Product Realization

Through Manufacturing
(22MEP102)
(B.Tech. I Year)

Laboratory Manual
(First year)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur
Jaipur-302017, Rajasthan, India
 CONTENTS

Sr. No. Contents Page No.

1 Instructions for laboratory 3-4

2 Course plan 5-7

3 Fitting shop 8-19

4 Foundry shop 20-28

5 Welding shop 29-41

6 Machine shop 42-62

7 3D Printing Shop 63-70

8 Job Drawing 71-78

 MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY FITTING SHOP

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN

WORK SHOP

1. Always wear tight clothes.

2. Never walk barefooted inside the Work Shop. Prefer to use Rubber soled shoes; closed
shoe is recommended.
3. Never try to operate any machine unless you know how to operate it.
4. Never touch moving parts.
5. Do not use defective tools.
6. Do not touch any live wire.
7. In case of fire, disconnect the electric supply.
8. Those who have long hair should take precaution by dressing them properly.
9. Tools which are not being used should always be kept at their respective places.
10. Never carry an open sharp tool in the pocket.
11. Do not cut work piece by holding it in hand.
12. Never work in a place where there is no sufficient light.
13. Always keep in mind the position of fire extinguishers and first aid box.
14. The job should be properly fitted in the vice.
15. Use always the right tool for the right job.
16. Don't use file or spanner as a hammer.
17. Always try to learn things sincerely from the instructors concerned.
18. Always keep your mind on the job.
19. Make sure that your work is not affecting the work of fellow students in the work shop.
20. Shop floor must be kept clean, free from scarp, oil and grease.

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ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSES

An accident is an unplanned incident which can cause damage to property or injury people. It
can happen due to anyone of the following reasons

1. Carelessness of the operator.

2. Lack of knowledge of the operator about the machine tool or job.
3. Lack of interest in the work.
4. Excessive confidence of the operator.
5. Operating a faulty machine.
6. Use of improper tools.
7. Running the machines at higher speeds or higher loads than recommended.
8. Improper or loose dress of the operator.
9. Improper lighting and ventilation in the workshop.
10. Lack of discipline among the operators.
11. Keeping objects in improper places, so as to interfere with free movement.

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Course Plan
Course Description:

This course aims to make the student aware of the basics of workshop practice which includes
laboratory exercises involving machining, fitting, casting and welding processes.

Course Objectives:

1. To identify tools, machines, equipment, work material and measuring instruments CO1
useful in welding shop and impart knowledge to prepare joint of specific shape and
size.

2. To identify tools, machines, equipment, work material and measuring instruments CO2
useful in machine shop and impart knowledge to prepare component of specific
shape and size.
3. To identify tools, machines, equipment, work material and measuring instruments CO3
useful in fitting shop and impart knowledge to prepare piece of specific shape and
size.
4. To identify tools, machines, equipment, work material and measuring instruments CO4
useful in foundry shop and impart knowledge to prepare pattern of specific shape
and size.

Course Content:

1. Machine Shop
(a) Introduction to Lathe, Shaper, Drilling, Grinder, Milling machines
(b) Job on lathe machine--Simple Turning, Step turning, facing, Knurling, etc.
2. Welding Shop
(a) Introduction to Gas, Arc and Spot Welding
(b) Job on Arc and Gas welding
3. Foundry Shop
(a) Introduction to Oil, Electric Furnace, Foundry tools, Sand, etc.
(b) Moulding Job
4. Fitting Shop
(a) Introduction to various Fitting tools,
(b) Fitting Job- Filing, Drilling, Tapping etc.
5. 3D Printing Shop
(a) Introduction to various additive manufacturing methods,
(b) 3D printing job

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Course Plan:

Sr. No. Shop Topic

Introduction/Classification of Machine tools (Lathe, Shaper, Drilling,

Machine

1 Grinder, milling machines), Single and Multi-point Cutting tools,

Shop

Safety/Precautions during machine shop

Preparation of Job on Lathe Machine Tool--Simple Turning, Step
turning, facing, Knurling, etc.
Introduction/Classification/Advantages and Disadvantages of
Welding

2 welding processes (i.e. Arc, Gas and Resistance Welding),

Shop

Safety/Precautions during welding shop

Preparation of Butt/Lap/Corner/T-Joint on Arc welding machine

Introduction to Oil/Electric Furnace/Foundry tools/ Moulding Sand,

Foundry

3 Types of patterns, Types of Allowances, Safety/Precautions during

Shop

foundry shop
Preparation of Mould cavity and Casting Job
Introduction to various Fitting tools/Measuring tools/ Marking tools,
Fitting

4 Safety/Precautions during foundry shop

Shop

Preparation of Paper weight using following operations (Filing,

Drilling, Tapping etc.)
3D Printing

5 Introduction to additive manufacturing and tools (3D Software and 3D

printing machine)
Shop

Preparation of model using 3D printer

Marks Distribution:

Sr. No. Component Shop Marks Marks

1 Continuous Machine Shop Job / Viva-Voce / File 7/2/3
Assessment Welding Shop Job / Viva-Voce / File 7/2/3
Foundry Shop Job / Viva-Voce / File 7/2/3
Fitting Shop Job / Viva-Voce / File 7/2/3
3D Printing Job / Viva-Voce / File 7/2/3
Shop
2 Mid-Term Multiple Shop Job & write up / Quiz 15 / 5
Assessment
3 End-Term Multiple Shop Job & write up / Quiz 15 / 5
Assessment
Total (Marks) 100

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Course plan is only a tentative plan. The teacher may make some changes in his/her course plan.
The students are advised to use syllabus for preparation of all examinations. The students are
expected to keep themselves updated on the contemporary issues related to the course.
Course Outcomes:
On successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:

1. To select suitable tools and equipment to prepare jobs related to welding, fitting,
machine and foundry processes.
2. To prepare the machine/machine tool for the production of the job.
3. To produce job using materials of specific shape and size by a suitable set of operations.
4. To measure the accuracy of job using different measuring instruments

Text Books:

(1) Elements of Mechanical Engineering –Hajra Choudhury & others, Media Promoters 2010.
(2) The Elements of Workshop Technology - Vol I & II, S.K. Hajra Choudhury, A.K. Hajra
Choudhury, Nirjhar Roy, 11th edition 2001 others, Media Promoters and Publishers,
Mumbai.

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FITTING SHOP
The term fitting is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape to the
required size or form, in order to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the same
are usually carried out on a work bench, hence the term bench work is also added with the
name fitting.

The bench work and fitting plays an important role in engineering. Although in today's
industries most of the work is done by automatic machines which produces the jobs with good
accuracy but still it (job) requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person
working in the fitting shop is called fitter.

FITTING TOOLS:

Fitting shop tools are classified as below:

I. Work Holding Devices / Clamping Tools.

II. Measuring Tools.
III. Marking Tools.
IV. Cutting Tools.
V. Striking Tools.
VI. Threading Tools.

I. WORK HOLDING DEVICES /CLAMPING TOOLS:

1. Work Bench

A fitting process can be done at various places, but most of the important operations of fitting
are generally carried out on a table called work bench.

The work bench is a strong, heavy and rigid table made up of hard wood.

The size of the work bench required is about 150 to 180 cm length, nearly 90 cm width and
approximately 76 to 84 cm height.

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2. Bench Vice

It is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a cast Iron body and
cast iron jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding surface of the jaw plates
is knurled in order to increase the gipping. Jaw plates are made up of carbon steel and are wear
resistant. One jaw is fixed to the body and the second slides on a square threaded screw with
the help of a handle.

The jaws are opened up to required length; job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened
with the help of handle. Handle is used to move the movable jaw.

3. V-Block

In V Block, V grooves are provided to hold the round objects longitudinally. The screw of the
clamp applies the holding pressure. When the handle is rotated there is movement in the screw.

V-Block

II. MEASURING TOOLS

1. Steel Rule

These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2
ft. These are marked in inches or millimetres. All the faces are machined true. The edges of
steel rule should be protected from rough handling.

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2. Calipers

These are generally used to measure the inside or outside diameters. Different types are:

i. Outside Caliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.

ii. Inside Caliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.
iii. Spring Caliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is provided to
lock any desired position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Odd leg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the
other has a straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the straight edges.

Calipers

3. Vernier Caliper

It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round, flat, square components and also the
inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is used to measure the depth of bar slots etc.
The reading accuracy in metric system is 0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001”. It is made
of stainless steel.

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III. MARKING TOOLS:

1. Surface Plate

It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the surfaces. It is made up of cast iron or graphite.
Its upper face is planned to form a very smooth surface. It is also used in scribing work. While
not in use, it should be covered with a wooden cover.

2. Angle Plate

It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed surfaces at right angles to each
other and has various slots in each surface to hold the work by means of bolts and clamps.
Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nuts and bolts.

3. Scriber and Surface Gauge

It consists of a cast iron bass on the centre of which a steel rod is fixed vertically. Scriber is
made up of high carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is used for locating the
centres of round bars or for marking of the lines.

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4. Punches

Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punches are used for marking dotted line and
centre punch is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches are made up of high
carbon steel or high-speed steels. One end is sharpened. Hammering is done on the second end
while working. For dot punch, angle of the punching end is 60 degrees while in centre punch;
angle of punching end is 90 degrees.

5. Try Square

It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade made up of steel, which
is attached to a base at 90 degrees. The base is made up of cast iron or steel. It is also used to
mark the right angles and measuring straightness of surfaces. Never use try square as a
hammer.

6. Vernier Height Gauge

A Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base, a graduated beam, a sliding head with Vernier
sliding jaws holding the scriber and a fine adjustment clamp. It is similar to large Vernier
calipers in construction, except that it consists of a heavy base which allows the gauge to stand
upright instead of a fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable jaw of Vernier height gauge consists
of a projection or extension which is levelled to sharp edge for scribing lines at any required
height.

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METHOD OF MARKING
Marking means setting out dimensions with the help of a working drawing or directly
transferring them from a similar part. The procedure of marking is as follows:

1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red lead and allowed to
dry.
2. Then the work is held in a holding device depending upon shape and size. If it is flat,
use surface plate, if it is round use V block and clamp, else use angle plate etc.
3. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a surface gauge. Lines at right
angles can be drawn by turning the work through 90 degree and then using the
scriber. If true surface is available, try square can also be used.
4. The center on the end of a round bar can be located by using an odd leg caliper,
surface gauge etc.
5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.
6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using dot punch
and hammer.

IV. CUTTING TOOLS

1. Hacksaw

Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It consists of a frame, which is made
from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with the help of a flange
nut. The blade is made up of high carbon steel or high-speed steel.

The points of the teeth are bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body
of the blade from rubbing or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades are generally
forward cut so in the case, pressure is applied in the forward direction only.

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Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:

• Forward cut
• Backward cut

Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive teeth) blades is
classified as:
• Coarse (8-14 teeth per Inch)
• Medium (16-20 teeth per inch)
• Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)

2. Files

Files are multi points cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it on the metals.
Files are available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness.

Classification of files

i. On the basis of length:

4”, 6”, 8”, 12”

ii. On the basis of grade:

1. Rough (R) (20 teeth per inch)

2. Bastard (B) (30 teeth per inch)

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3. Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)

4. Smooth file (S) (50 teeth per inch)
5. Dead smooth (DS) (100 teeth per inch)

Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more, these files
are used. These files have bigger cut but the surface produced Is rough.

Dead smooth and smooth files have smaller teeth and used for finishing work. Second cut file
has degree of finish in between bastard and smooth file.

ⅲ. On the basis of number of cuts:

1. Single cut files

2. Double cut files
3. Curved tooth files
4. Rasp files

Single cut files have rows of teeth cut parallel to each other at an angle of 65 degrees from the
centerline. Sometimes referred to as “Saw Files,” Single cut files are used for sharpening tools,
finish-filing and draw-filing. They are also the best tools for smoothing the edges of sheet
metal.
Double-cut files have rows of teeth crisscrossed so the teeth become diamond-shaped. The
first row of teeth is called the overcut. On the top of these rows, a second set of teeth is cut at
a different angle to the file axis. This row is known as the upcut and is finer than the overcut.
Double-cut files are generally used for rough work and fast removal of material. They are
sometimes referred to as "Machinists’ Files".
Curved-cut is an arrangement of file teeth in curved contours across the working face of the
file. The teeth are milled with a decided undercut (or positive rake). These files are used
mainly for automobile body repair.
Rasp-cut is a pattern by which each tooth is formed individually by a single-pointed tool or
punch. These files are generally used for wood.

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ⅳ. On the basis of shape and size:

The length of the files varies from 4' to 14*. The various shapes of cross-section available are
hand file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge, pillar, needle and mill file.

(a) Flat file: This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and then it tapers in
width and thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single cut.

(b) Hand file: for a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness tapers as given
in flat file. Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut. The remaining edge is kept
uncut in order to use for filing a right-angled corner on one side only.

(c) Square file: It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its length and then
tapers towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing square corners and slots.

(d) Triangular file: It has width either parallel throughout or up to middle and then tapered
towards the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are double cut and the
edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or comers and for sharpening wood
working saws.

(e) Round file: It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its surface. It is
normally made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as rat-tail file. Parallel round
files having same diameter throughout the length are also available. The round files are used
for opening out holes, producing round comers, round-ended slots etc.

(f) Half-round file: Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about one-third of a
circle. The width of the file is either parallel throughout or up to middle and then tapered
towards the tip. The flat side of this file is always a double cut and curved side has single cut.
It is used for filing curved surfaces.

(g) Knife edge file: It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered towards the
tip and thickness. It carries double cut teeth on the two broad faces and single cut teeth on the
edge. It is used for finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots

(h) Diamond file: Its cross-section is like a diamond. It is used for special work.

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Methods of filing

The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:

1. Cross-filing 2. Draw filing.

Cross – filing:

This method is used for efficient removal of maximum amount of metal in the shortest possible
time. It may be noted that the file must remain horizontal throughout the stroke (long, slow
and steady) with pressure only applied on the forward motion.

Draw – filing:

This method is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the file is gripped
as close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing method, a fine cut file with a
flat face should be used.

FILE CARD:

It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean dirt and chips from the teeth of a file.
When particles of metal clog the teeth the file is said to the pinned, a condition that causes
scratching of the surface of the work. Files, therefore, require cleaning by means of a file card
or by dislodging the material between the teeth by means of a piece of soft iron, copper, brass,
tin plate and so on, sharpened at the end. Hardened steel should never be used.

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Twist Drill

Drilling is the process of cutting or originating a round hole from the solid material. There are
many ways of classifying drills. The tool (drill) and not the work piece is revolved and is fed
into the material along its axis.

For example, according to material, number and types of flutes, drill size, type of shank
(straight or taper) and cutting point geometry etc. However, the most common type of drill is
the twist (fluted) drill shown in figure.

It is made from a round bar of tool material, and has three principles parts: the point, the body
and the shank. The drill is held and rotated by its shank. The point comprises the cutting
elements while the body guides the drill in the operation. The body of the drill has two helical
grooves called “flutes”. The flutes from the cutting surface and also assist in removing chips
out of the drilled hole.

V. STRIKING TOOLS

Ball-Peen Hammer: Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and
specified by their weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work
and a ball end, particularly used for riveting.

Cross-Peen Hammer: It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is
used for chipping, riveting, bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves
and shoulders.

Straight-Peen Hammer: This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the
hammer handle. It is used for swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.

Sledge Hammer: Sledge hammers are comparatively 3to 4 times heavier than the hand
hammers. They are available in varying sizes and weights from 3 kg to 8 kg. They are
employed when heavy blows are needed in forging and other operations done on heavy jobs.

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VI. THREADING TOOLS

Thread cutting is cutting of helical turns of threads out of the tapping-size hole or bolt in order
to create screwed connections.

A complete screwed connection requires an internal thread and a matching external thread as a
counterpart. With single-piece manufacture or with repair work, manual thread cutting is a
necessary working technique, because - due to technical and economical reasons - machines
cannot be used in every case.

Taps and dies are used to cut threads in metal, plastics, or hard rubber. The taps are used for
cutting internal threads, and the dies are used to cut external threads.

Parts of a Tap

Round split adjustable die

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FOUNDRY SHOP
PATTERN

A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in molding sand
and suitable ramming of molding sand around the pattern is made. The pattern is then
withdrawn for generating cavity (known as mold) in molding sand.

COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS

The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal, plastic, plaster, wax or
Mercury.

TYPES OF PATTERNS

The types of the pattern and the description of each are given as under.

1. One-piece or solid pattern: Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints,
partings lines or loose pieces. It is the simplest form of the pattern. Typical single piece
pattern is shown in Fig.

2. Two-piece or split pattern: When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the
mold cavity, then solid pattern is split in two parts. Split pattern is made in two pieces which
are joined at the parting line by means of dowel pins. The splitting at the parting line is done
to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern. A typical example is shown in Fig.

3. Cope and drag pattern: In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared
separately. This is done when the complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator.
The pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates. A typical
example of match plate pattern is shown in Fig.

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4. Loose-piece Pattern: Loose piece pattern is used when pattern is difficult for with
drawl from the mould. Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the part of
pattern. The main pattern is removed first leaving the loose piece portion of the pattern in the
mould. Finally, the loose piece is withdrawal separately leaving the intricate mould. ‘A’ and
‘B’ are the loose pieces shown in Fig.

5. Match plate pattern: This pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the
opposite sides of a wooden or metallic plate, known as match plate. The gates and runners
are also attached to the plate. This pattern is used in machine molding. A typical example of
match plate pattern is shown in Fig.

6. Follow board pattern: When the use of solid or split patterns becomes difficult, a
contour corresponding to the exact shape of one half of the pattern is made in a wooden
board, which is called a follow board and it acts as a molding board for the first molding
operation as shown in Fig.

7. Gated pattern: In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are used. Such
moulds are formed by joining a number of patterns and gates and providing a common runner
for the molten metal, as shown in Fig. These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces
to form gates and runners are attached to the pattern.

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8. Sweep pattern: Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds of
symmetric kind by revolving a sweep attached to a spindle as shown in Fig. Actually, a sweep
is a template of wood or metal and is attached to the spindle at one edge and the other edge
has a contour depending upon the desired shape of the mould. The pivot end is attached to a
stake of metal in the center of the mould.

9. Skeleton pattern: When only a small number of large and heavy castings are to be
made, it is not economical to make a solid pattern. In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern
may be used. This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an outline of the pattern to
be made. This frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed. The surplus sand is removed
by strickle board. For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which are joined with
glue or by means of screws etc. A typical skeleton pattern is shown in Fig.

10. Segmental pattern: Patterns of this type are generally used for circular castings, for
example wheel rim, gear blank etc. Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as to
form a complete mould by being moved to form each section of the mould. The movement
of segmental pattern is guided by the use of a central pivot. A segment pattern for a wheel
rim is shown in Fig.

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MOLDING SAND

The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular
elements of rocks, and deserts.

Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural molding sands contain
sufficient binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using basic sand
molding constituents (silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%)
and other additives in proper proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in suitable
equipments.

BINDER

In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic group
includes clay sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder
which may be Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders
included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like
phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc. Organic binders are mostly used for core
making.

Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However, this
clay alone cannot develop bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture in molding
sand and core sand.

ADDITIVES
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop
some special property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing the properties
of molding and core sands are discussed as under.

1. Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during
casting.
2. Corn flour: It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase the
collapsibility of the molding and core sand
3. Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a
manner similar to that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the molds.

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4. Sea coal: Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place
among the pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand
5. Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its
relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact with one
another.
6. Silica flour: It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which
increases the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and cores

KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which are
described below.

1. Green sand: Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just
prepared mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content
from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light,
and porous.
2. Dry sand: Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making
mold and cores, is called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal
stability.
3. Loam sand: Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam
sand possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.
4. Facing sand: Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly
next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould
is poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this
sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must possess, therefore, high
strength refractoriness.
5. Backing sand: Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is
used to fill the whole volume of the molding flask.
6. Parting sand: Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand
not to stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and
drag to separate without clinging
7. Core sand: Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil
sand. This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which
composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under.

1. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand

high temperatures without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound
casting. It is a highly important characteristic of molding sands. Refractoriness can only
be increased to a limited extent
2. Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the
escape of any air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten

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metal is poured into it. All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification
process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective
3. Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles
interact and attract each other within the molding sand
4. Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have
sufficient strength and toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For
this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e., they must be capable of attaching
themselves to another body
5. Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in
the sand layer adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must
have sufficient strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the
flow of molten metal
6. Flowability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like
a fluid. It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the
ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions
7. Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign
material such sticking of molding sand with inner wall of molding box
8. Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould
must be collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally
avoid the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal.

HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP

Hand riddle: It consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh equipped with circular
wooden frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing foreign material such as
nails, shot metal, splinters of wood etc. from it. Even power operated riddles are available for
riddling large volume of sand.

Shovel: It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It is used in mixing,
tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for moving and
transforming the molding sand to the container and molding box or flask.

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Rammers: Rammers are shown in Fig. These are required for striking the molding sand mass
in the molding box to pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern.

Sprue pin: It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold
cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed.

Trowels: These are used for finishing flat surfaces and comers inside a mould. Common
shapes of trowels are shown as under. They are made of iron with a wooden handle.

Lifter: A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould sand.
Lifter is also used for removing loose sand from mould.

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Strike off bar: It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike off the excess sand from the top
of a box after ramming. Its one edge made bevelled and the surface perfectly smooth and
plane.

Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and a wooden handle
or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is used to make
small holes, called vents, in the sand mould to allow the exit of gases and steam during casting.

Slick: They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are generally
used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal of the
pattern.

Swab: Swab is shown in Fig. It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of
sand mould, which are in contact with the pattern surface before withdrawing the pattern. It is
used for sweeping away the molding sand from the mold surface and pattern.

Gate cutter: Gate cutter is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut runners
and feeding gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.

Bellows: Bellows gun is shown in Fig. It is hand operated leather made device equipped with
compressed air jet to blow or pump air when operated. It is used to blow away the loose or
unwanted sand from the surfaces of mold cavities.

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Draw spike: It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at
the other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern for it withdrawal from
the mold.

MOULDING BOX:

Moulding box is also called moulding flask. It is frame or box of wood or metal. It is made of
two parts cope and drag as shown in figure.

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WELDING SHOP
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either
from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction.

Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components.
It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical
components. The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries.
Some of the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels,
automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and
explosives, etc.

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other.
However, some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in welding term
‘weldability’ is often used. The weldability may be defined as property of a metal which
indicates the ease with which it can be welded with other similar or dissimilar metals.

Elements of welding process used with common welding joints such as base metal, fusion
zone, weld face, root face, root opening toe and root are depicted in Figure.

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Edge preparations

For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge
preparations may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.

Welding joints

Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of three
major kinds namely Lap joint, Butt joint and Tee joint. The main types are described as under:

1. Lap Joints
Single-Filleted Lap Joint
The single-fillet lap joint depends on the size of the weld for its strength. This weld joint is
used for metal up to ½ inch thick that isn’t subject to heavy loads.

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Double-Filleted Lap Joint

When properly welded, the double-fillet lap joint is nearly as strong as the base metal itself.
It’s ideal for heavy loads

2. Butt Joints
Square Butt Joint

Best for metals 3/16 inch or less in thickness, the square butt joint is reasonably strong when
not under fatigue or impact loads.

Single-Vee Butt Weld

For more strength welding metals of 1/4 to 3/4 inch in thickness, use a single-grooved butt
joint design. Use a groove angle (approximately 60 degrees for plate) that allows the electrode
into the joint for good penetration.

Double-Vee Butt Weld

You can use the double-v butt joint when welding metals thicker than 3/4 inch, or on thinner
plates for extra strength.

3. Tee Joints

Square Tee Joint

Used to weld light or moderately thick materials, the square tee joint needs a fillet weld on one
or both sides.

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Single-Bevel Tee Joint

With better stress distribution, the single-bevel tee joint can handle more severe loads. Use this
joint with plates 1/2 inch thick or less, when welding is possible from only one side.

Double-Bevel Tee Joint

The double-bevel tee joint handles heavy loads when welded from both sides.

Welding Positions
As shown in below Figure, there are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
a) Flat or down hand position
b) Horizontal position
c) Vertical position
d) Overhead position

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the
upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.

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Horizontal Welding Position

In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited weld head is
horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.

Vertical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a
vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of
the force of gravity on the molten metal.

Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here
the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

ARC WELDING PROCESS

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic principle
of arc welding is shown in Figure 1. However the basic elements involved in arc welding
process are shown in Figure 2. Most of these processes use some shielding gas while others
employ coatings or fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.

Figure 1 Basic principle of arc welding

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Arc Welding Equipment

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure. However
some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the important
components of arc welding setup are described as under.

Figure 2 Basic elements involved in arc welding process

1. Switch box
2. Secondary terminals
3. Welding machine
4. Current reading scale
5. Current regulating hand wheel
6. Leather apron
7. Asbestos hand gloves
8. Protective glasses strap
9. Electrode holder
10. Hand shield
11. Channel for cable protection
12. Welding cable
13. Chipping hammer
14. Wire brush (Metallic)
15. Earth clamp
16. Welding table
17. Job

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1. Arc welding power source

Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each
having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators
driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For
AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where
mains electricity supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-
400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors
influence the selection of a power source:

a) Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded

b) Available power source (AC or DC)
c) Required output
d) Duty cycle
e) Efficiency
f) Initial costs and running costs
g) Available floor space
h) Versatility of equipment

2. Welding cables

Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are
insulated copper or aluminium cables.

3. Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it. These
are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage output of
the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.

4. Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is
set up between electrode and work piece. Welding Electrodes are classified into following
types-

(i) Consumable Electrodes

a) Bare Electrodes
b) Coated Electrodes

(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes

a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable
electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without

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any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as
an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of
joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.

Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of non-
consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated
or zirconiated tungsten.

5. Hand Screen
Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.

6. Chipping hammer
Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.

7. Wire brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

8. Protective clothing
Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct heat
to the body.

Safety Recommendations for Arc Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these
general safety recommendations which are given as under.

1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines
containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall
not be used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall be mechanically
strong and electrically adequate for the required current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also;
consequently, the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special
filter glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by
sparks and flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk and
thighs while seated he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.

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10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working
order at all times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual
service conditions.

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING

Characteristics:

1. This is a welding process in which coalescence is produced by heating with an electric

arc between a metal electrode and the work. Shielding of the arc and the molten metal
is obtained through the use of an inert gas. A tungsten electrode is used because of its
high melting point, and in the presence of the inert gas the electrode is practically no
consuming.
2. Filler metal, if used, is added to the weld in the same manner as in oxyacetylene
welding. leaning action that is beneficial when welding aluminium, magnesium,
beryllium, copper, and some alloys containing additions of aluminium or beryllium
which form refractory oxides.
3. With the tungsten inert welding process, welds can be made in all positions, and in
practically all metals, without the use of flux. No significant amount of oxide is formed;
therefore, fluxes are not required.
4. Either direct current (dc) or alternating current (ac) electricity can be used to perform
inert gas arc welding operations, depending on the type metal to be welded. When
welding aluminium with this welding process, the use of alternating current is
preferred. The use of alternating current produces an oxide cleaning action, resulting
in a better weld in aluminium. Direct current, reverse polarity (drop) i.e., electrode
positive, is used for welding these metals in very thin sections.

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Type of Inert Gas Used:

1. Argon is the type of inert gas most commonly used because it affords better control of
the molten metal pool and of the arc. The argon gas also forms an envelope which
protects the molten metal from contact with the air. The results are that the weld metal
remains brighter, is less cloudy, and produces a better-quality weld which is free of
contamination.
2. Helium gas is used in cases where more intense heat or deep penetration into the base
metal is required. Therefore, helium is used only when performing high speed welding,
or when welding or cutting thicker metal.

Tungsten Electrodes:

1. Tungsten can withstand higher temperatures than the normal electrode used in arc welding.
But it can also be consumed if the temperature of the arc is too hot. Therefore, there is a limit
to the current carrying capacity of tungsten electrodes. This limit, together with the beating
characteristics of the work in terms of polarity, has led to the use of alternating current for
almost all tungsten arc welding.

2. The size of the electrode is determined by the current which, in turn, is a function of the
material thickness. Non consuming electrodes for TIG welding are of four types: pure
tungsten, tungsten containing 1 or 2 percent thorium, and tungsten containing 0.3 to 0.5 percent
zirconium. Each type of tungsten electrode can he identified by painted end marks, as follows:

1. Green - pure tungsten.

2. Yellow - 1 percent thorium.
3. Red - 2 percent thorium.
4. Brown - 0.3 to 0.5 percent zirconium.

3. Pure tungsten (99.5% tungsten) electrodes are generally used on less critical welding
operations rather than the tungsten which are alloyed. This type of electrode has a relatively
low current carrying capacity and a low resistance to contamination.

4. Thoriated tungsten electrodes (1 or 2 percent thorium) are superior to pure tungsten

electrodes because of their higher electron output, better arc-starting and arc stability, high
current-carrying capacity, longer life, and greater resistance to contamination.

5. Tungsten electrodes containing 0.3 to 0.5 percent zirconium generally fall between pure
tungsten electrodes and thoriated tungsten electrodes in terms of performance.

Welding Current:

Standard alternating current welding transformers, with 100 volts or less open circuit potential,
arc used in this method of welding. These transformers usually require a superimposed high
frequency voltage for starting and maintaining the arc. The polarity to be used with a specific
type of electrode is established by the manufacturer.

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Direct Current Welding:

In direct current welding, the welding current circuit may be hooked up as either straight
polarity (dcsp) or reverse polarity (dcrp). For dcsp, the machine connections are electrode
negative and workpiece positive as shown in the figure. The electron flow in the circuit formed
by this connection is from the electrode to the workpiece (base metal plate). For dcrp, the
welding machine connections are electrode positive, and work piece negative, as shown in
figure the electron flow in this circuit is from the work piece to the electrode.

Advantages:

The TIG shielded arc wilding process has certain advantages over other welding processes as
described in the following subparagraphs.

1. It provides freedom from the need for using a flux, either on the work or on the filler
rod, thus eliminating the flux removal problem.
2. It permits visual control while welding in any position.
3. It produces distortion in the base metal.

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METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

Characteristics:

1. This welding process is relatively new and only recently has been adopted for use by
the U.S. Army in the field. Much use of this welding process will be made in the repair
of aluminium hull tracked vehicles.
2. MIG welding is process in which a consumable, bare wire electrode, is fed into a weld
at I controlled rate of speed. A blanket of inert gas (argon, helium, or a mixture of the
two as used in TIG welding) shields the weld zone from contamination. This process
produces high welds without the use of fluxes or the necessity of post cleaning the
weld.
3. The MIG welding unit is designed for manual welding with small diameter wire
electrodes using a spool-on-gun torch as shown in figure on the following page. (There
are MIG welding systems that have the spool located away from the torch gun, but the
principal operation is the same as for the type system discussed here. The complete
system consisting of the torch, a voltage control box, and a welding contactor are
shown. The torch handle contains complete motor and gear reduction unit that pulls the
welding wire electrode from a 4-inch diameter spool containing one pound of wire
electrode; mounted in the rear of the torch.
4. Three basic sizes of wire electrode may be used: 3/32 inch; 3/64 inch; and 1/16 inch.
Any type of metal may be welded, provided the welding wire electrode is of the same
composition as the base metal.
5. The unit is designed for use with an ac-dc conventional, constant current type welding
power Supply.

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MIG Welding Equipment:

1. Contact Tube: This tube is made of copper with a hole 0.01 to 0.02 inch larger than
the electrode. The contact tube and guide bushings must be changed when changing
the size of the electrode. Electric power is transmitted through the contact tube to the
electrode.
2. Nozzle and Holder: The nozzle is made of copper to dissipate heat and chrome-plated
to reflect the heat. The holder is made of stainless steel and is connected t6 an insulating
material which prevents an arc from being drawn between the nozzle and ground in
case the gun comes in contact with the work.
3. Inlet and Outlet Guide Bushings: The bushings are made of nylon for longer wear.
They must be changed to suit the wire electrode size when the electrode size is changed.
4. Pressure Roll Assembly: This is a smooth roller, under spring tension, which pushes
the wire electrode against the Feed and allows the wire to be the spool. A thumbscrew
applies tension as required.
5. Motor: When the inch button is depressed, the current for running the motor comes
from the 110-volt ac-dc source, and the motor pulls the wire electrode from the spool
at the required rate of feed. The current for this motor is supplied by the welding
generator.
6. Spool Enclosure Assembly: This assembly is made of plastic which prevents arc
spatter from jamming the wire electrode on the spool. A small window allows the
operator to visually cheek the amount of' wire electrode remaining on the spool.

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MACHINE SHOP

Introduction to Machine shop

A place where hand tools and power-driven tools are used for making, finishing, or repairing
machines or machine parts or in other words a facility that has machines, machine tools for
working with metal other relatively hard materials such as some ferrous and non-ferrous,
composites, polymers, etc. Various kinds of machine shops make and repair all types of metal
objects from machine tools, dies and molds etc.

Introduction to Machining:

The machining is the broadest technological process used in manufacturing. Generally, in the
field of manufacturing, the term of Machining means removal of material from a raw material,
by cutting small chips, in order to obtain the desired shape and dimensions for final part. The
machining is strictly necessary when finished Part has to have very tight tolerances of
Dimensions or when the roughness of surfaces Need to be very smooth.

Machining Types

Non-Traditional
Traditional Machining Machining

Cutting with Cutting with Non- Machining by the

Conventional Tools Conventional Tools following Process
Slotting / Shaping

Electro/Chemical

Laser Beam

Ultrasonic
Water Jet
Grinding

Honning

Lapping
Drilling
Turning

Erosion
Milling

Synoptically Classification

Machine Tool:

Machine tool is a non-portable power operated device in which the energy is utilized to produce
jobs of desired shape and size and surface finish by removing excess material from the formed
blanks in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved part the work surface.

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It is machining equipment that cuts, shears, punches, presses, drills, rolls, grinds, sands, or
forms metal, plastic, or wood stock. It may be automatic or semi-automatic.

Machine tools are generally power- driven metal cutting or forming machines used to shape
metals by:

• The removal of chips

• Pressing drawing or shearing
• Controlled electrical machining process

Any machine tool has generally capability of:

• Holding and supporting the work piece

• Holding and supporting a cutting tool
• Imparting a suitable movement (rotating or reciprocating) to the cutting tool or the
work
• Feeding the cutting tool so that the desired cutting action and accuracy will be achieved

The performance of any machine tool is generally stated in terms of its metal removal rate,
accuracy and repeatability.

Classification
of
Machine Tools

Machine Tools Machine Tools for Prismatic

for Revolution parts Parts

• Lathes • Milling Machines

• Turning Machining Centres • Machining Centres for Drilling/Milling
• Round Grinding Machines • Planar Grinding Machines

Cutting Tool

A tool is a device or a piece of equipment which typically provides a mechanical advantage in

accomplishing a physical task, or provides an ability that is not naturally available to the user
of a tool. These tools are hand-held, portable powers, or manual tools.

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The differences between cutting and machine tools are stated below:

Cutting Tools Machine Tools

1. Tool is a portable device 1. It is a stationary device
2. Tool is a non-powered device 2. It is a powered device
3. Tool can only powered by humans 3. It is powered by a power source or by
people if properly setup
Examples: Examples:
Turning, shaping, drilling, milling Lathes, shapers, planers, power drills or drill
tools, Hammers, wrenches, saws and presses, milling machines, grinding machines,
shovels, pens, pencils and knives are power saws, and presses (e.g.,
tools. punch presses).

Tool Materials

The various tool materials used in today's manufacturing operations are high-carbon steel,
high-speed steel, cemented carbides, ceramics, diamond & cubic boron nitride (CBN).

Types of Tool Materials:

✓ High Carbon steels ✓ High Speed Steels ✓ Cemented Carbides
✓ Medium Alloy steels ✓ Abrasives ✓ Diamonds
✓ Stellite Ceramics

High Carbon Steel (HCS)

This material is one of the earliest cutting materials used in machining. It is however now
virtually superseded by other materials used in engineering because it starts to temper at about
220oC. This softening process continues as the temperature rises. As a result, cutting using
this material for tools is limited to speeds up to 0.15 m/s for machining mild steel with lots of
coolant. High carbon steels are oil- or water-hardened plain carbon steels with 0.9 to 1.4
percent carbon content. They are used for hand tools such as files and chisels, and only to a
limited extent for drilling & turning tools. They impart such properties to tools made from
them that such tools maintain a keep edge & can be used for metals that can be used for such
metals that produce low tool-chip interface temperatures-for example, aluminium, magnesium,
copper, and brass. These tools, however, tend to soften at machining speeds above 50 feet per
minute (fpm) in mild steels.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

This range of metal contains about 7% carbon, 4% chromium plus additions of tungsten,
vanadium, molybdenum and cobalt. These metals maintain their hardness at temperature up to
about 600, but soften rapidly at higher temperatures. These materials are suitable for cutting
mild steel at speeds up maximum rates of 0.8 m/s to 1.8 m/s. High-speed steel may be used at
higher cutting speeds (100 fpm in mild 20 steels) without losing their hardness. High-speed

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steel is sometimes used for lathe tools when special tool shapes are needed, especially for
boring tools. However, high-speed steel is extensively used for milling cutters. These cutters
usually have a longer working life.

Cast Alloys

These cutting tools are made of various nonferrous metals in a cobalt base. They can withstand
cutting temperatures of up to 760°C and are capable of cutting speeds about 60% higher than
HSS.

Stellite

This is a cast alloy of Co (40 to 50%), Cr (27 to 32%), W (14 to 19%) and C (2%). Stellite is
quite tough and more heat and wear resistive than the basic HSS (18 – 4 – 1) but such satellite
as cutting tool material became obsolete for its poor grindability and especially after the arrival
of cemented carbides.

Cemented carbides (Cermets or Sintered Carbide)

Carbide, generally, is a chemical compound of carbon and a metal. This material usually
consists of tungsten carbide or a mixture of tungsten carbide, titanium, or tantalum carbide in
powder form, sintered in a matrix of cobalt or nickel. The term Carbide is commonly used to
re-present to cemented carbides, the cutting tools composed of tungsten carbide, titanium
carbide, or tantalum carbide & cobalt in various combinations. A typical composition of
cemented carbide is 85 to 95 percent of tungsten & the remainder a cobalt binder for the
tungsten carbide powder. Cemented carbides are extremely hard tool materials (above RA 90),
have a high compressive strength & resist wear & rupture. Coated carbide inserts are often
used to cut hard or difficult-to-machine work pieces. Titanium carbide (TiC) coating offers
high wear resistance at moderate cutting speeds and temperatures. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
coating has high resistance to crater wear and reduces friction between the tool face and the
chip, thereby reducing the tendency for built-up edge.
Cemented carbides are the most widely used tool materials in the machining industry. They
are particularly useful for cutting tough alloy steels, which quickly break down high-speed tool
steels. As this material is expensive and has low rupture strength it is normally made in the
form of tips which are brazed or clamped on a steel shank. The clamped tips are generally used
as throw away inserts.

Coated Carbides

The cutting system is based on providing a thin layer of high wear-resistant titanium carbide
fused to a conventional tough grade carbide insert, thus achieving a tool combining the wear
resistance of one material with the wear resistance of another. These systems provide a longer
wear resistance and a higher cutting speed compared to conventional carbides.

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Ceramics

Ceramic or “cemented oxide” tools are made primarily from aluminium oxide. Ceramics are
made by powder metallurgy from aluminium oxide with additions of titanium oxide and
magnesium oxide to improve cutting properties. Some manufacturers add titanium,
magnesium, or chromium oxides in quantities of 10% or less. The tool materials are molded at
pressures over 4000 psi and sintered at temperatures of approximately 30000F. This process
partly accounts for the high density and hardness of cemented oxide tools. These have a very
high hot resistance and wear resistance and can cut at very high speed. However, they are
brittle and have little resistance to shock. Their use is therefore limited to tips used for
continuous high-speed cutting on vibration-free machines. Cemented oxides setups are rigid
and free of vibration and are used as a replacement for carbide tools that are wearing rapidly,
but not to replace carbide tools that are breaking.

Diamonds Tools

Diamonds have limited application due to the high cost and the small size of the stones. They
are used on very hard materials to produce a fine finish and on soft materials especially those
inclined to clog other cutting materials. They are generally used at very high cutting speed with
low feed and light cuts. Due to the brittleness of the diamonds the machine has to be designed
to be vibration free. The tools last for 10 (up to 400) times longer than carbide-based tools.
Industrial diamonds are sometimes used to machine extremely hard work pieces. Only
relatively small removal rates are possible with diamond tools, but high speeds are used and
good finishes are obtained. Diamond tools are particularly effective for cutting abrasive
materials that quickly wear out other tool materials. Nonferrous metals, plastics, and some non-
metallic materials are often cut with diamond tools.

Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

CBN is next to diamond in hardness and therefore can be used to machine plain carbon steels,
alloy steels, and gray cast irons with hardness’s of 45 RC and above. CBN inserts consist of a
cemented carbide substrate with an outside layer of CBN formed as an integral part of the tool.
Tool life, finishes, and resistance to cracking and abrasion make CBN a superior tool material
to both carbides and ceramics.

Abrasive:

Abrasive grains in various forms loose bonded into wheels and stone and embedded in papers
and cloths find wide application in industry. They are mainly used for grinding harder materials
and where a superior finish is desired on hardened or unhardened materials.

Elements of an Effective Tool:

• High hardness at elevated temperatures

• Wear resistance

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• Strength to resist bulk deformation

• Consistent tool life
• Adequate thermal properties
• Correct geometry
• Consistent tool life
• Chemical stability

There are 2 types of cutting tools:

1. Single Point Cutting Tool:

The tool generally refers to a non-rotary cutting tool used in metal lathes, shapers, and planers.
Such cutters are also often referred to by the set-phrase name of single-point cutting tool. The
cutting edge is ground to suit a particular machining operation and may be resharpened or
reshaped as needed. The ground tool bit is held rigidly by a tool holder while it is cutting.
Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping and planning operations and similar operations
to remove material by means of one cutting edge.
Cutting tools must be made of a material harder than the material which is to be cut, and the
tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting process. Also, the tool
must have a specific geometry, with clearance angles designed so that the cutting edge can
contact the work piece without the rest of the tool dragging on the work piece surface. The
angle of the cutting face is also important, as is the flute width, number of flutes or teeth, and
margin size. In order to have a long working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the
speeds and feeds at which the tool is run.

Cutting Tool Terminology

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Single point cutting tool terms and definitions:

1. Shank: The shank is the main body of the tool.

2. Nose: The nose is the part of the cutter bit which is shaped to produce the cutting edges.
3. Face: The face of the cutter bit is the surface at the upper side of the cutting edge on
which the chip strikes as it is separated from the workpiece.
4. Side: The side of the cutter bit is the near-vertical surface which, with the end of the
bit, forms the profile of the bit. The side is the leading surface of the cutter bit used
when cutting stock.
5. Base: The base is the bottom surface of the shank of the cutter bit.
6. End: The end of the cutter bit is the near-vertical surface which, with the side of the
bit, forms the profile of the bit. The end is the trailing surface of the cutter bit when
cutting.
7. Heel: The heel is the portion of the cutter bit base immediately below& supporting the
face.

Important angles of a Single Point Cutting Tool:

Angle Details

It is also called as Top Rake Angle. It is the slope given to the face or
Back Rake
the surface of the tool. This slope is given from the nose along the
Angle
length of the tool.

It is the slope given to the face or top of the tool. This slope is given
Side Rake
from the nose along the width of the tool. The rake angles help easy
Angle
flow of chips
These are the slopes ground downwards from the cutting edges. These
Relief are two clearance angles namely, side clearance angle and end
Angle clearance angle. This is given in a tool to avoid rubbing of the job on
the tool.

There are two cutting edge angles namely side cutting-edge angle and
Cutting end cutting edge angle. Side cutting edge angle is the angle, the side
Edge Angle cutting edge makes with the axis of the tool. End cutting edge angle is
the angle, the end cutting edge makes with the width of the tool.
It is also called cutting angle. It is the angle between the face and end
Lip Angle
surface of the tool.
Nose Angle It is the angle between the side cutting edge and end cutting edge.

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Tool Signature

Tool Signature of Single Point Cutting Tool

Shapes of Tool Bits

The overall shape of the lathe tool bits can be rounded, squared, or another shape as long as
the proper angles are included. Tool bits are identified by the function they perform, such as
turning or facing. They can also be identified as roughing tools or finishing tools. Generally, a
roughing tool has a radius ground onto the nose of the tool bit that is smaller than the radius
for a finishing or general-purpose tool bit. A right-hand turning tool bit is shaped to be fed
from right to left.
The cutting edge is on the left side of the tool bit and the face slopes down away from the
cutting edge. The left side and end of the tool bit are ground with sufficient clearance to permit
the cutting edge to bear upon the work piece without the heel rubbing on the work. The right-
hand turning tool bit turning tool bit is ideal for taking light roughing cuts as well as general
all- around machining. The round-nose turning tool bit is very versatile and can be used to turn
in either direction for roughing and finishing cuts. No side rake angle is ground into the top
face when used to cut in either direction, but a small back rake angle may be needed for chip
removal. The nose radius is usually ground in the shape of a half-circle with a diameter of
about 1/32 inch. A left-hand turning tool bit is the opposite of the right-hand turning tool bit,
designed to cut when fed from left to right. This tool bit is used mainly for machining close in
to a right shoulder.
The right-hand facing tool bit is intended for facing on right hand side shoulders and the right
end of a work piece. The cutting edge is on the left-hand side of the bit and the nose is ground
very sharp for machining into a square corner. The direction of feed for this tool bit should be

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away from the center axis of the work, not going into the center axis. A left- hand facing tool
bit is the opposite of the right-hand facing tool bit and is intend to machine and face the left
sides of shoulders.

Multi Point Cutting Tool

Multipoint cutting tools

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In multi-point cutting tool the multiple edges are used to remove the material. Multi point
cutting tools are used in Milling, drilling, reamers, slotting tool, wood ruff cutter, etc. most
important thing to remember is the cutting tools must be made of a material harder than the
material which is to be cut, and the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the
metal-cutting process. Grinding tools are also multipoint tools. Each grain of abrasive
functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge
A multi-point cutting tool is regarded as a series of two or more cutting elements (chip
producing elements) secured to a common body. The term such as face, flanks, and cutting
edge, defined earlier for single-point tools, are applicable to multi-points tool as well. The
commonly used multi-point cutting tools are drills, reamers, milling cutters, broaches, wood
ruff cutter, reamers, etc.

Parts & important angles of Multi Point Cutting Tools

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ORTHOGANAL CUTTING (Two-Dimensional Cutting)

The orthogonal cutting process is a two-dimensional cutting analysis in which the tool’s cutting
edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed. The chip is formed due to shear
deformation in the shear plane. This shear deformation is a result when the force is applied to
the cutting tool.
The angle between the shear plane and the workpiece is known as the shear angle. The sharp
cutting edge of the tool separates the chip from the workpiece while the cutting tool was
subjected to some forced conditions. The region where the chip sticks to the cutting surface of
the tool is known as the sticking region.
The analysis of orthogonal cutting is simpler than oblique cutting because only two forces
(Tangential force and feed force) are involved. During chip formation, some sort of energy
will be consumed. The cutting is uniform along the cutting edge of the tool.

OBLIQUE CUTTING (Three-Dimensional Cutting)

The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the cutting velocity in the orthogonal cutting
whereas, in oblique cutting the cutting edge of the tool is inclined at a certain angle to the
cutting velocity vector. It is also called a three-dimensional cutting process.
Oblique cutting involves three forces (Tangential force, Feed force, and Radial force) and it
makes complex to analyze when compared to orthogonal cutting.
In oblique cutting, the chip formation is always helical in the manner and does not slide over
the cutting surface of the tool. The cutting velocity has an inclination angle in the cutting
operations. This helical chip moves sideways and away from the cutting zone.

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Orthogonal Metal Cutting Oblique Metal Cutting

Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular The cutting edge is inclined at an angle less
to the direction of tool travel. than 90o to the direction of tool travel.
The direction of chip flow is The chip flows on the tool face making an
perpendicular to the cutting edge. angle.
The chip coils in a tight flat spiral The chip flows sideways in a long curl.
For same feed and depth of cut the force The cutting force acts on larger area and so
which shears the metal acts on a smaller tool life is more.
area. So, the life of the tool is less.
Produces sharp corners. Produces a chamfer at the end of the cut
Smaller length of cutting edge is in For the same depth of cut greater length of
contact with the work. cutting edge is in contact with the work.
Generally parting off in lathe, broaching This method of cutting is used in almost all
and slotting operations are done in this machining operations.
method.

Cutting Fluids:

Cutting fluids are used in metal machining for a variety of reasons such as improving tool life,
reducing work piece thermal deformation, improving surface finish and flushing away chips
from the cutting zone.

Types of cutting fluids:

Practically all cutting fluids presently in use fall into one of the four categories:

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1. Cutting Oils

a. Straight oils
b. Compounded
c. Water Base Cutting Fluids
d. Soluble oils
e. Chemical (Synthetic) fluids
f. Semi- Chemical (Semi-Synthetic) fluids

2. Gases
3. Paste & Solid Lubricants

Functions of cutting fluids:

1. Reduce friction between tool & material

2. Reduce temperature of cutting zone
3. Wash away chips
4. Improve surface finish
5. Reduce power required
6. Increase tool life
7. Prevent welding of chip to tool
8. Prevent corrosion

Desired Properties of Cutting Fluids:

1. Harmless to the operator

2. Harmless to the machine
3. Good heat transfer characteristics
4. Non-Volatile
5. Non-forming
6. Good lubricating properties
7. Inexpensive

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LATHE

Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is
commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to
remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is securely and rigidly
held in the chuck or in between centres on the lathe machine and then turn it against a single
point cutting tool which will remove metal from the job in the form of chips.

Types of Lathes:

Lathes are manufactured in a variety of types and sizes, from very small bench lathes used for
precision work to huge lathes used for turning large steel shafts. But the principle of operation
and function of all types of lathes are same. The different types of lathes are:

1. Speed lathe
2. Centre or Engine lathe
3. Bench lathe
4. Tool Room Lathe
5. Capstan and Turret lathe
6. Special purpose lathe
7. Automatic lathe

Speed Lathe

Speed lathe is simplest of all types of lathes in construction and operation. It consists of a Bed,
Headstock, Tailstock and Tool post mounted on an adjustable slide. There is no feed box,
leadscrew or conventional type of carriage. The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is
fed into the work by hand control. The speed lathe finds applications where cutting force is
least such as in wood working, spinning, centering, polishing, winding etc.

Centre or Engine Lathe

The term “engine” is associated with this lathe due to the fact that in the very early days of its
development it was driven by steam engine. This lathe is the important member of the lathe
family and is the most widely used. Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has all the basic
parts, e.g., bed, headstock, and tailstock. An engine lathe is shown in Fig. 4. Unlike the speed
lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal direction with
reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed rod and lead screw. The power may
be transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or through gears.

Bench Lathe

This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has practically all the parts of an engine
lathe or speed lathe and it performs almost all the operations. This is used for small and
precision work.

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Tool Room Lathe

This lathe has features similar to an engine lathe but it is much more accurately built. It has a
wide range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to 2500 rpm.
This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work
where accuracy is needed.

Capstan and Turret Lathe

The distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced
by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the work
in proper sequence. Due to this arrangement, several different types of operations can be done
on a job without re-setting of work or tools, and a number of identical parts can be produced
in the minimum time.

Special Purpose Lathes

These lathes are constructed for special purposes and for jobs, which cannot be accommodated
or conveniently machined on a standard lathe. The wheel lathe is made for finishing the
journals and turning the tread on railroad car and locomotive wheels. The gap bed lathe, in
which a section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is removable, is used to swing extra-large
diameter pieces.

Automatic Lathes

These lathes are so designed that all the working and job handling movements of the complete
manufacturing process for a job are done automatically. These are high speed, heavy duty,
mass production lathes with complete automatic control.

PRINCIPLE FUNCTIONS OF LATHE PARTS

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A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock,
carriage and other components of lathe are mounted. Figure shows the different parts of engine
lathe or central lathe.

Different parts of engine lathe or central lathe

The major parts of lathe machine are given as under:

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism

Bed

The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted. It is
massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe. On left end
of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is located. The
carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it. On the top of the bed there are two
sets of guideways – inner ways and outer ways. The inner ways provide sliding surfaces for
the tailstock and the outer ways for the carriage. The guideways of the lathe bed may be flat
and inverted V shape. Generally, cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used
for manufacturing of the lathe bed.

Head Stock

The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe. It
comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train

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arrangement. The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work
can be attached. It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle
of the headstock. The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get
various spindle speed through electric motor. The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining
a wide range of slower speeds. Some gears called change wheels are used to produce different
velocity ratio required for thread cutting.

Tail Stock

The tail stock of central lathe is commonly used for the objective of primarily giving an outer
bearing and support the circular job being turned on centres. Tail stock can be easily set or
adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect to the spindle centre and carries a centre
called dead centre for supporting one end of the work. Both live and dead centres have 60°
conical points to fit centre holes in the circular job, the other end tapering to allow for good
fitting into the spindles. The dead centre can be mounted in ball bearing so that it rotates with
the job avoiding friction of the job with dead centre as it important to hold heavy jobs.

Carriage

Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a direction parallel
to the spindle axis. It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound
rest, and tool post. The lower part of the carriage is termed the apron in which there are gears
to constitute apron mechanism for adjusting the direction of the feed using clutch mechanism
and the split half nut for automatic feed. The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage,
which generally travels at right angles to the spindle axis. On the cross-slide, a saddle is
mounted in which the compound rest is adjusted which can rotate and fix to any desired angle.
The compound rest slide is actuated by a screw, which rotates in a nut fixed to the saddle. The
tool post is an important part of carriage, which fits in a tee-slot in the compound rest and holds
the tool holder in place by the tool post screw.

Feed Mechanism

Feed mechanism is the combination of different units through which motion of headstock
spindle is transmitted to the carriage of lathe machine.

CUTTING PARAMETERS

Cutting speed:

It is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and is specified in meters per minute.
It depends upon the work piece material, feed, depth of cut, type of operation and so many
other cutting conditions.
It is calculated from the relation,
Spindle speed (RPM) = cutting speed x 1000 / (πD)
where,
D is the work piece diameter in mm.

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Feed:

It is the distance traversed by the tool along the bed, during one revolution of the work. Its
value depends upon the depth of cut and surface finish of the work desired.

Depth of Cut:

It is the movement of the tip of the cutting tool, from the surface of the work piece and
perpendicular to the lathe axis. Its value depends upon the nature of operation like rough
turning or finish turning.

LATHE OPERATIONS

Turning:

Cutting tool is moved parallel to the axis of the work piece to produce a cylindrical surface by
removing the unwanted material in the form of chips. Here depth of the cut is given by moving
the tool perpendicular to the lathe axis.

Facing:

It is an operation to produce flat surface on the ends of the work piece. Here the cutting tool is
fed against the rotating work piece perpendicular to the lathe axis and the depth of the cut is
given by moving the tool parallel to the lathe axis.

Taper Turning:

It is an operation to produce conical surface on the work piece.

Methods for taper turning:

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1. By swiveling the compound rest

2. By offsetting the tail stock

3. By taper turning attachment

4. By using form tool

Thread Cutting:

A thread is a helical groove formed on a cylindrical surface of the work piece. The shape of
the groove will be normally v or shape which are called as vee- thread or square. Thread cutting
cannot be done in single pass. It will be carried out in many passes with incremental depth, till
the required thread is formed. A typical thread cutting operation is shown in the figure. Thread
cutting can be performed both on external and internal surfaces.

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Drilling:

Drilling operation is performed by fixing twist drill bit on the tail stock and advancing the tool
towards the workpiece and making hole to the desired length. Other operations like Boring,
Centre Drilling, Counter Boring, Counter Sinking, Reaming, Tapping, etc can also be
performed using suitable tools.

Profile Turing:

Profile turning is performed when curve surfaces are required on the given job. The skills of
the operator plays a very important role as this operation is very difficult to be performed. Here
carriage assembly and compound rest are simultaneously moved to get the given profile.

Parting/Cutting Off/slotting/grooving operation:

This operation is used to cut-off the finished part from the lengthier workpiece or to make
groove on the workpiece. Flat cutting tool is used for this operation.

Forming Operation:

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A tool which is in the shape of the impression to be made on the work piece is fixed to the tool
post and is advanced towards the work piece. This operation saves time and is costly.

Knurling Operation:

Knurling is an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surface on the work piece.
This is used to produce a rough surface for griping like the barrel of the micrometre. This is
done by a special tool called knurling tool. Which has a set of hardened roller with the desired
serrations. There are 3 different knurling operations such as diamond, angled and straight

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3D Printing Shop

Introduction

The basic principle of Additive Manufacturing technology is that it uses CAD generated 3D
model directly to fabricate a three-dimensional object by adding layer-upon-layer of material
and fusing them. More than enough statistics support the claim that the introduction of 3D
Printing has revolutionised the industrial world in a way no other product has achieved this
momentous success in the last 35 years.

Additive manufacturing vs Rapid prototyping vs 3D Printing

Although initially referred to as Rapid prototyping in a product development context, these

technologies have made giant strides in recent years and moved from prototype to production
ready part manufacturing. Term 3D Printing is also widely used for these technologies, and
MIT coined it for inkjet printing based on AM they invented in the 90s. Hence these terms do
not effectively describe more recent technological advancements in the sector.

Advantages of additive manufacturing

• AM can print complex 3D geometries with internal features without any tooling.
• Reduced waste compared to machine.
• Part can be printed directly from the 3D model without the need for a drawing.
• Prototypes can be made quicker, allowing designers to check different iterations
resulting in a quicker design cycle phase.
• No or less tooling for smaller batches compared to traditional machining.
• Production tooling can be printed.
• Different materials can be mixed during the printing process to create a unique alloy.
• Different sections of the part can be different variants of the same alloy.

Disadvantages of additive manufacturing

• Because technology is still in its infancy, the building process is slow and costly.
• High production costs because of the equipment cost
• Various post-processing required depending on the type of additive manufacturing used.
• Small build volume compared to other manufacturing part size such as sand casting.
• Poor mechanical properties hence need post-processing.
• Poor surface finish and texture compared manufacturing processes like CNC and
investment casting.
• The strength of the parts is comparably weaker compared to manufacturing processes
such as Die casting, Investment casting and CNC machining.

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Basic Steps used in Additive Manufacturing

3D Model creation step

First, the designer creates a 3D model of the object to be printed using computer-aided design
(CAD) software or a 3D object scanner. Since the part is a replica of the 3D model, every detail
needs to be correct and fully defined its external geometry.

Although AM can print complex parts and gives the product designer more design flexibility
than conventional manufacturing processes, there are still limitations and rules to adhere to
when designing to achieve the best results. The design guides vary according to the additive
manufacturing technology type and material selection. Equipment manufacturers and AM
technology service providers have extensive design guides on designing parts.

STL file creation step

Once the designer is happy with the design, the user converts the CAD file to a standard AM
file format called standard tessellation language (STL), which 3D Systems developed in the
late 80s for use in its Stereolithography (SLA) machines. You can read how the STL file is
created and used for 3D Printing here.

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Most CAD software such as SolidWorks, Inventor and Catia can save any model as an STL
file. However, all printer manufacturers have software to take any CAD formats and convert
the files into an STL file. As the name suggests, this will tessellate the 3D shape and slice the
10 parts into digital layers. The layer thickness dictates the final quality and depends on the
machine and process.

Slicing

In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built. The pre-processing
software slices the STL model into several layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick, depending on the
build technique. The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the model during the
build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled
sections.

Part building

Once the build starts, it gradually builds the design one layer at a time. A typical layer is around 0.1mm
in thickness, but depending on the technology and the material used, it can go down to 20 microns.
Depending on the build size, the printing machine, AM technology, material, and printing resolution,
this build process could take hours or even days to complete.

Part removal

After building the part or multiple parts, in some cases, it may need a cooling-off period before
removing the parts from the machine. Again, depending on the machine and technology, removal could
vary from simply peeling off the build platform in case of FDM to wire eroding from the build plate in
DMLS.

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Experiments on FDM 3D Printer

Aim

To 3D Print the given CAD model on FDM 3D printer

Tools and Materials required.

Machine: FDM 3D Printer (4DS Smart One Plus)

Software: Fusion 360, Simplify 3D

Materials: ABS, PLA, TPU, HIPS etc.

Theory

FDM technology is the process of making physical objects by building up successive layers of material.
A thermoplastic filament is pushed through an extruder and deposited where needed in each layer to
complete the desired object. At its core is an additive manufacturing (AM) method or process opposite
of traditional manufacturing, which is subtractive, involving cutting away at a block of material to
produce an object.

3D printing with FDM technology is clean, simple to use, and office friendly. Thanks to production
grade materials that are mechanically and environmentally stable. They include many of the same tried-
and-tested thermoplastics used in traditional manufacturing processes like injection molding. With
Stratasys FDM technology, making complex geometries and parts with internal cavities becomes
possible. For applications that demand precise tolerances, durability, and stability in different
environments, FDM thermoplastics deliver the required properties.

Fusion 360 is a 3D modeling and manufacturing cloud software, whereas AutoCAD is a 2D drafting
software that can do 3D very well. AutoCAD integrates with industry-specific tools such as AutoCAD
Architectural, Electrical, Civil 3D, and Mechanical whereas Fusion 360 focuses on industrial design
(mechanical engineering). Simplify 3D software used for slicing.

Procedure

STEPS: All FDM techniques employ the basic five-step process.

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1. Create a CAD model of the design

2. Convert the CAD model to STL format (stereolithography)

3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers

4. Construct the model one layer atop another

5. Clean and finish the model

1. Creation of CAD Model:

The additive manufacturing process begins with the creation of a CAD (Computer-Assisted Design)
modelo on Fusion 360. Computer-aided design is the use of computer programs to create, modify and
analyse three-dimensional (also two-dimensional) graphical representations of physical objects. Solid
modelers, such as Pro/ENGINEER/CATIA /Autodesk Inventor, tend to represent 3-D objects more
accurately than wire-frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results.

2. Conversion to STL Format:

Once this model is created, it is transformed into STL format (or. AMF and .3MF, more recent formats).
What is STL format? It is a triangulated representation in a 3D CAD model. To establish consistency,
the STL (Standard Tessellation Language) format has been adopted as the standard of the rapid
prototyping industry. Convert the CAD file into STL format. This format represents a three-
dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles. STL files use planar elements, they cannot
represent curved surfaces exactly. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation.

3. Slice the STL File:

Slicing Software: Simplify 3D In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be
built. The pre-processing software slices the STL model into several layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm

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thick, depending on the build technique. The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to
support the model during the build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal
cavities, and thin-walled sections. These steps involve the slicing process.

1. Import the .stl file

2. Set Orientation

3. Go to Edit Process Settings and Set Input Parameters

4. Prepare to print

5. Save G-code File

Set these parameters according to our requirement and availability:

1. Material Selection- ABS, PLA, HIPS etc.

2. Extruder Selection- 1 or 2

3. Layer-Top Slide layers; Bottom Solid layers; Outer layers

4. Addition- Skirt; Brim; Prime pillar, Raft

5. Infill- Infill Percentage; Infill Pattern

6. Support- Support Infill Percentage; Support Pattern

7. Temperature- Extruder Temperatures; Bed Temperatures

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4.Layer by Layer Construction:

The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. AM(RP) machines build one layer at a time from
polymers, paper, or powdered metal. Most machines are autonomous, needing little human
intervention.

5.Clean and Finish:

The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine and detaching
any supports. Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use. Prototypes may also
require minor cleaning and surface treatment. Finishing, Sanding, Sealing, and/or painting the model
will improve its appearance and durability.

Results

The given CAD model printed on FDM 3D printer successfully.

Precautions

• All parameters must be set carefully.

• 3D printer should be thoroughly tested before printing the product.
• Material availability and extruder temperature must be set correctly.
• Do not put your hands inside the printer during 3D printing.
• Printer should be turned off after printing is done

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JOB DRAWING

For the file preparation in this course following format should be follow for each corresponding
job. All the details should be filled by students only. One example has been provided for the
reference.

EXPT. NO: TITLE OF EXPT. Date:

AIM:

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:

PROCEDURE:

DRAWING:

PRECAUTIONS: (Mention for job/shop)

RESULT:

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Example

EXP: 01 MOULD FOR A SOLID Date:

Aim: To prepare a sand mold, using the given single piece pattern.
Raw material required: Moulding sand, parting sand, facing sand, baking sand, single piece
solid pattern, bottom board, moulding boxes etc.

Tools Required:
1. Molding board
2. Drag and cope boxes.
3. Molding sand
4. Parting sand
5. Rammer
6. Strike-off bar
7. Bellows
8. Riser and sprue pins
9. Gate cutter
10. Vent rod
11. Draw spike.
12. Wire Brush
Sequence of operations:

1. Sand preparation
2. Placing the mould flask(drag) on the moulding board/ moulding platform.
3. Placing the pattern at the centre of the moulding flask
4. Ramming the drag
5. Placing runner and riser
6. Ramming the cope
7. Removal of the pattern, runner, riser
8. Gate cutting
Procedure:

1. First a bottom board is placed either on the molding platform or on the floor, making
the surface even.
2. The drag molding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag
part of the pattern at the centre of the flask on the board.
3. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Freshly prepared molding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on
the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.

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5. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed
to compact the sand.
6. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scraped using a
flat bar to the level of the flask edges.
7. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a pointed end, vent
holes are in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate
the removal of gases during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of
the drag.
8. Now finished drag flask is rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
9. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired.
10. The cope flask on the top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins
of the drag box.
11. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance
of about 50 mm from the pattern. The sprue base, runners and in-gates are also located
as shown risers are also placed. Freshly prepared facing sand is poured around the
pattern.
12. The moulding sand is then poured in the cope box. The sand is adequately rammed,
excess sand is scraped and vent holes are made all over in the cope as in the drag.
13. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask.
14. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
15. The cope is separated from the drag any loose sand on the cope and drag interface is
blown off with the help of the bellows.
16. Now the cope and the drag pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and
rapping the pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould cavity so that the walls are
not spoiled by the withdrawing pattern.
17. The runners and gates are to be removed or to be cut in the mould carefully without
spoiling the mould.
18. Any excess or loose sand is applied in the runners and mould cavity is blown away
using the bellows.
19. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which would
give the finished casting a good surface finish.
20. A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After suitable baking, it is placed in the
mould cavity.
21. The cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means
of the pins.
22. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal. The liquid metal is allowed to cool and
become solid which is the casting desired.

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Drawing:

Result: The required mould cavity is prepared using the given Single/Solid Pattern.

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