Letter

Letter writing is a skill people need for personal, professional and academic purposes. Letters
come in many forms, from digital to hard copy and informal to formal. Knowing how to format
and write effective letters when corresponding with professionals as well as acquaintances.

Types of Letter

Formal Letters
The letters that follow a certain formality and set pattern are formal letters. Such letters are
precise, directly addressing the concerned issue and are kept strictly professional in
nature. Formal letters are short and to the point. A variety of letters that fall within the category
of formal letters are –

 Business letters
 Official letters
 Social letters
 Circular letters
 Employment letters
Letter writing format of Formal Letter
A formal letter must adhere to the prescribed format. The letter writing format of a formal letter
is as mentioned below:

1. Sender’s address
2. Date
3. Receiver’s address
4. Subject
5. Salutation
6. Body of the letter
7. Complimentary closure
8. Signature line: sender’s name, signature and designation

 Sender’s address: One of the most essential components, also known as the return
address. It is the mailing address of the sender. The address and contact details of the
person sending the letter are written here.
 Date: Immediately after the sender’s address comes the date on which the letter is
written. Candidates, while writing the letter in the exam, can follow any of the formats to
write the dates: DD/MM/YY OR MM/DD/YY.
 Receiver’s address: The corresponding address, i.e. the address of the recipient of the
mail is written here. Candidates must start with the receivers’ designation followed by the
name of the organization and then the full address, Pincode and country (if the
information is known).
  The subject: This highlights the aim of writing the letter. The subject of the formal letter
should be very brief (6 to 8 words) and must be preceded by the word ‘Subject’. The
receiver, through the subject, understands the purpose of the letter at a glance.
 Salutation: This is a customary greeting to the recipient of the letter. If the name of the
recipient is known, the salutation starts with ‘Dear’ followed by Mr/Mrs/Miss, etc. If the
person is unknown or even the gender is not known the recipient can be addressed as
Dear Sir/Dear Madam.
 Body: The most important element of any letter. It furnishes the reason behind writing
the letter. For formal letters, candidates should use short, clear, logical paragraphs to state
the subject matter. The body of the letter is generally divided into 3 paragraphs:

1. Introduction that states the main point.

2. Middle part: Supporting points and details to justify the need and importance of letter
writing.
3. Conclusion: Request for some action or what is expected.

 Complimentary Closure: This is to end the letter with respect in a polite manner such as
‘Yours faithfully’, ‘Yours sincerely’, etc.
 Signature Line: This is the last part where the sender of the letter signs off with his first
or last name. The signature line may also include a second line for the title or designation
of the sender.
Candidates writing formal letters in the exam must remember the following pointers.

 Use of colloquial words, short forms, slang language and abbreviations are restricted.
 The letter must be to the point, precise and clearly indicating the message.
 The subject line is very important in Formal Letters.

Important Tips for Good Letter Writing

Candidates appearing for competitive exams are encouraged to follow the below-mentioned tips
to write a good letter in the examination and fetch good marks.

 Candidates must be able to identify the type of letter they will write. For example: writing
a letter to the Principal asking for leave is a formal letter, but writing a letter to the
Principal to catch up after a long time would be an informal letter.
 Opening and closing of letters must be in the correct manner. Formal letters must open
and close in a professional manner while informal letters can be directly addressed to the
person with greetings. Even closing the letters is significant. Formal letters always end
respectfully and impersonally, whereas informal letters may end with a more personal
touch.
 In formal letters, making clear the purpose of the letter immediately is important.
Candidates writing formal letters must make sure to get to the point as soon as possible.
  A letter is always supposed to be considerate and polite. It is essential to use polite words
and civil language in all types of letters, be it formal or informal. Even if the letter is
about any complaint, the point must be made in a careful and courteous manner.
 The length of the letter also holds relevance. In formal letters, the matter should be
expressed to the point, precise and short, while the length of the personal or informal
letter depends on the message and the relation to the recipient.

Business Letter

A business letter is a professional, formal letter that is sent by one company to another. These
letters can be used for professional correspondence between business clients, employees,
stakeholders as well as individuals.

Whether you need to tell a potential client about your product, collaborate with another
company, convince someone to attend your event, or give a thank you note – a well-written
business letter can stand out.

Cover Letters

First up, a cover letter is a one-page document that candidates submit along with their resumes. It
takes the employer on a guided journey of their greatest career & life achievements.

No matter if you’re a student or an experienced professional, a cover letter is an important

document to show your skills, experience, and why you’re fit for the position you are applying
for.

Tips:

 Don’t try to fit your whole career in your cover letter. It should have a carefully curated
collection of stories.
 Don’t state a skill that you don’t actually have. You’ll definitely regret it when you’re
asked to use that skill in the interview.
 Keep it concise and to the point. The employer does not have time to sit down and read
an entire memoir.

Letter of Resignation

A letter of resignation is a document that notifies your employer that you’re leaving your job.
Whether you work at a coffee shop or a big-shot company, it’s proper protocol to submit a letter
of resignation before you leave.
Also, if you have an urge to send an incendiary letter of resignation, don’t give in! You might
cross paths with these people again.

Tips:

 Keep it simple, stick to the facts, and don’t start complaining. Resignation letters are not
the right place for complaints & critiques.
 Thank your boss and/or the company for the opportunities and describe some of the key
things you learned on the job.
 If you’re in a high-profile position, consider your words super carefully because your
letter would likely be made public.

E-mail
E-mail is familiar to most students and workers. It may be used like text, or synchronous chat,
and it can be delivered to a cell phone. In business, email has largely replaced print hard copy
letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has taken the
place of memos for internal (within the company) communication. E-mail can be very useful for
messages that have slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for fairly
brief messages. Many businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from
the public, or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due.

Email writing is an essential part of professional communication. It is not easy to get people to
respond to your emails if they do not feel interested in your message or proposal. This is exactly
the reason why you should learn to write good emails. Be bold. Get to the point right away. The
best email communication is the one that is simple and clear.

Parts of an email message

An email message consists of the following general components:

Headers
The message headers contain information concerning the sender and recipients. The exact content of mail headers
can vary depending on the email system that generated the message. Generally, headers contain the following
information:
 Subject. Subject is a description of the topic of the message and displays in most email systems that list
email messages individually. A subject line could be something like "2010 company mission statement" or,
if your spam filtering application is too lenient, "Lose weight fast!!! Ask me how."
 Sender (From). This is the sender's Internet email address. It is usually presumed to be the same as the
Reply-to address, unless a different one is provided.
  Date and time received (On). The date and time the message was received.
 Reply-to. This is the Internet email address that will become the recipient of your reply if you click the
Reply button.
 Recipient (To:). First/last name of email recipient, as configured by the sender.
 Recipient email address. The Internet mail address of the recipient, or where the message was actually
sent.
 Attachments. Files that are attached to the message.

Body
The body of a message contains text that is the actual content, such as "Employees who are eligible for the new
health care program should contact their supervisors by next Friday if they want to switch." The message body also
may include signatures or automatically generated text that is inserted by the sender's email system.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE BUSINESS E-MAILS

As with all writing, professional communications require attention to the specific writing
context, and it may surprise you that even elements of form can indicate a writer’s strong
understanding of audience and purpose. The principles explained here apply to the educational
context as well; use them when communicating with your instructors and classroom peers.

 Open with a proper salutation. Proper salutations demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in
case a message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like
“Dear Ms. X” (external) or “Hi Barry” (internal). Never use the title Mrs. as you cannot assume a
woman is married. If the gender of a person is not evident, use their entire name, like this: “Dear
Sam Jones”
 Include a clear, brief, and specific subject line. This helps the recipient understand the essence
of the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of 10/25.”
 Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically
contains your name and business contact information.
 Avoid abbreviations. An e-mail is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit
cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).
 Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.
 Use a good format. Divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good e-
mail should get to the point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.
 Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press
“send.” It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written
e-mail than to get it right the first time.
 Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a habit
of replying to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will provide the
requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.
 Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail
unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.
 Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emotion
or yelling and are considered rude.
 Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is working.
 E-mail ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often
quite large) to prevent exceeding the recipient’s mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.
 Give feedback or follow up. If you don’t get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call.
Spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.

Types of E-mail

1. Formal email

2. Informal email

Formal email writing is usually in a B2B or B2C scenario or a professional email between
colleagues, businesses, or partners.

Informal email writing is something you might send a friend, family member, or sometimes even
a quick email you’re firing off to a colleague.

Basic formal email structure

Before we get into different email templates, it’s important to know how to build an email
yourself. For the most part, every email, regardless of its contents, will follow the same structure
with the same basic elements. You should get to know these elements in order to ensure proper
and effective email writing as a whole.

The basic elements of professional email writing (Formal e-mail)

1. Your email address

2. Subject line
3. Email opening
4. Email body
5. Email ending
6. Email Sign off
7. Email signature/footer
Email Writing Format Samples
Here are some sample emails that will help you understand how to write an email in the best
possible way.

Informal Email Writing Format Samples

Email Expressing Your Appreciation
To: Recipient’s email address
Subject: Congratulations!
Dear (Name),
My heartfelt congratulations to you. I was glad to see your name on the merit list. All your
efforts were definitely not in vain. I bet everyone at home is so proud of you.
You have truly honoured the family name, and I am happy that you would get to take up the
course in architecture that you had been waiting for. I am waiting to meet you in person to
convey all my love and appreciation.
Convey my regards to uncle, aunty and grandpa.
Regards,
Your name

Formal Email Writing Format Samples

Email on Seeking Information Regarding Course Details
To: Recipient’s email ID
Subject: Regarding Course Details
Dear Sir,
I have passed the B.Sc. degree examination with Electronics as the main subject. I intend to have
a course in Computer Science and would like to know the details of the courses taught at your
institution. Could you please send me a copy of your prospectus?
Yours faithfully,
Your name
Letter Vs E-mail

Letter is a form of written communication addressed outside the organization. It contains a long
formal message to inform someone of a specific topic. The tone of the letter depends on the
relationship between sender and recipient.
Email is another form of routine electronic communication within an organization or outside the
organization. It requires an email account and internet connection.

Differences
The major differences between Memo, letters, and Emails are as follows −

Letter Email

Long and informative Informal and routine message.

Duly signed by the sender. A signature is used as a

complimentary closing of the
message, which is automatically
inserted.

It is exchanged between the It can be exchanged between anyone.

company and the client.

It does not contain any header. It contains an introduction, body, a

Formal language is used to convey closing, subject line, and recipient's
information to a specific person. email id.

Introduction to DOs

Demi official letter

Demi official letter explanation is the letter that communicates official e-mail along with
personal news is called demi-official, it is also known as Demi government letter. In
other words, the official letter that contains some personal information along with official
information is known as a demi-official letter.
 The official letter that contains some personal information along with official information
is known as a demi-official letter. This letter is generally written by compiling both
official and some sort of personal messages. This form is generally used in
correspondence between Officers to supplement or explain matter which has been
referred officially or is proposed to be referred officially.

In writing this letter officially recognized rules, procedures and structure are not
followed. Though this letter includes both personal and official information, official
information gets the prime focus. People bolding the same position or rank usually
exchange this type of letter. In this letter, the receiver is addressed by name. It is to be
written in the first person in a personal and friendly tone and it should be addressed by an
Officer who is ordinarily not more than one or two levels below the Officer to whom
such communication is addressed. Demi-official correspondence should not be quoted in
official communications or be noticed officially in any way.

Actually, a Demi-official letter is official in reason but involves some personal

association or touch. This letter is usually written by compiling both official and some
kind of personal messages. It is not as formal as the official letter. This type of letter does
not follow any established structure. Use of language in this letter depends on a personal
relationship between sender and receiver. It is not written by using customary official
language. Writers can follow any formation as they think.

Some important points regarding Demi-official letter are noted as under:

 It is usually addressed by the name and title of the person who is thought to attend to
the focus subject of the letter.
 Salutation normally starts with ‘My Dear X’ ‘Dear Mr./Mrs. Y’
 The appropriate manner of a subscription is ‘Yours sincerely’
 Such a letter is signed by the officer concerned and not by someone else on behalf of
the officer.

Notice

Notice Writing Format

A notice is a written or printed message or information that is shown prominently or published in

newspapers or periodicals. A notice’s tone and style are formal and factual, using straightforward
and formal language because it includes a formal notification or information. Rather than being
lengthy, notices are always brief and to the point.
 Below mentioned are some of the important tips that you should know:

 At the top, write the word NOTICE.

 Include all pertinent information (date, venue, time) and also the notice’s purpose.
 The individual issuing the notice’s signature, name, and designation, along with the name of the
organisation responsible for issuing the notice must be provided.
 Placing the notification in a box.
 Stick to the 50-word restriction that has been set.
 The school, organisation, or agency issuing the warning should be identified by name and
location.
 Make a suitable and brief heading. It must be relevant to the material to be discussed. The reader
should be able to figure out what the notification is about at first glance. and then devise a
strategy of action.
 The goal of the notice, its terms, pertinent information, or other elements must all be stated
briefly in the body of the notice. It must also be brief while still being comprehensive.
 Indicate the date on which the notice was issued.
 Make it clear who your target audience is (for whom the notice is to be displayed).
 Finally, check the text for spelling and grammatical errors. Also, make certain that the notice’s
text is clear.

Notice Writing Formats & Sample Examples

Q. As Principal of Central School, Patna, create a notice of no more than 50 words advising
pupils of a change in school hours beginning October 1st. Explain why the modification is
necessary.

Ans:

NOTICE

Central School, Patna

2nd November 2021

Changes in School Schedules

All students are thus notified of a change in school hours beginning October 1st, 20xx. School will
now begin at 9:00 a.m. and end at 3:00 p.m. Winters have been harsher in recent years, making it
impossible to start early owing to the extreme cold and dense fog. As a result, these new schedules
will be followed until further notice.

Principal

Circulars
A circular is essentially a letter containing some important information that is distributed to a large
number of people. Say for example you have to invite an entire department for a meeting, or update
the dress policy for the whole office – a circular will be the best mode of communication for these
purposes. Additionally, circulars also find use as advertising tools. They can contain marketing
information and have a wide distribution range. Be it for inter-departmental communication,
advertising or even personal reasons a circular must always reach a large number of correspondents.
This is one of its main features.
Agenda
An agenda, also called a docket or a schedule, is a list of activities in the order they are to be
taken up, from the beginning till the adjournment. An agenda helps in preparing for a meeting
by providing a list of items and a clear set of topics, objectives, and time frames that are needed
to be discussed upon.
Format of an Agenda
An Agenda normally includes the following elements −
 Meeting Agenda Title − at the top; preferably center-aligned
 Meeting Information − Description of the purpose
 Objective − description of Agenda
 Date − for maintaining records of correspondence
 Location − the place of meeting
 Time − the actual time of commencement of the meeting
 Meeting Type − brainstorming or Discussion or Assessment
 Time of Arrival − time to begin the meeting
 Time of Adjournment − time the meeting ends
 Attendees − Number of people present, with their names
 Preparation for Meeting −
o Please Read − instructions to be followed
o Please bring − things supposed to be carried that day
o Action Items −
Last Action Responsible Authority Due Date
New Action Responsible Authority Due Date
o Other notes − other instruction or information to be taken down.

Example

Update after meeting with Hasta La Vista representatives

Meeting Information − Update after meeting representatives of Hasta La Vista.
Objective − for the purpose of interior decoration of our office premises.
Date- 23rd April, 2015
Location- Meeting Room-1
Time- 4:30 PM
Meeting Type- Discussion
Time of Arrival- 6:00 PM
Time of Adjournment- 8:30 PM
Attendees- Mohtahsim M., Kiran K. Panigrahi, Gopal K Verma, Manisha Shejwal
Preparation for Meeting:
Please Read - Hasta La Vista Company Brochure, Quotation Document
Please bring - Competitor Company’s quotation, hourly rates analysis
Action Items:
Due Action:

Updates from Hasta la Vista Gopal K Verma 30th April, 2015

Find Hasta la Vista’s competitor Manisha Shejwal 30th April, 2015

New Action:

Send email to their Head of Marketing Manisha Shejwal 5th May, 2015

Other notes - Products to purchase for the interior décor.

Meeting minutes

Meeting minutes are the official summary of what happened during a

meeting.
They serve as an outline, a written record for anyone unable to attend, and to
use for future reference. Minutes document what happened and what
decisions were made.
When written well, and when using a good meeting minutes template,
minutes are a critical communication tool for your organization.
Meeting minutes are notes that are taken during a meeting to record what happens in the
meeting. These notes typically highlight the key issues that are discussed in the meeting.
Meeting minutes should indicate the time, date, and setting of the meeting. These notes
should also document who was in attendance at the meeting. If there are any
presentations or reports presented, these should be reflected in the meeting minutes.
What should included in minutes

Here is some necessary information found in most meeting minutes.

1. The title of the group that is meeting, or the meeting itself
2. The date and time, as well as the venue or meeting room, if appropriate
3. Who is in attendance and who is recording the minutes
4. The meeting’s agenda
5. What decisions were made and by whom
6. Motions and vote counts (if applicable)

Example of Minutes

MINUTES OF A MEETING OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS

September 5, 2021
A meeting of the Board of Directors (the “Board”) of ACME Corp., a
California C-Corporation (the “Company”), was held on September 5, 2021,
at the offices of the Company.

Attendance
- Voting Members: Larry Emerson, Marc Branson
- Guests: Amy Holmes, Tom Avery
- Voting Members Absent: None

Approval of minutes
A motion to approve the previous meeting minutes from August 5th was
made by Larry Emerson and seconded by Marc Branson.

Call to Order
Larry Emerson called the meeting to order at 2:00 p.m. and Tom Avery
recorded the minutes. A quorum of directors was present, and the meeting,
having been duly convened, was ready to proceed with the business.

CEO Report
Larry Emerson reviewed the agenda and welcomed everyone to the meeting.
Next, Larry Emerson discussed the current status of the company and its
progress. A number of questions were asked and extensive discussion ensued.

Sales & Business Development Update Report

Marc Branson next provided an update on the overall sales progress and sales
pipeline of the Company. He also presented the status of business
development discussions.

Financial Review Report

Marc Branson provided a comprehensive update on the Company's financial
plan and forecast. Marc Branson also reviewed the Company's principal
financial operating metrics.

Motion #1: Approval of Option Grants

Amy Holmes presented to the Board a list of proposed options to be granted
to Company employees for approval, whereupon motion duly made,
seconded and unanimously adopted, the option grants were approved as
presented in Exhibit A.

Announcements
None

Adjournment
There being no further business to come before the meeting, the meeting was
adjourned at 2:45 p.m.
 Curriculum Vitae (CV)

The term CV is an abbreviation of the Latin word Curriculum Vitae, which is literally
translated to “the course of your life”.

A CV is a very in-depth document that describes your career journey step-by-step, including all
sorts of personal information. You can look at the CV as a comprehensive description of
everything you have ever done, all the achievements you are proud of, and all the publications
that bear your name.

You need to update your CV every time you accomplish something new academically or
professionally. Meaning, whenever you get a new job, publish something new, obtain a new
certificate, and so on.

There is no rule of thumb on how long a CV should be - depending on the amount of

experience, it can range from 2 to 8 pages.

What to Include on a CV
1. Full name
2. Contact information
3. Professional title, resume summary, or resume objective
4. Research interests
5. Education
6. Publications (both academic papers and books)
7. Teaching or lecturing experience
8. Work experience
9. Conferences and courses
10. Skills
11. Certificates
12. Languages
13. Grants of fellowships
14. References

In Elizabeth’s CV, you can see a summarized snapshot of her life: everything she has studied, all
the conferences she has been to, the skills she obtained, and a list of her publications.

Since she’s applying for a job in a university, Elizabeth mentions her academic achievements
and interests first, and professional experiences later.
Resume

A resume is a short, straight-to-the-point, document created for the purpose of applying to a

specific job.

Unlike the CV, you should try to keep a resume as short as possible. In 99% of the cases,
you’d want to keep your resume to 1-page max. If you have 15+ years of experience, or really
believe that the extra information you can mention can add value to your application, you can
make it 2 pages tops.

In a resume, you only mention the aspects of your work experience and skills that are relevant to
the job you’re applying for. A good resume highlights specific contributions you have made in
 your previous work and showcases how your different skills can be useful for the position you
are applying to.

The resume is usually accompanied by the submission of a cover letter which states your intent
for applying to the job. The cover letter builds upon the skills and experience you have
touched upon in your resume, explaining how they’re going to help you excel at the job you’re
applying for.

Making a resume and continuously updating it can be a hassle. Want a modern-looking resume
done in less than 5 minutes? Try our online resume builder. It’s free, and you can select amongst
8+ templates.

What to Include on a Resume

1. Full name
2. Your job title, or the name of the position you’re applying for
3. Contact information
4. Resume summary or objective
5. Work experience
6. Education
7. Relevant skills
8. Languages and proficiency
9. Relevant certifications and interests (if any)

Bio Data

Since it is an archaic term, Biodatas are not used in a career oriented field anymore. Our parents
used to share their biodata when they would go for interviews back in the 70s. Nowadays,
Biodata has a reference mostly in case of arranged (or love) marriages where parents ask for it
from the other party.

In a bio data, the focus is on personal particulars like date of birth, gender, religion, race,
nationality, residence, marital status, and the like. A chronological listing of education and
experience comes after that but only to show what a person has done, it is not for the purpose of
a job.

In some South Asian countries (e.g. Bangladesh) it may be used in the place of a resume. A
biodata form is also required when applying for government, or defence positions.

Biodata

1. No limit on the pages

2. Focus on Date and Time of Birth, gender, religion, race, nationality, residence, marital
status
3. Customised for the purpose of marriages
 4. Written in a first or third person tone
5. Education & Experience: not mandatory

Report Writing

A report is a brief account of an event that has already taken place. The report helps in recording
the events of importance that occur in our day-to-day life. It attempts to present the firsthand
information of an incident or event. A report of an event presents a record of events that took
place. A report of an event includes one’s ideas, opinions and impressions about the event.

A report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a particular purpose and
audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making
recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-
structured.

Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between organisation and
departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as well as between subjects, so it’s
worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you start.

Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:

 A description of a sequence of events or a situation;

 Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether solely your own
analysis or informed by the views of others, always carefully referenced of course (see our page
on Academic Referencing for more information);
 An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;
 Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;
 Your recommendations as to a course of action; and
 Conclusions.
Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.

Kinds of Reports

Business Reports
 Business reports are actual documents that inform by summarizing and analyzing a particular
situation, issue, or facts and then make recommendations to the group or person asking for the
report. The goal of these reports is usually one of the following:

 To examine potential and available solutions to an issue, situation, or problem

 To apply business and management theories to produce different suggestions for improvement

 To show your evaluation, reasoning, and analytical skills in recognizing and considering possible
solutions and outcomes

 To make conclusions about an issue or problem

 To produce a range of suggestions for future action

 To present clear and concise communication skills

Informational Reports
You ask for this report when you want objective information on something. It presents non-
biased facts without explaining the reasons and the possible outcomes of a situation. It is the
ideal business report for learning things such as the number of employees, the role each of them
plays in the company, or the departments the employees work in.

Analytical Report

This type of business report is usually required when a company is trying to make an important
decision. An analytical report analyzes the company’s situation, presenting relevant information,
explanations, and conclusions. It helps the company to make good decisions going forward.

Research Report

This is the most comprehensive type of business reports required when a company considers
trying something new, such as going into a new geographical area or offering a new product. A
team of specialists or researchers are given a topic and asked to find all the relevant statistics and
details obtained from an informational report, followed by a detailed analysis of the data found
in the analytical report. The conclusion of the research report will be based on the available data
obtained from the analytical and informational reports.

Progress Report

You want this report to show how things are going at the moment. A progress report isn’t based
on analysis or tons of research. Instead, they are an update for the person who needs it. One
example of this could be a weekly report disclossing the progress made throughout the week and
what tasks you're looking to work on in the upcoming week.

Technical Report

A technical report usually is more detailed than an article published in a journal or a paper
presented at a conference. It contains sufficient data to enable a reader to evaluate the
investigative process of original research or development. It is an end product of an
investigation, survey, research project etc. Technical report, the primary recording medium for R
& D work, has become an important source of information in recent years. This is mainly
because of the time consuming routines of publication procedures of journals and their
preference to publish completed research as against research in progress. But many a time, the
nature of communication does not require wide dissemination and so a technical report is
brought out. Further, the government-funded research results in the areas of space, nuclear
sciences, and defense is generally shrouded under secrecy and national security and so is
circulated to a very limited people. All these factors have resulted in the emergence of the
technical report, which is issued in different sizes and formats.

Technical reports are characterized by their objectivity and targeted audience. They define the
problem, analyze and assess the current and future conditions, describe the method experiment to
solve a problem, discuss the results, draw conclusions and recommend future course of action.

Types of Technical Reports

Technical reports include technical papers, memoranda, proposals, progress and status reports,
feasibility reports, technical manuals, investigation reports etc. A technical report may be a letter,
an article, a research paper, an operational manual, a news bulletin, a company brochure, a book
review etc. It includes preprints, institutional reports, and committee reports also under technical
reports literature. Depending on the purpose and information content, reports can be classified as
informal and formal reports.

Informal reports usually present the results of investigations and convey information of
products, methods and equipment. The informal nature makes these more accessible, and easy to
be adapted to any situation. These are generally meant for immediate superiors and colleagues in
an institution. Analysis reports, trip reports, laboratory reports, field reports, inspection reports,
etc.

Formal reports provide information which is needed by the management for decision making.
Thus a formal report will have a larger target readership as compared to the informal report, and
serve as a main source of information. Formal reports include project proposals, progress or
status reports (half-yearly, annual etc), state of-the-art reports and review reports, trend or critical
evaluation reports, feasibility reports, etc. Types and characteristics of some of the above
mentioned reports are briefly described in the following paragraphs.

Committee Reports Many a time when a major decision is to be taken, the government or its
department constitutes committees to go into various aspects of the issue. These issues include
policy formulation, restructuring the organisation, prevention of losses due to hazards, etc.
Usually, all the members in such committees will be experts in their fields and these reports
provide very valuable information, including the pros and cons of an issue and a plan of action.

Feasibility Reports These reports discuss the practicality, in physical and economic terms, of a
new project (for example, feasibility reports on the establishment of DELNET, CALIBNET etc),
new product development of a new program, purchase of a equipment plant or machine, or
reallocation of a factor?; site. A feasibility report generally includes explanation of the problem,
present standards on criteria, subject-items to be analysed, and examination of the scope of
analysis. Feasibility reports may also include cost-effective analysis. Alternative routes available
to complete the project and a minimum time required to achieve a breakeven point in cases
where returns are expected.

Institutional Reports These reports describe the activities and progress of projects. Undertaken
by an institution or establishment. These include technical information on programs, details of
infrastructural and manpower resources, and summaries of research undertaken during the period
of the report. As such these reports provide valuable information not available elsewhere. The
annual reports of the government departments and agencies, private and public R&D
laboratories, and professional societies belong to this category of reports.

Reprints

These can be taken as the informal reports of individual authors. These are circulated to the
colleagues or professionals who are working in the same field for their comments. The relevant
comments made by them, if any, are incorporated and then submitted to a primary journal or
presented in a conference/symposium. The format of the preprint will be that of a research paper
published in a professional periodical.

Proposal
Project Proposals

Project proposals are chiefly prepared for getting sanction of projects or approval of a
developmental works or getting grants and contracts. These are not circulated before or after the
purpose for which they were prepared. Most of the times, the information included is proprietary
in nature. These are different from other types of reports because they deal with future plan of
action and method of implementation of a project. The main characteristics of a proposal are the
statement of intention, willingness, and qualifications and expertise to accomplish a task as per a
definite time schedule. This may also include information about the capabilities of existing
facilities, financial, infrastructural and manpower considerations. Convincing the peers to obtain
financial support or sanction of project is a hidden function of a proposal. Generally, proposals
include a letter of transmittal. Title, executive summary, table of contents, introduction, overview
analysis of the problem, statement of the problem, methodology and infrastructural facilities
needed to complete the project.

Technical Proposal

A technical proposal is a document that contains an introduction to the product, an explanation of

how it will help address the recipient’s problem, the company’s execution plan, and technical
details of the deal.

Elements of Proposal

Introduction and Theoretical Framework

A. “The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the
background information for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to
establish a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it is
related to other research”.

B. In an introduction, the writer should

1. create reader interest in the topic,

2. lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
3. place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature.

.
C. Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in
quantitative and qualitative endeavors.

II. Statement of the Problem

A. “The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also
identifies the general analysis approach”

It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can easily
recognize it. Sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an
extended discussion. In such cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have
difficulty recognizing the problem.

A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be
provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical
framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the
problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that undergirds the study.

III. Purpose of the Study

“The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall
purpose of the study”. If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to
the reader.

Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the research. You will revisit this in greater detail
in a later section. Foreshadow the hypotheses to be tested or the questions to be raised, as well
as the significance of the study. These will require specific elaboration in subsequent sections.

IV. Review of the Literature

“The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research
problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is
knowledgeable about the area”.
The literature review accomplishes several important things.

1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely
related to the study being reported.
2. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature
about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies.
3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study,
as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other
findings.
4. It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
V. Questions and/or Hypotheses

A. Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of

them are there? Is there a relationship between them?). They are most often used
in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more
prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are typically used
only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is entitled
to have an exposition of the theory that led to them (and of the assumptions
underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data,
hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework.

VI. The Design--Methods and Procedures

A. “The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research

proposal. The activities should be described with as much detail as possible, and
the continuity between them should be apparent”.

B. Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question or
to test every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section.

E. Sampling

1. The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that

of validity—the extent to which the interpretations of the results of the
study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be
generalized to other situations with other people.

2. Sampling is critical to external validity—the extent to which findings

of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those
observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a sample to
some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from
that population according to one of several probability sampling plans. By
a probability sample is meant that the probability of inclusion in the
sample of any element in the population must be given a priori. All
probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at some stage
(Shavelson, 1988). In experimentation, two distinct steps are involved.

F. Data Collection

1. Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include
survey administration procedures, interview or observation procedures.
 Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be employed. If
appropriate, discuss how you obtained entré.

2. Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to follow.

G. Data Analysis

1. Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately.

VII. Limitations and Delimitations

A. A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study. Think about your

analysis, the nature of self-report, your instruments, the sample. Think about
threats to internal validity that may have been impossible to avoid or minimize—
explain.

VIII. Significance of the Study

A. Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge
in the area under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or
extensions may have either substantive, theoretical, or methodological
significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash value).

B. Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners and professional

peers. Statements relating the research to both groups are in order.

IX. References

Only references cited in the text are included in the reference list; however, exceptions can be
found to this rule. For example, committees may require evidence that you are familiar with a
broader spectrum of literature than that immediately relevant to your research. In such instances,
the reference list may be called a bibliography.

Appendixes

The need for complete documentation generally dictates the inclusion of appropriate
appendixes in proposals (although this is generally not the case as regards
conference proposals).

Definition of Reference
Reference can be understood as the act of giving credit to or mentioning the name of, someone or
something. In research methodology, it denotes the items which you have reviewed and referred
to, in the text, in your research work. It is nothing but a way to acknowledge or indirectly
showing gratitude, towards the sources from where the information is gathered.

While using references, one thing is to be noted that you go for reliable sources only, because it
increases credence and also supports your arguments. It may include, books, research papers, or
articles from magazines, journals, newspapers, etc., interview transcripts, internet sources such
as websites, blogs, videos watched, and so forth.

These are used to inform the reader about the sources of direct quotations, tables, statistics,
photos etc. that are included in the research work.