SPC 307

Introduction to Aerodynamics

Lecture 6
Potential Flow

April 2, 2017

Sep. 18, 2016

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Stream Lines

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Stream Lines

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 The Stream Function, (x,y)
• Consider the continuity equation for an incompressible 2D flow
u v
 0
x y
• Substituting the clever transformation, (x,y)
• Defined as:
• Gives
u v    
   ( )  ( )0 This is true for any smooth
x y x y y x function (x,y)
so that it always satisfies the continuity eq.
u using stream

 two unknows    
function
 one unknow
v

conservation of mass will always be satisfied 9
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 The Stream Function, 
• Why do this?
• Single variable  replaces (u,v).
• Once  is known, (u,v) can be determined.
• Physical significance
1. Curves of constant  are streamlines of the flow
2. Difference in  between streamlines is equal to
volume flow rate between streamlines

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The Stream Function: Physical Significance
1. Curves of constant  are streamlines of the flow

Recall that the streamline equation is

given by:

 Change in  along streamline

is zero

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 2. Difference in  between streamlines is equal to volume flow rate between streamlines

• Let dq represent the volume rate of flow per unit width perpendicular to the
x–y plane passing between the two streamlines.
• From conservation of mass we know that the inflow, dq, crossing the arbitrary
surface AC must equal the net outflow through surfaces AB and BC. Thus,

• or in terms of the stream function

• Thus, the volume rate of flow, q,

between two streamlines can be
determined by integration to yield
 Prove
 
dq  (V • nˆ ) * area  (V • nˆ ) * dr
• Volume flow rate per unit depth=


• Now, in terms uiˆvelocity
V  of  vˆj components

dq  (uiˆ • iˆ) * dy  (vˆj •  ˆj ) * dx

 udy  vdx  d

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 Example Stream Function
• The velocity components in a steady, incompressible, two-dimensional
flow field are
u  2y v  4x
Determine the corresponding stream function and show on a sketch
several streamlines.
Indicate the direction of flow along the streamlines.
From the definition of the stream function

 
u  2y v  4x
y x
  y2  f1 (x)   2x 2  f 2 (y)

  2 x 2  y 2  C
For simplicity, we set C = 0
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 Example Solution Ψ=0

  2x  y
2 2

• Streamlines can now be

determined by setting
=const. and plotting the
resulting curve.
• With the above expression for
, the value of  at the origin
is zero so that the equation of
the streamline passing
through the origin is
0 = -2x2 + y2

• For
y2 x 2
Ψ≠0  1 which we recognize as the equation
 /2 of a hyperbola 23
 Rate of rotation (angular velocity)

Consider the rotation about z-axis of the rectangular element x-y

The rotation of the side x
𝜕𝑣
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥
tan 𝛿𝛼 ≈ 𝛿𝛼 = = 𝛿𝑡
𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥
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 Rate of rotation (angular velocity)
Angular Velocity of OA

𝜕𝑣
𝛿𝛼 𝛿𝑡
𝜔𝑂𝐴 = lim = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝛿𝑡→0 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑣
𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑥

The rotation of the side y

𝜕𝑢
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑦
tan 𝛿𝛽 ≈ 𝛿𝛽 = = 𝛿𝑡
𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Angular Velocity of OB
𝜕𝑢
𝛿𝛽 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑦
𝜔𝑂𝐵 = lim = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝛿𝑡→0 =
𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑦
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Rate of rotation (angular velocity)
• The rotation of the element about the z axis is defined as the average of the angular velocities of the two mutually perpendicular lines OA and OB. If counterclockwise rotation is considered to be positive, then:

• Average rotation about z-axis

• Average rotation about x-axis,

• Average rotation about y-axis,

• Rotation Vector

1  v u 
 z    
2  x y 

1  w v 
 x    
2  y z 

1  u w 
y    
2  z x 

 1  w v  ˆ  u w  ˆ  v u  ˆ 
   x iˆ   y ˆj   z kˆ    i     j    k 
2  y z   z x   x y   26
 Rotational and Irrotational Flows

• The vorticity is defined as:

 = 2𝜔=

 w v  ˆ  u w  ˆ  v u  ˆ
  i     j    k
 y z   z x   x y 

For irrotational flow =  = 0

Examples: Rotational flow:

Solid-Body Rotation (Forced

Vortex): u =  r

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 Rotational and Irrotational Flows
• Examples: Irrotational flow:
• Free Vortex: u = K/r

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Mathematical Representation
• Vorticity is the curl of the velocity vector
• For 3-D vorticity in Cartesian coordinates:

  
i j k
     w v   u w   v u 
 V   i     j     k   
x y z  y z   z x   x y 
u v w
The horizontal relative vorticity (about z axis) is found by
eliminating terms with vertical () components:

  
i j k
      v u 
k •   V      
x y z  x y 
u v w 30
Potential Function, 
• Irrotational approximation: vorticity
is negligibly small

• In general, inviscid regions are also

irrotational, but there are situations
where inviscid flow are rotational,
e.g., solid body rotation.

What are the implications of irrotational approximation. Look at continuity and

momentum equations.
Use the vector identity where is a scalar function
Since the flow is irrotational where

is a scalar potential function

Irrotational Flow Approximation
• Therefore, regions of irrotational flow are also called regions of potential
flow.
• From the definition of the gradient operator 
  
Cartesian u , v , w
x y z
 1  
Cylindrical ur  , u  , uz 
r r  z

• Substituting into the continuity equation for incompressible flow gives:

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 Irrotational Flow Approximation
• This means we only need to solve 1 linear scalar equation to determine
all 3 components of velocity!

Laplace Equation

• Luckily, the Laplace equation appears in numerous fields of science,

engineering, and mathematics. This means there are well developed
tools for solving this equation.
Momentum equation
If we can compute  from the Laplace equation (which came from continuity)
and velocity from the definition , why do we need the NSE?  the
answer: To compute Pressure.
To begin analysis, apply irrotational approximation to viscous term of the
incompressible NSE

=0 33
Irrotational Flow Approximation
• Therefore, the NSE reduces to the Euler equation for irrotational flow
• Instead of integrating to find P, use vector identity to derive Bernoulli
equation

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 Irrotational Flow Approximation
• This allows the steady Euler equation to be written as

• This form of Bernoulli equation is valid for inviscid and irrotational flow
since we’ve shown that NSE reduces to the Euler equation.
• However,
Inviscid

Irrotational ( = 0)
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Irrotational Flow Approximation
• Therefore, the process for irrotational flow
1. Calculate  from Laplace equation (from continuity)
2. Calculate velocity from definition
3. Calculate pressure from Bernoulli equation (derived from momentum
equation)

2 2
p V p V
  gz    gz
 2  2

Valid for 3D or 2D
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 Irrotational Flow Approximation
2D Flows
• For 2D flows, we can also use the stream function 
• Recall the definition of stream function for planar (x-y) flows

 
u v
y x
• Since vorticity is zero for irrotational flow,
v u
z   0
x y
= 2 

• This proves that the Laplace equation holds for the stream function and the
velocity potential

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Irrotational Flow Approximation
2D Flows

• Constant values of : streamlines

• Constant values of : equipotential
lines
•  and  are mutually orthogonal
•  is defined by continuity;
2 results from irrotationality
•  is defined by irrotationality;
2 results from continuity

Flow solution can be achieved by solving either 2 or 2,

however, BCs are easier to formulate for 
 Relation between  and  lines
• If a flow is incompressible, irrotational, and two dimensional, the velocity
field may be calculated using either a potential function or a stream
function.
• Using the potential function, the velocity components in Cartesian
coordinates are  
u , v
x y
 
• And d  dx  dy  udx  vdy
x y
• For lines of constant potential (d = 0), which are called equipotential lines:
 dy  u
  
 dx  c v
• Since a streamline is everywhere tangent to the local velocity, the slope of a
streamline, which is a line of constant , is
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Relation between  and  lines
 dy  v
  
 dx   c u
• Comparing equations of slopes yields:

 dy  1
  
 dx  c (dy dx)  c
• The slope of an equipotential line is the negative reciprocal of the slope of a
streamline.
• Therefore, streamlines ( = constant) are everywhere orthogonal
(perpendicular) to equipotential lines ( = constant).
• This observation is not true, however, at stagnation points, where the
components vanish simultaneously.

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Irrotational Flow Approximation
2D Flows
• Similar derivation can be performed for cylindrical coordinates (except for
2 for axisymmetric flow)
• Planar, cylindrical coordinates: flow is in (r,) plane
• Axisymmetric, cylindrical coordinates : flow is in (r,z) plane

Planar Axisymmetric
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Irrotational Flow Approximation
2D Flows

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 Potential flows Visualization
 Flow fields for which an incompressible fluid is assumed to be frictionless and the motion
to be irrotational are commonly referred to as potential flows.
 Paradoxically, potential flows can be simulated by a slowly moving, viscous flow between
closely spaced parallel plates.
• For such a system, dye injected
upstream reveals an approximate
potential flow pattern around a
streamlined airfoil shape.
• Similarly, the potential flow pattern
around a bluff body is shown. Even at
the rear of the bluff body the
streamlines closely follow the body
shape.
• Generally, however, the flow would
separate at the rear of the body, an
important phenomenon not
accounted for with potential theory.

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 Irrotational Flow Approximation
2D Flows
• Method of Superposition
1. Since 2   is linear, a linear combination of two or more solutions is
also a solution, e.g., if 1 and 2 are solutions, then (A1), (A+1), (1+2),
(A1+B2) are also solutions
2. Also true for  in 2D flows (2 =0)
3. Velocity components are also additive

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Irrotational Flow Approximation
2D Flows

• Given the principal of superposition, there are several

elementary planar irrotational flows which can be combined
to create more complex flows.
• Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
• Uniform stream
• Line source/sink
• Line vortex
• Doublet

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Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
Uniform Stream
• u = U=constant , v = 0, w = 0

• In Cartesian coordinates

U

•  = U x ,  = U y
• Conversion to cylindrical coordinates
can be achieved using the
transformation

•  = U r cos  ,  = U r sin 
Stagnation Flow
• The flow is an incoming far field flow which is perpendicular to the
wall, and then turns its direction near the wall
• The origin is the stagnation point of the flow. The velocity is zero
there.

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Application: Stagnation Flow
• For a stagnation flow,
 

• Hence, V  Bx iˆ  By ˆj
 
 u  Bx,  v   By
x y
• Therefore,

B 2 B 2
• And
  ( x  y )  r cos 2
2

2 2
 
 u  Bx,   v   By
y x
• Therefore B 2
  Bxy  r sin 2 48
2
Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
Line Source/Sink • Let’s consider fluid flowing
radially outward from a line
through the origin perpendicular
vr
to x-y plane
• from mass conservation:
K
• The volume flow rate per unit
thickness is K
• This gives velocity components

K
vr  and v  0
2r
K  
vr   
2r r r
 
and v  0  
r r
Stream function and potential function
  K
 0 and 
r r 2r
By integration: K

K
 ln r
2

 0
r
 K  K
and   
r 2r  2
By integration:
K
  Equations are for a source/sink
2 at the origin
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 Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
Line (potential) Vortex
• A potential vortex is defined as a
singularity about which fluid flows with
concentric streamlines
• Vortex at the origin. First look at
v velocity components
𝜕∅ 1 𝜕𝜓
𝑣𝑟 = = =0
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

1 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜓 
𝑣𝜃 = =− =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

• These can be integrated to give  and 

Equations are for a line vortex
at the origin where the arbitrary
integration constants are taken to be
zero at (r,)=(1,0) &
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Free Vortex
• The potential represents a flow swirling around origin with a constant
circulation .
• The magnitude of the flow decreases as 1/r.

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 Line Vortex
• now we consider situation when the stream
lines are concentric circles i.e. we interchange
potential and stream functions:
  K
   K ln r
• circulation

   V  ds     ds   d  0
C C C
• in case of vortex the circulation is zero along any
contour except ones enclosing origin
2
K
 
0
r
(rd )  2 K

 
     ln r
2 2
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 Shape of the free surface
 1 𝜕∅ 
  𝑣𝜃 = =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2𝜋𝑟
2

Bernolli’s equation

p V2
  gz  const
 2
at the free surface p=0:
V12 V2 2
 z
2g 2g
 2
z 2 2
8 r g
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Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
Line Vortex
• If vortex is moved to (x,y) = (a,b)
 Source and Sink
• Consider a source of strength K at (-a, 0) and a sink of K at (a, 0)
• For a point P with polar coordinate of (r,  ). If the polar coordinate from (-a,0) to
P is (r2, 2) and from (a, 0) to P is (r1, 1),
• Then the stream function and potential function obtained by superposition are
given by:


K
 2  1  ,
2

K
lnr2  lnr1 
2

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Source and Sink
𝐾
𝜓 = 2𝜋 (𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
• Hence,
 2  tan 2  tan1
tan    tan  2  1  
 K  1  tan 2 tan1
• Since
rsin rsin
tan 2  and tan1 
rcos  a rcos  a
• We have
 2   2arsin
tan   2
• We have  K  r  a 2

K -1   2arsin 
 tan  2 
2  r a 
2

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Source and Sink
𝐾 𝐾 𝑟2
𝜙 = 2𝜋 (ln 𝑟1 − ln 𝑟2 )=2𝜋 (ln )
𝑟1
• We have

r  rsin   rcos  a   r 2  a 2  2arcos

2 2 2
2

r  rsin   rcos  a   r 2  a 2  2arcos

2 2 2
1
• Therefore,
K  r 2  a 2  2arcos 

 ln
2  r 2  a 2  2arcos 

• The velocity component are:

K  rcos  a rcos  a 
vr   2  2 
2  r  a  2arcos r  a  2arcos 
2 2

K  rsin rsin 
v   2  2 
2  r  a  2arsin r  a  2arsin 
2 2
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60
Doublet
• The doublet occurs when a source and a sink of the same strength are
collocated the same location, say at the origin.
• This can be obtained by placing a source at (-a,0) and a sink of equal
strength at (a,0) and then letting a  0, and K , with Ka kept
constant, say aK/2=B
• For source of K at (-a,0) and sink of K at (a,0)
K   2arsin  K  r 2  a 2  2arcos 

  tan -1  2  and   ln
2  r a 
2
2  r 2  a 2  2arcos 

Under these limiting conditions of a  0, K   , we have
  2arsin   2asin
lim tan  2 
-1

 r a 
a 0 2
r
 r 2  a 2  2arcos  2a
lim ln  cos
a 0  r 2  a 2  2arcos  r 61

 
 Doublet (Summary)

• Adding 1 and 2 together,

performing some algebra,
Therefore, as a0 and K 
with aK/2=B then:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
ψ = −𝐵
𝑟

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜙=𝐵
𝑟

B is the doublet strength

The velocity components for a doublet may be found the same way we found
them for the source
𝜕∅ 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝜕∅ 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑣𝑟 = =− 𝑣𝜃 = =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟2
& 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟2
Examples of Irrotational Flows Formed by Superposition
Superposition of sink and vortex : bathtub vortex
• Superposition of sink and vortex :
bathtub vortex

𝐾 Γ
Ψ= 𝜃− ln 𝑟
2𝜋 2𝜋

Sink Vortex

1 𝜕𝜓 𝐾
𝑣𝑟 = =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2𝜋𝑟

𝜕𝜓 
𝑣𝜃 = − =
𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

64
 Superposition of Source and Uniform Flow
• Assuming the uniform flow U is in x-direction and the source of K stregth at(0,0),
the potential and stream functions of the superposed potential flow become:

𝐾 𝐾
𝜓 = 𝑈∞ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃 & ∅ = 𝑈∞ 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ln 𝑟
2𝜋 2𝜋

1 𝜕𝜓 𝐾 𝜕𝜓
𝑣𝑟 = = 𝑈∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑣𝜃 = − = −𝑈∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2𝜋𝑟 & 𝜕𝑟
65
 Superposition of Source and Uniform Flow
• Assuming the uniform flow U is in x-direction and the source of K stregth at(0,0),
the potential and stream functions of the superposed potential flow become:

66
Source in Uniform Stream
• The velocity components are:
 K 
vr   U  cos  and v   U  sin
r 2r r
• A stagnation point (vr=v=0) occurs at
K K
   and rs   rsU  
2U  2
Therefore, the streamline passing through the stagnation point when
𝐾 K
𝜓 = 𝑈∞ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
2𝜋
𝜃  s    rsU 
2
K
  s 
• The maximum height of the curve2is
K
h  rsin  as   0 and r  
2U 
67
Source in Uniform Stream

m
ψ
2 m
ψ
2

Stag. point ψ0

68
 Superposition of basic flows
• Streamlines created by injecting
dye in steadily flowing water
show a uniform flow.
• Source flow is created by
injecting water through a small
hole.
• It is observed that for this
combination the streamline
passing through the stagnation
point could be replaced by a
solid boundary which
resembles a streamlined body
in a uniform flow.
• The body is open at the
downstream end and is thus
called a halfbody.

69
70
 Rankine Ovals
• The 2D Rankine ovals are the results of the superposition of equal strength
(K) sink and source at x=a and –a with a uniform flow in x-direction.

𝐾
𝜓 = 𝑈∞ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + (𝜃 −𝜃 )
2𝜋 2 1

𝐾
∅ = 𝑈∞ 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + (𝑙𝑛𝑟2 −ln 𝑟1 )
2𝜋
71
Rankine Ovals
• Equivalently,
K  r  a  2a r cos 
2 2
  U  r cos  ln 
2  r 2  a 2  2a r cos 
 
K 1  2a r sin 
  U  r sin  tan  2 2 
• The velocity components are given by: 2  r a 

 K  r cos  a rcos  a 
vr    2  
r 2  r  a  2a r cos r  a  2ar cos 
2 2 2

 K  r sin r sin 
• The stagnation  r 2  r 2  a 2  2a r sin r 2  a 2  2ar sin 
v    
 
points occur at
where V = 0 with 1 1

corresponding s = 0  Ka 2
2 xs  K  2
xs    a  , i.e.,    1
 U   a  U  a 
ys  0 72
Rankine Ovals
 
• The maximum height of the Rankine oval is located at  r0 , 
when  = s = 0 ,i.e.,  2

K  2ar0 
  U  r0  tan  2
1
0
2 
2  r0  a 
or

r0 1  r0 
2
  2U  a ro 
    1 tan  
a 2  a    K a 

which can only be solved numerically.

73
74
Flow around a Cylinder: Steady Cylinder
• Flow around a steady circular cylinder is the limiting case of a Rankine
oval when a0.
• This becomes the superposition of a uniform parallel flow with a doublet
in x-direction.
• Under this limit and with B = a.K /2 =constant, the radius of the
1
cylinder is:.
 B  2
R  rs   
 U 

75
Flow around a Cylinder: Steady Cylinder
• The stream function and velocity potential become:

Bcos  R2 
  U  rcos   U  r 1  2 cos
r  r 
 
and
Bsin  R2 
  U  rsin   U  r 1  2 sin
r  r 
 

• The radial and circumferential velocities are:

   R2     R2 
vr    U  1  2 cos and v    U  1  2 sin
r r  r  r r  r 
 

76
Steady Cylinder

On the cylinder surface (r = R)

vr  0 and v  2U  sin

Normal velocity (vr) is zero, Tangential

velocity (v) is non-zero slip condition.
77
78
Pressure Distribution on a Circular Cylinder
• Using the irrotational flow approximation, we can calculate and plot the
non-dimensional static pressure distribution on the surface of a circular
cylinder of radius R in a uniform stream of speed U .
• The pressure far away from the cylinder is p
• Pressure coefficient: p  p
Cp 
1
U 2
2
• Since the flow in the region of interest is irrotational, we use the Bernoulli
equation to calculate the pressure anywhere in the flow field. Ignoring the
effects of gravity
• Bernoulli’s equation: p V2 p U 2
  cons tan t  
 2  2

p  p V2
• Rearranging Cp Eq. , we get Cp   1 2
1 U
U 2
2
79
 Pressure Distribution on a Circular Cylinder
• We substitute our expression for tangential
velocity on the cylinder surface, since along
the surface V2 = v2; the Eq. becomes

(2U 2 sin  ) 2
Cp  1 2
 1  4 sin 2

• In terms of angle ,Udefined
 from the front of
the body, we use the transformation  =  - 
to obtain Cp in terms of angle  :

C  1 4 sin 2
• We plot the pressure coefficient
p  on the top
half of the cylinder as a function of angle  ,
solid blue curve.

80
Pressure distribution on a fish
• Somewhere between the front stagnation point and the aerodynamic
shoulder is a point on the body surface where the speed just above the
body is equal to V, the pressure P is equal to P , and Cp = 0. This point is
called the zero pressure point
• At this point, the pressure acting normal to the body surface is the same
(P = P), regardless of how fast the body moves
• through the fluid.
• This fact is a factor in the location of fish eyes .

81
 Pressure distribution on a fish
• If a fish’s eye were located closer to its nose, the eye would experience
an increase in water pressure as the fish swims—the faster it would
swim, the higher the water pressure on its eye would be. This would
cause the soft eyeball to distort, affecting the fish’s vision. Likewise, if
the eye were located farther back, near the aerodynamic shoulder, the
eye would experience a relative suction pressure when the fish would
swim, again distorting its eyeball and blurring its vision.
• Experiments have revealed that the fish’s eye is instead located very
close to the zero-pressure point where P = P , and the fish can swim at
any speed without distorting its vision.
• Incidentally, the back of the gills is located near the aerodynamic
shoulder so that the suction pressure there helps the fish to “exhale.”
• The heart is also located near this lowest pressure point to increase the
heart’s stroke volume during rapid swimming.

82