicine. Thus without enough research on this effectiveness
of personalized medicines remain unclear (K.B Brothers and M.A Rothstein, 2015)

4. Integration with genomics and other omics

Natural compounds consist of complex compounds which can make it difficult to identify
bioactive compounds. This further makes it difficult to link genomic data with the effects of
individual compounds. Variability in patient responses to natural products due to genetic
differences among others complicates the implementation of standardized treatment
protocols. The field of personalized medicines intends to link medication to individual
genetic profiles which is the integration of pharmacognosy with genomic and omics data.
Since this field is still developing there is need for a lot of researches to be able to link natural
products to genetic variations and omics data. Integration of multi omics data which include
genomics, proteomics, metabolomic among others it requires a lot of complex data
management and analytical tools. Some of this data is ineffectively interpretated to obtain
meaningful knowledge that can give us a way forward in treatment strategies (R.D Sindelar,
2013)

5. Ethical and cultural considerations

People that are not represented enough may not benefit from advancements of technologies
and genetic information this causes a gap in health outcomes among different groups. The use
of natural products and involvement of genetic testing practices raises concerns about
informed consent. If they do not respect cultural differences can lead to mistrust and people
would not want to get involved with the healthcare systems.

Future directions

1. Advancement in Analytical Techniques

The involvement of metabolomics is becoming more common in pharmacognosy. It helps in

multi analysis of metabolites in biological samples. It compares metabolic profiles which are
related to specific natural products. Improvement in mass spectrometry and mass
chromatography have helped in improving metabolite profiling. High Resolution mass
spectrometry is being used in qualitative and quantitative metabolite profiling. Helping in
identification of complex structures in natural products. It is important for identification of
important bioactive compounds and gives clear molecular information. Future research is
going to focus on developing frameworks that involve the use of omics data to have a clear
understanding on how natural products can be linked to genetic profiles.

The use of bioinformatics tools helps to identify the relationship between genetic variations
and responses to herbal medicines (A.G Atanasov et al, 2021).

2. Personalized Formulations
Advances in tailored therapeutics, omics integration, novel delivery technologies,
standardization efforts and regulatory backing will all define the future of personalized
formulations in pharmacognosy. These advancements will improve the ability to generate
effective and safe customized medications derived from natural products. Advances in
customized therapeutics, omics integration, novel delivery technologies, standardization
efforts and regulatory backing will define the future of personalized formulations in
pharmacognosy

3. Interdisciplinary Research

It allows for collaboration between experts in pharmacognosy, medicinal chemistry,

molecular biology and microbiology. These collaborations are important because they allow
development of effective approaches for tackling the complex structures of natural products
and their interactions with biological systems. The combination of pharmacognosy and
genomics helps researchers to have an opportunity to dive into how genetic variation affect
individuals to herbal medicines (C.M Formea et al, 2015).

4. Education and awareness

Many people lack knowledge on how personalized medicines is all about. Particularly how
genetic factors affect the responses and function of drugs. In Korea about 28% were aware
that genetic factors can affect the function of drugs. For the implementation of personalized
drugs to be successful the public should accept the pharmacogenomic testing. Health
practitioners are being educated on personalized medications and also enhancing their
knowledge on pharmacogenomics. The educational programs should include programs that
provide education on genomics and pharmacogenomics (C.M Formea et al, 2015).

REAL WORLD EXAMPLES OF PHARMACOGNOSY IN PERSONALIZED

MEDICINE.

-Personalized medicine, field of medicine in which decisions concerning disease prevention,

diagnosis and treatment are tailored to individual patients based on information derived from
genetic and genomic data.
-The focus and limited, but impressive success of personalized medicine has been in cancer
and a small number of chronic medical conditions.

CANCER TREATMENT

- Personalized cancer treatments - Taxol, which is made from the bark of the Pacific Yew
tree, is utilised based on genetic markers and tumour type.

- based on each patient’s reaction, vincristine a medication derived from Madagascar

periwinkles is used to treat particular forms if lymphomas and leukemia.

CARDIOVASCULAR

-The foxglove plant is the source of digoxin a medication used to treat heart failure. Based on
the patient’s reaction and genetic profiles that forecast lipid resistance, dosage can be
customized.

DIABETES

- Compounds in bitter melon have the potential to reduce blood sugar levels, tailored
strategies can be created to incorporate or eliminate depending on the patient’s dietary pre
and prior.

PAIN MANAGEMENT

- Morphine comes from the opium poppy, and dosage is often tailored based on genetic
factors that influence how pain is experienced and how the drug is metabolised.

Curcumin, a substance found in turmeric, has the ability to alleviate pain.Morphine comes
from the opium poppy, and dosage is often tailored based on genetic factors that influence
how pain is experienced and how the drug is metabolised.

-Customized treatment plans can be developed based on patient reactions and inflammatory
indicators.

APPLICATIONS IN VARIOUS DISEASES OR CONDITIONS

CANCER

Drugs like trastuzumab (Herceptin) are used to treat HER2-positive breast cancer based on
genetic testing. Herceptin is used to treat breast cancer in 30% of cases where the
overexpressed HER-2 protein interacts to the drug.

- Treatments are given to patients according to particular tumor mutations for example EGFR
inhibitors are used to treat lung cancer with particular mutations.

RESPIRATORY CONDITIONS

- Asthma treatment- personalized inhalers treatments that are based on personal responses
and bio markers can improve asthma control.

CARDIOVASCULAR

- The results of genetic testing can be used to tailor dosage and assess patient’s potential
benefit from statins (these are a class of drugs that treat high cholesterol and lower the risk of
heart attacks and strokes).

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

The future views on the function of pharmacognosy in personalized medicine are highly
promising and varied.

The study of natural substances is mostly focused on pharmacognosy, which has the potential
to provide new medications.

Pharmacognosy can assist in determining which drugs are most appropriate for particular
genetic profiles or medical conditions, as the aim of personalised medicine is to customise
care for every patient.

Pharmacognosy, metabolomics, and biomarker research can be used to better understand

how different individuals metabolise herbal and natural compounds. With this information,
individualised treatment plans that consider the unique metabolic pathways of each patient
may be informed.
The role of pharmacognosy in personalised medicine is likely to grow as the field advances.
Using natural ingredients and modern scientific techniques, pharmaceutical pharmacology
can significantly help create customised medicines that enhance patient care and results.

CURRENT RESEARCH AND EMERGING TRENDS ON THE ROLE OF

PHARMACOGNOSY IN PERSONALISED MEDICIN

• Phytochemical profiling – use of advanced analytical techniques for the

identification and quantification of bioactive substances\compounds in medicinal
plants

• Systems pharmacology – use of computational models in the prediction of herb-drug

interactions thereby helping in the optimization of prescribed herbal treatment

• Precision herbal medicine – use of machine learning algorithms to identify strategies

to be used in personalized herbal treatment

• Genomic-based herbal medicine – in order to predict an individual’s response to

herbal treatment, there has been research on identifying genetic markers

EMERGING TRENDS

• Metabolomics and phenomics – use of analytical techniques to characterize the

physiological and biochemical effects of herbal treatments

• Next-generation sequencing – allowing the quick identification of genetic variants

that are associated with response herbal medicines

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning – for the analysis of large data
sets thereby helping to predict the outcomes of personalized herbal treatment

POTENTIAL IMPACT ON HEALTH CARE

• Reduced costs on healthcare

• Increased patient satisfaction

• Reduced side effects

• New theurapetic opportunities

 • Enhanced treatment outcomes

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