“Motihari College of Engineering, Motihari”

Ghausul Azam Ansari

Department of Civil Engineering
Mob No-8638578983

Module 4: Strength behavior of rocks- Stress and strain in rocks, concept of Rock,
Deformation & Tectonics. Dip and Strike. Outcrops and width of outcrops. Inliers and
Outliers. Main types of discontinuities according to size. Fold- types and
nomenclature, criteria for their recognition in field. Faults: Classification, recognition
in field, effects on outcrops. Joints & Unconformity; Types, Stress responsible,
geotechnical importance. Importance of structural elements in engineering operations.
Consequences of failure as land sliding, Earthquake and Subsidence, Strength of
Igneous rock structures
Strength of behavior of Rock: - Rocks are subject to stress —mostly related to plate tectonics
but also to the weight of overlying rocks—and their response to that stress is strain (deformation). In
regions close to where plates are converging stress is typically compressive—the rocks are being
squeezed. Where plates are diverging the stress is extensive— rocks are being pulled apart.
Within the Earth rocks are continually being subjected to forces that tend to bend them, twist
them, or fracture them. When rocks bend, twist or fracture we say that they deform (change shape or
size). The forces that cause deformation of rock are referred to as stresses (Force/unit area). So, to
understand rock deformation we must first explore these forces or stresses.
Stress (Tensão) and Strain (Deformação)
Stress is a force applied over an area. One type of stress that we are all used to is a uniform stress,
called pressure. A uniform stress is a stress wherein the forces act equally from all directions. In the
Earth the pressure due to the weight of overlying rocks is a uniform stress, and is sometimes referred
to as confining stress.
If stress is not equal from all directions then we say that the stress is a differential stress. Three kinds
of differential stress occur.
1. Tensional stress (or extensional stress), which stretches rock;
2. Compressional stress, which squeezes rock; and
3. Shear stress, which result in slippage and translation.
When rocks deform they are said to strain. A strain is a change in size, shape, or volume of a
material.

Stages of Deformation
When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it passes through 3 successive stages of
deformation.
 Elastic Deformation – where in the strain is reversible.
 Ductile Deformation -- wherein the strain is irreversible.
 Fracture - irreversible strain wherein the material breaks.
We can divide materials into two classes that depend on their relative behaviour under stress.
Brittle materials have a small or large region of elastic behaviour but only a small region of
ductile behaviour before they fracture.
Ductile materials have a small region of elastic behaviour and a large region of ductile
Behaviour before they fracture.

How a material behaves will depend on several factors. Among them are:
 Temperature - At high temperature molecules and their bonds can stretch and move,
thus materials will behave in more ductile manner. At low temperature, materials are
brittle.
 Confining Pressure - At high confining pressure materials are less likely to fracture
because the pressure of the surroundings tends to hinder the formation of fractures. At
low confining stress, material will be brittle and tend to fracture sooner.
 Strain rate -- At high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low strain rates more
time is available for individual atoms to move and therefore ductile behaviour is
favoured.
 Composition -- Some minerals, like quartz, olivine, and feldspars are very brittle.
Others, like clay minerals, micas, and calcite are more ductile. This is due to the chemical bond
types that hold them together. Thus, the mineralogical composition of the rock will be a factor
in determining the deformational behaviour of the rock. Another aspect is presence or absence
of water. Water appears to weaken the chemical bonds and forms films around mineral grains
along which slippage can take place. Thus wet rock tends to behave in ductile manner, while
dry rocks tend to behave in brittle manner.
Brittle-Ductile Properties of the Lithosphere
We all know that rocks near the surface of the Earth behave in a brittle manner. Crustal rocks
are composed of minerals like quartz and feldspar which have high strength, particularly at low
pressure and temperature. As we go deeper in the Earth the strength of these rocks initially
increases. At a depth of about 15 km we reach a point called the brittle-ductile transition zone.
Below this point rock strength decreases because fractures become closed and the temperature
is higher, making the rocks behave in a ductile manner. At the base of the crust the rock type
changes to peridotite which is rich in olivine. Olivine is stronger than the minerals that make
up most crustal rocks, so the upper part of the mantle is again strong. But, just as in the crust,
increasing temperature eventually predominates and at a depth of about 40 km the brittle-
ductile transition zone in the mantle occurs. Below this point rocks behave in an increasingly
ductile manner.

Deformation in Progress
Only in a few cases does deformation of rocks occur at a rate that is observable on human time
scales. Abrupt deformation along faults, usually associated with earthquakes caused by the
fracture of rocks occurs on a time scale of minutes or seconds. Gradual deformation along
faults or in areas of uplift or subsidence can be measured over periods of months to years with
sensitive measuring instruments.
Evidence of Former Deformation
Evidence of deformation that has occurred in the past is very evident in crustal rocks. For
example, sedimentary strata and lava flows generally follow the law of original horizontality.
Thus, when we see such strata inclined instead of horizontal, evidence of an episode of
deformation. In order to uniquely define the orientation of a planar feature we first need to
define two terms - strike and dip. For an inclined plane the strike is the compass direction of
any horizontal line on the plane. The dip is the angle between a horizontal plane and the
inclined plane, measured perpendicular to the direction of strike.

In recording strike and dip measurements on a geologic map, a symbol is used that has a long
line oriented parallel to the compass direction of the strike. A short tick mark is placed in the
center of the line on the side to which the inclined plane dips, and the angle of dip is recorded
next to the strike and dip symbol as shown above. For beds with a 900 dip (vertical) the short
line crosses the strike line, and for beds with no dip (horizontal) a circle with a cross inside is
used as shown below..
Evidence of Movement on Faults
 Slikensides are scratch marks that are left on the fault plane as one block moves relative
to the other. Slickensides can be used to determine the direction and sense of motion on
a fault.
 Fault Breccias are crumbled up rocks consisting of angular fragments that were formed
as a result of grinding and crushing movement along a fault.

Plate Tectonics
• The study of processes that move and deform Earth’s crust.
• Plate tectonic is a geological nature of the earth crust.
• It studies about earthquakes, how mountains are formed and other features of the Earth.

Movement of plates
• Due to convectional current movement of plates take place.
• These convectional current are generated due to the heat of magma which is present in
mantle.

There are 3 types of plate boundaries

 Divergent plate boundary.
 Convergent plate boundary.
 Transform fault boundary.
Three Types of Tectonic Forces
 Compressive forces squeeze and shorten a body.
 Tensional forces stretch a body and pulls it apart
 Shearing forces push different parts of a body in opposite directions

Compressive forces
 Generate folding and faulting as a consequence of shortening.
 Compressive forces are common along convergent plate boundaries resulting in
mountain ranges.
Tensional forces
 Cause stretching and thinning of the rocks, usually accompanied by tensional faults.
 Tensional forces common along extensional plate boundaries such as mid-ocean ridges.

Shearing forces
 Cause rocks to slide horizontally past one another such as along transform plate
boundaries to produce extensive fault systems.
Deformation
 Any process that affects the shape, size, or volume of an area of the Earth's crust.
 The type of deformation that occurs depends on the type of stress and the type of rock
present in the area of the Earth's crust that you are observing.
Types of deformation
 Elastic: returns to origin state
 Plastic: irreversible change in shape & volume that occur without the rock breaking.
 Brittle: irreversible change that penetrates mineral bounding.

Elastic Deformation

Plastic Deformation:-
Joints:-
 Joints may be defined as the fractures that divide the rocks into parts or blocks which
have not been suffered any relative motion along that fracture.
 Joint set: it may be defined as group of or more joint surfaces trending in the same
direction with almost the same dip.
 Joint system: A joint system is a group of two or more joint sets. (May have two or
three intersecting sets)
Terminology related to joints
 Nature: joints may be open or closed.
 Open joints: open joints are the joints in which the blocks have been separated for the
small distance to right angles to the fracture surface.
 Closed joints: closed joints are the joints in which the blocks are not separated from
each other but allow the fluids (water and gases) to pass through the rocks.
 Veins: generally open joints gets filled up by secondary materials which crystallize or
precipitate there forming thin or thick steaks of material. These steaks are called veins
when thin and fissure veins when there thickness is greater than 20 cm.

Classification
 Joints are classified on the basis of Origin:-
 I. Spatial relationship
 II.Geometry
 III.Genesis (origin)

On the basis of spatial relation

 Systematic joints: joints that shows distinct regularity in the occurrences which can be
easily measured or mapped. Such joints occur in parallel joint set that are repeated in
the rocks at the regular intervals.
 Non-systematic joints: the joints that don’t possess any regularity in their occurrence
and distribution.
On the basis of geometry there are three types of joints on the basis of geometry:
1. Strike joints

2. Dip joints

3. Oblique joints
 Strike joints: the joints which are parallel to the strike of the rock.
 Dip joint: the joints which are parallel to the dip of the rock.
 Oblique joint: joints which are neither parallel to the strike nor to the dip of the layer in
which they occur.
 In stratified rocks some joints may develop essentially parallel to the bedding planes.
These are called bedding joints.
On the basis of origin of joints
1. Tension joints: joints which are developed due to the tensile force acting on the rocks. The,
most common location of such joints are the outer margins of crests and troughs in the folding.

2. Shear joints: these joints are commonly observed in the vicinity fault planes and shear zones
where shearing stress prevails. In folds they occur in axial regions.

3. Compression joints: rocks may be compressed too crushing and numerous joints may result
due to compressive forces. These occur in the compressive regions of the folds like on in
innermost margin of the axis of folds.
Engineering considerations
Joints cause the leakage of water in case of reservoir. Joints may pose groundwater problems in
tunneling. The orientation of joints is very significant in engineering projects. Large joint
dipping in the construction site causes a landslide. Quarry operations obviously greatly
influenced by the joints. Jointed rocks allow the movement of fluids and may act as
AQUIFERS. Bore wells drilled in civil construction areas for water supply will be more
productive in highly jointed rocks than in less jointed rocks.
DISAVANTAGES
 Joints are important because they split the rocks into a number of pieces which, in turn,
reduce the competence of rock mass, increase the porosity and permeability and make
them (rocks) susceptible to quick decay and Weathering.
 Joints become avenues for the leakage of water in case of reservoirs. If they are closely
spaced in the upstream side, silting problems also arise in reservoirs.
 The incompetence, leakage and other effects introduced by joints in rocks may create
foundation problems at dam sites.
 Joints may pose ground water problems in tunnelling.
 Depending on the relation of the dip of joints in rocks with reference to the surface
slope, they may pose problems in laying roads and railways along hill slopes.

ADVANTAGES
1. Increase the ground water potentiality in any place.

2. Suitable spaced joints (i.e., with neither very close nor very wide joint intervals) not only
facilitate the quarrying process or tunnelling process but also reduce the cost by decreasing the
use of explosives.
  What is unconformity?
•An unconformity may be defined as surface of the erosion on non-deposition occurring within
the sequence of rocks. An unconformity is developed due to the change in the process of
deposition of sedimentary rocks.

Origin of unconformity
 If the process of deposition remain uninterrupted for considerable time then layer will
be deposited in order. Older beds occupy the position at the base of the sequence and
younger beds are on the top. The sequence of deposition is called conformable.
 But if in any case the deposition is interrupted at a certain stage and exposed to erosion,
then top layers will be eroded. This is followed by the phase of deposition of new beds
over eroded surface. The sequence so formed is not conformable.

Types of unconformities?
 Angular unconformity: it is characterized by different inclinations and structural
features above and below the surface unconformity. The sequence below the
unconformity may be steep, faulted or folded and sequence above may be horizontal or
inclined.
 Disconformity: it is the type of unconformity in which the beds below and above the
surface of erosion are almost parallel.
  Non-conformity: it is the term used for unconformity in the sequence of the rocks
composed of plutonic igneous or metamorphic rocks as older and sedimentary rocks as
younger or newer.

Engineering consideration
 Unconformity indicates the discontinuity in the sequence of the rocks. The behaviour of
the rocks above and below the unconformity shows the variation in their mechanical
properties and hence affect the stability of the project.
 Unconformity marks the weak contact which can allow percolation of water and can
also act as fault plane towards forces imposed from above.
Inliers and outliers
An inlier is an area of older rocks surrounded by younger rocks. Inliers are typically formed
by the erosion of overlying younger rocks to reveal a limited exposure of the older underlying
rocks. Faulting or folding may also contribute to the observed outcrop pattern. A classic
example from Great Britain is that of the inlier of folded Ordovician and Silurian rocks at
Horton in Ribblesdale in North Yorkshire which are surrounded by the younger flat-lying
Carboniferous Limestone. The location has long been visited by geology students and experts.
Another example from South Wales is the UK Inlier in Monmouth shire where Silurian age
rocks are up folded amidst Old Red Sandstone rocks of Devonian age.
A similar outcrop pattern which results from movement on a thrust fault followed by erosion
may be termed a window.
Conversely an outlier is an area of younger rock completely surrounded by older rocks. An
outlier is typically formed when sufficient erosion of surrounding rocks has taken place to
sever the younger rock's original continuity with a larger mass of the same younger rocks
nearby.

Discontinuity
A discontinuity in geotechnical engineering (in geotechnical literature often denoted by joint)
is a plane or surface that marks a change in physical or chemical characteristics in a soil or
rock mass. A discontinuity can be, for example, a bedding, schistosity, foliation, joint,
cleavage, fracture, fissure, crack, or fault plane. A division is made between mechanical and
integral discontinuities. Discontinuities may occur multiple times with broadly the same
mechanical characteristics in a discontinuity set, or may be a single discontinuity. A
discontinuity makes a soil or rock mass anisotropic.
Discontinuity- General term for any mechanical discontinuity in a rock mass. Discontinuities
include all types of mechanical break or plane of weakness in rock mass such as joints, bedding
plane, fractures and shear zones that weakened the strength of rock masses. Discontinuity
measurements are made to assess weakness planes that in some cases will enhance the strength
of rock mass. • Discontinuities with the influence of frequency and orientation, within rock
mass may assist and ease the excavation process in much stronger material.
Engineering Considerations:-
(a) Fold: - Folds developed in areas of work are important for a civil engineer in that
these make work more complicated. If these structures are not thoroughly investigated
and properly interpreted, any civil engineering project standing on or driven through the
folded rocks may prove not only uneconomical in the ultimate analysis but also, unsafe
as well.
The general effects of folds on major civil engineering projects:-
(i) Change in Attitude: - Folding of any type would cause a change in the attitude
(dip & strike) of the same strata in the aerial extend and also in depth. Hence
same layers may be repeated along an alignment or one or more different layers
may be unexpectedly encountered. This may increase the project cost.
(ii) Shattering of Rocks: - Folding is the response of the rocks to the stresses
induced during the process. These stresses are often strong enough to break or
shatter the rocks, especially in the axial zones & these are likely to be fracture
zones.
(iii) Strained Nature: - All the stresses that have acted on the rocks during their
folding are generally absorbed by these rocks by undergoing strain.
(b) Faults: - Faults are important for a civil engineer in that these mark the sites where
dislocation of the ground has occurred in the past and where such dislocations cannot
be entirely ruled out in future. Faults cause very much shearing and crushing of the
rocks located along or near the fault surfaces and zones. These rocks become weak and
unstable on the one hand and porous and permeable on the other hand. The faulted
rocks will form weak foundations and abutments. The shear and fault zones will serve
as easy pathways for water and cause leakage when left untreated in dams and reservoir
sites.

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