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Contents
Preface xix

Part 1 Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation

CHAPTER 1 Foundations of Criminal Investigation 1
The Book’s Theme 2
The History of Criminal Investigation 3
Criminal Investigation in England 3
Criminal Investigation in the United States 3
The Introduction of Metropolitan Detectives 4
State and Federal Initiatives 5
The Creation of the FBI 5
Other Investigative Initiatives 6
Contributions of August Vollmer 7
Historical Highlights in Forensic Science 7
The Evolution in Research and Science in Forensic Science 8
Criminal Investigation Research 9
The RAND Corporation Study 9
The PERF Study 11
The Objectives of Criminal Investigation 11
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 12
Critical Thinking and Scientific Methodology 13
The Emergence of the Police Specialist 14
Types of Investigations 14
Crime-Scene Investigators 15
Modes of Investigation 15
The Role of the Criminal Investigator 15
Characteristics of the Investigator 15
The Patrol Officer as an Investigator 16
Solvability Factors 16
The Preliminary Investigation 17
The Crime-Scene Response 18
THE CASE: Anatomy of a Home Invasion 20
Summary and Key Concepts 21

CHAPTER 2 The Crime Scene: Field Notes, Documenting, and Reporting 24

The Role of Field Notes in a Criminal Investigation 26
When to Take Notes 26
What to Write Down 26

vii
 Developing a Note-Taking System 26
Field Interview Cards 26
Writing the Official Investigative Report 26
Factuality 27
Thoroughness 29
Getting to the Point 29
Accuracy and Objectivity 29
Word Choice 29
The Main Components of a Fact Sheet or Initial Complaint 29
Documenting Interviews 29
The Initial Complaint 30
Supplemental Reports 30
Methods for Photographing the Crime Scene 31
Photographs as Evidence 31
Preserving Digital Images 32
What to Photograph 32
Other Hints 32
Legal Considerations for the Admissibility of Photographs 34
Information Included in the Photographic Log 35
Surveillance Photographs 35
The Crime-Scene Sketch 36
Putting It Together 36
Measurement 36
Rough and Finished Sketches 36
Choosing the Best Method 37
THE CASE: Investigative “Tunnel Vision”—The Duke Lacrosse Rape Case 39
Summary and Key Concepts 40

CHAPTER 3 Processing the Crime Scene 43

Understanding the Preliminary Investigation 44
Types of Crime-Scene Evidence 45
Forms of Evidence 46
Responsibilities of the First Officer 46
Broadcasting a Flash Description 48
Securing and Protecting the Scene 49
The “Walk-Through” 51
Establishing “Chain of Custody” 51
Using Legal “Tools” 51
Collecting and Searching for Evidence at the Scene 51
Search Patterns 52
The Crime-Scene Search 53
Collecting Evidence 53
Performing the Follow-Up Investigation 56
Contacting the Medical Examiner 56
Conducting a Neighborhood Canvass 56

viii Contents
 Preparing Crime-Scene Reports 56
Performing the Follow-Up Investigation 57
THE CASE: Pressure, and More Pressure—The Impact of TV on Crime-Scene Processing 58
Summary and Key Concepts 59

Part 2 Follow-Up Investigative Processes

CHAPTER 4 Identifying Criminal Suspects: Field and Laboratory Processes 62
The Role of the Crime Laboratory in Criminal Investigation 63
Trace Evidence 63
Questioned Documents 63
DNA Analysis 63
Ballistics 64
Latent Prints 64
Forensic Photography 64
Types and Patterns of Fingerprints 64
Types of Prints 65
Types of Patterns 65
Searching for Prints 66
Development and Preservation of Latent Fingerprints 67
The “Tools” of the Trade 67
Preserving Fingerprints 67
Prints from Gloves 68
The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System 68
DNA and Criminal Investigations 69
Analyzing DNA 70
Elimination Samples 70
Analyzing Handwriting 71
Collection of Exemplars 71
The Writing Medium 72
Criminal Suspect Composites 72
Investigative Analysis to Solve Crimes 73
Conducting Lineups 74
Identification Procedures 75
The Right to Counsel at Eyewitness Identifications 79
THE CASE: DNA’s First Case: The Narborough Murders 81
Summary and Key Concepts 82

CHAPTER 5 Legal Issues in Criminal Investigation 85

Legal Guidelines for Conducting Searches 86
The Probable Cause Requirement 86
The Exclusionary Rule 87
Search Incident to Lawful Arrest 87

  Contents ix
 Exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule 88
The Good-Faith Exception 88
The Inevitable Discovery Doctrine 88
The Computer Errors Exception 88
Searches with a Warrant 89
When Are Search Warrants Necessary? 89
Advantages of Searching with a Search Warrant 89
Anticipatory Search Warrants 90
Warrantless Searches 91
Search by Consent 92
Emergency Searches 93
Stop-and-Frisk Searches 94
The Consensual Encounter versus Investigative Detention 94
Plain-View Searches 95
Automobile Searches 95
Open-Field Searches 96
Making an Arrest 97
What Is an Arrest? 97
The Lawful Arrest 97
Detention versus Arrest 98
Investigatory Stops 98
When Is a Person under Arrest? 99
Use of Force 100
Understanding Reasonableness 101
Levels of Force 101
Use of Deadly Force 102
The Fleeing-Felon Rule 103
THE CASE: The Search for the Craigslist Ripper 104
Summary and Key Concepts 105

Part 3 Obtaining Information

CHAPTER 6 Interviews and Interrogations 108
Interview versus Interrogation 109
The Interview Process 110
Interviewing Witnesses, Citizens, and Victims 110
The Cognitive Interview 110
“Think-Aloud” Interviewing 112
Verbal-Probing Techniques 112
The Suspect Interrogation Process 112
Goals of the Interrogation 112
Safeguarding against Police Misconduct 112

x Contents
 The Suspect’s Right to Legal Counsel 112
The Interrogation Setting 114
The Interrogation Procedure 115
Detecting Deception 115
Verbal Symptoms of Deception 115
Breaking the Suspect’s Alibi 116
Challenging the Suspect’s Information 116
Lying Techniques 116
Use of the Polygraph 117
The Voice Stress Analyzer 119
Why Suspects Cooperate and Confess 119
Searching for Information 119
Closing the Communication Gap 120
Admission versus Confession 120
False Confessions 120
Written Statements 120
Structuring the Written Statement 121
Recorded Statements 121
Confessions on Video 121
THE CASE: The Stephanie Crowe Murder Investigation 123
Summary and Key Concepts 124

CHAPTER 7 Criminal Intelligence and Surveillance Operations 127

The Usefulness of Intelligence 128
Overt and Covert Intelligence Collection 129
Criminal Intelligence and Criminal Investigation 130
Defining Criminal Intelligence 130
Types of Intelligence 130
Procedures for Intelligence Gathering 131
Analyzing the Information 133
Link Analysis 133
Flowcharting 134
Auditing and Purging Files 135
Surveillance Operations 136
Preparing for the Surveillance 136
Foot Surveillance 136
Vehicle Surveillance 137
Stakeouts, or “Stationary Surveillance” 138
Investigative Procedures 139
Poststakeout Procedures 139
Electronic Surveillance and Wiretaps 139
Satellite-Assisted Surveillance 140
Computer Surveillance 140
Telephones and Mobile Telephones 141

  Contents xi
 Surveillance of Social Networks 142
Biometric Surveillance 142
Thermal Imaging 143
THE CASE: Surveillance and the Killing of Osama Bin Laden 145
Summary and Key Concepts 146

CHAPTER 8 Informant Management and Undercover Operations 149

Who Becomes an Informant? 151
Using Informants 151
Informant Motivations 152
Documenting Your “Source” 153
Maintaining Control 153
Legal Considerations 153
Undercover Operations 155
Types of Undercover Operations 157
The Undercover Working Environment 157
The Cover Story 157
Protecting the Undercover Officer’s “Cover” 158
Infiltration 158
Risks in Undercover Assignments 159
THE CASE: The Antisnitch Movement 161
Summary and Key Concepts 162

Part 4 Crimes Against Persons

CHAPTER 9 Death Investigations 165

The Extent of Homicide 166
The Homicide Investigator’s Guiding Principle 167
Murder and Wrongful Death 167
Dynamics of the Homicide Unit 167
Selecting the Right Detective 167
Caseload Management 168
Investigative Tools 168
Cold Case Squads 168
The Homicide 911 Call 168
Analyzing the Call 168
Legal Characteristics of Homicide 169
The Preliminary Investigation 170
Protecting the Crime Scene 170
Taking Notes at the Scene 170
Identifying the Victim 170
Estimating the Time of Death 171
Changes in the Body: Decomposition 171

xii Contents
 The Forensics of Decomposition 172
Other Visual Evidence of Decomposition 173
Gunshot Wounds as Evidence 174
Assessing the Severity of Gunshot Wounds 175
Entrance Wounds 175
Exit Wounds 175
Smudging 175
Tattooing 175
The Role of Gunshot Residue 176
THE CASE: The Investigation of the “BTK” Killer 180
Summary and Key Concepts 181

CHAPTER 10 Robbery 183

Understanding Robbery 184
The Extent of Robbery 184
Consequences of Robbery 184
Elements of Robbery 185
Types of Robbery 185
Commercial Robberies: Stores and Banks 186
Street Robberies 186
Residential Robberies 186
School Robberies 186
Vehicle Robberies 186
The First Officer on the Scene 187
The Preliminary Investigation 189
The Neighborhood Canvass 190
The Robber’s Method of Operation 190
Physical Evidence 191
The Role of Witnesses 191
THE CASE: A New Reality in Robberies—Pharmaceuticals 193
Summary and Key Concepts 194

CHAPTER 11 Assault and Related Offenses 197

Legal Classifications of Assault 199
Simple Assault 199
Aggravated Assault 199
Domestic Violence 200
Legal Approaches to Domestic Violence 201
Stalking 202
Who Stalks Whom? 203
Sexual Assault 203
Forcible Rape 203
Legal Aspects of Rape 204

  Contents xiii
 Evidence in Rape Cases 205
Investigative Procedures: The Crime-Scene Investigation 205
Investigative Procedures: The Interview 208
THE CASE: Date Rape in Connection with a University Employee 210
Summary and Key Concepts 211

CHAPTER 12 Missing and Abducted Persons 213

Understanding the “Big Picture” 214
Profiling the Abductor: Stranger versus Nonstranger 214
Children Who Are Killed 215
Abductor Characteristics and Factors 216
Types of Missing Children Cases 216
Abductions via the Internet 217
Code Adam 217
The Investigative Response 218
The Initial Call for Assistance 219
Responding Officer Responsibilities 219
The 16 Steps of Investigation 220
The Importance of the Neighborhood Canvass 222
The Investigator’s Role 222
Moving Forward with the Investigation 222
THE CASE: The Abduction of Elizabeth Smart 225
Summary and Key Concepts 226

CHAPTER 13 Crimes against Children: Child Abuse and Child Fatalities 228
The Abuse of Children 229
Why Does Child Abuse Occur? 229
Child Fatalities: The Nature of the Problem 230
Child Abuse and the Law: The Doctrine of Parens Patriae 231
The Role of Child Protective Services and the Police 232
Evidence from the Autopsy 232
The Child Fatality Review Board 233
Child Physical Abuse 233
Emergency Room Personnel and Medical Examiners 234
Battered Child Syndrome 235
Steps in Investigating Battered Child Syndrome 235
Interviews with Medical Personnel 235
Consultation with Experts 236
Interviews with Caretakers 236
The Crime-Scene Investigation 236
Shaken Baby Syndrome 237
Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy 237
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 238
Sexual Abuse of Children 239

xiv Contents
 The Forensic Interview 240
Why Are Forensic Interviews Needed? 240
The Initial Interview 240
The Secondary Forensic Interview 241
Techniques of Forensic Interviewing 241
Investigating the Molester 242
Premeditation and Intent 242
Child Exploitation 242
Legal Implications 243
Recent History 243
Victims of Child Pornography 243
Child Prostitution 244
Child Exploitation Offenders 244
THE CASE: Sexual Abuse of Children within the Catholic Church 245
Summary and Key Concepts 246

Part 5 Crimes Against Property

CHAPTER 14 Theft-Related Offenses 249
Burglary 250
The Frequency of Burglary 250
The Preliminary Investigation 251
Indications of Burglary 251
Tracing Stolen Property 252
The Fence 252
Proving the Receipt of Stolen Property 252
Larceny-Theft 253
The Extent of Larceny-Theft 253
Fraud-Forgery 253
Forgery 254
Check Fraud 255
Embezzlement 256
Investigating Embezzlement 256
Shoplifting 256
Investigative Steps 257
Identity Theft 258
The Investigative Response 259
Computer Crime 259
Understanding the Computer Crime Problem 260
Computer Crime Investigations 260
Motor Vehicle Theft 261
The Extent of Motor Vehicle Theft 262
The Preliminary Investigation 263

  Contents xv
 The Vehicle Identification Number 263
Tools of the Trade 263
Motorcycle Theft and Fraud 264
Motor Vehicle Fraud 264
Motor Vehicle Insurance Fraud 265
A Collective Response to Crime 265
THE CASE: Identity Theft and Its Implications . . . 266
Summary and Key Concepts 267

CHAPTER 15 Arson and Bombings 270

Arson Offenses 271
The Extent of Arson 271
The Definition of Arson 272
The Police and Fire Alliance 272
Arson Investigative Techniques 272
The Preliminary Investigation of Arson 272
Motivations of the Arsonist 275
Serial Fire Setters 276
Profiling the Fire Starter 276
The Role of the Insurance Industry 276
Prosecution of Arson Cases 277
Investigation of Bombing Incidents 278
Investigating Bomb Threats 278
When a Bomb Is Found 278
Handling the Media 279
THE CASE: The Case against the Unabomber . . . 280
Summary and Key Concepts 281

Part 6 Terrorism
CHAPTER 16 Terrorism and National Security Crimes 283
Terrorism Defined 284
Identifying the Terrorists 285
Criteria Describing Terrorists 286
Forms of Terrorism 287
Notable Terrorist Incidents 288
Recent Terrorist Threats 289
International Terrorism 289
Threats of Mass Destruction 292
Chemical 292
Biological 292
Radiological 292
Nuclear 293

xvi Contents
Domestic Terrorism 293
Self-Radicalization: The Homegrown Terrorist 294
Who and How 295
The Self-Radicalization Process 295
Role of the Internet 296
Assassination as a Terrorist Tactic 297
Tactics to Destabilize Terrorist Organizations 297
THE CASE: The Reality of Criminal Investigations Dealing with Domestic Terror Threats 299
Summary and Key Concepts 300

Glossary 303
References 309
Name Index 319
Subject Index 321

  Contents xvii
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
This Book’s Theme
This book is now in its third edition. It is intended to meet the and to enable the student to read without being pressured
needs of students and others interested in criminal justice by pre- to cover numerous chapters in a short period of time
senting information in an easy-to-read, logical flow, paralleling • An enhanced graphical interface affording the student an
the steps and considerations observed in an actual criminal inves- additional venue for learning
tigation. Additionally, it is designed to fulfill an ongoing need for
an abbreviated book that explains clearly and thoughtfully the • Recent and meaningful case studies that begin and end
fundamentals of criminal investigation as practiced by police each chapter
investigators on the job in communities across the nation. • Boxed features specifically designed to allow the student
The book is written with several observations in mind. First, to consider how chapter material applies to the real world
it is designed to blend scientific theories of crime detection with of criminal investigation
a practical approach to criminal investigation. Its underlying • A dedicated chapter on terrorism and the investigation of
assumption is that sound criminal investigations depend on an such crimes
understanding of the science of crime-detection procedures and
the art of anticipating human behavior. There is yet another • Coverage of the latest investigative methods for dealing
critical observation made in the book: It recognizes that both with eyewitness testimony, missing and abducted persons,
the uniformed officer and the criminal investigator play impor- computer/Internet crime, and other “hot-button” issues in
tant roles in the field of criminal investigation. The duties of criminal investigation
each are outlined throughout the book, recognizing that there is
a fundamental need for both to work in tandem throughout New to This Edition
many aspects of the criminal investigation process. • Updated case studies
Another underlying theme of the book is that, as with all police
endeavors, criminal investigation is a law enforcement responsibil- • Updated statistics
ity that must be conducted within the framework of the U.S. Con- • More detail about crime-scene searches and evidence
stitution and the practices of a democratic society. Consequently, • Learning outcomes identified throughout each chapter
court decisions and case studies have been quoted extensively for
clarification of issues and general reader information. • New graphics throughout the book
• Refreshed “Think About It” sections in each chapter
Additional Highlights to the Author’s • New and refreshed photos and informational boxes
Approach throughout the book
• A 16-chapter format specifically designed to enable the • Revised “Learning Outcomes” at the end of each chapter
instructor to cover the entire book in a standard semester

   xix
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xx Preface
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