Chapter 3 – Boolean Algebra

and Digital Logic

CS 271 Computer Architecture

Purdue University Fort Wayne
1
Objectives
 Understand the relationship between Boolean
logic and digital computer circuits.
 Learn how to design simple logic circuits.
 Understand how digital circuits work together to
form complex computer systems.

2
 Introduction
 In the latter 19th century, George Boole suggested
that logical thought could be represented through
mathematical equations.
 Boolean algebra is everywhere
 https://www.google.com/doodles/george-booles-
200th-birthday

3
Application of Boolean Algebra

 Digital circuit
 Google search
 Database (SQL)
 Programming
 ……

4
An Example on Programming
while (((A && B) || (A && !B)) || !A)
{
// do something
}

5
3.2 Boolean Algebra
 Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for
manipulating variables that can have one of two
values.
 In formal logic, these values are “true” and
“false”
 In digital systems, these values are
“on”/“off,” “high”/“low,” or “1”/”0”.
 So, it is perfect for binary number systems
 Boolean expressions are created to operate
Boolean variables.
 Common Boolean operators include AND, OR,
and NOT.
6
Boolean Algebra
 The function of Boolean operator
can be completely described
using a Truth Table.
 The truth tables of the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown on the right.
 The AND operator is also known
as the Boolean product “.”. The
OR operator is the Boolean sum
“+”.
7
Boolean NOT
 The truth table of the
Boolean NOT operator is
shown on the right.
 The NOT operation is
most often designated by
an overbar “‾”.
 Some books use the prime
mark (‘) or the “elbow” (),
for instead.

8
Boolean Function
 A Boolean function has:
• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set of {0,1}.
 It produces an output that is a member of the
set {0,1} – Either 0 or 1.

Now you know why the binary numbering system

is so handy for digital systems.

9
Boolean Algebra
 Let’s look at a truth table
for the following Boolean
function shown on the
right. :

 To valuate the Boolean

function easier, the truth
table contains a extra
columns (shaded) to hold
the evaluations of partial
function.
10
 Rules Of Precedence
 Arithmetic has its rules of
precedence
 Like arithmetic, Boolean
operations follow the rules
of precedence (priority):
 NOT operator > AND
operator > OR operator .
 This explains why we
chose the shaded partial
function in that order in
the table. Rules Of Precedence

11
 Use Boolean Algebra in Circuit
Design
 Digital circuit designer always like achieve the following
goals:
 Cheaper to produce
 Consume less power
 run faster
 How to do it? -- We know that:
 Computers contain circuits that implement Boolean functions 
Boolean functions can express circuits
 If we can simplify a Boolean function, that express a circuit, we can
archive the above goals
 We always can reduce a Boolean function to its
simplest form by using a number of Boolean laws
can help us do so. 12
Boolean Algebra Laws
 Most Boolean algebra laws have either an AND
(product) form or an OR (sum) form. We give the
laws with both forms.
 Since the laws are always true, so X (and Y) could be
either 0 or 1

13
Boolean Algebra Laws (‘Cont)
 The second group of Boolean laws should be
familiar to you from your study of algebra:

14
Boolean Algebra Laws (‘Cont)
 The last group of Boolean laws are perhaps the
most useful.
 If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these laws
should be familiar to you.

15
DeMorgan’s law
 DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding the
negation (complement) of a Boolean function.
 DeMorgan’s law states:

 Example More Examples?

 I will come to school tomorrow if
 (A) my car is working, and
 (B) it won’t be snowing

=  I won’t come to school tomorrow if

 (A) my car is not working, or
16
 (B) it will snowing
DeMorgan’s Law
 DeMorgan’s law can be extended to any number
of variables.
 Replace each variable by its negation (complement)
 Change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
 Let’s say F (X, Y, Z) is the following, what is 𝐹ത ?

17
Simplify Boolean function
 Let’s use Boolean laws to simplify:

as follows:

18
Logic simplification steps

 Apply De Morgan’s theorems

 Expanding out parenthesis
 Find the common factors
 Popular rules used:
X+XY=X X+X=X, XX=X
XY+XY=X X+0=X, X+1=1
X+XY=X+Y X0=0 X1=X
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 Example (1)
 Apply De Morgan’s theorem
WXYZ W+X+Y+Z

(A+B+C)D

AB+CD+EF

20
 Example (2)

 (AB(C+BD)+AB)C

21
 Example (3)

 ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC

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 Example (4)

 (AB+AC)+ABC

23
 Example (5)

 AC+ABC+ABCD+ABD

24
 Example (6)
 (A+B+C)(B+C)(A+B)

25
An Example on Programming
while (((A && B) || (A && !B)) || !A)
{
// do something
}
=
while (1)
{
// do something
} 26
Boolean Algebra
 Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean
expressions, we see that there are 1+ ways of
stating the same Boolean expression.
 These “synonymous” forms are logically equivalent.
 Logically equivalent expressions could produce
confusions
=XZ
 In order to eliminate the confusion, designers
express Boolean express in unified and
standardized form, called canonical form.
27
Boolean Algebra
 There are two canonical forms for Boolean expressions:
sum-of-products and product-of-sums.
 Boolean product (x) AND logical
conjunction operator
 Boolean sum (+)  OR logical conjunction
operator
 In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are
ORed together.
 For example:
 In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are
ANDed together:
 For example:
28
Minterm and Maxterm
 Some books uses sum-of-minterms form and
product-of-maxterms form
 A minterm is a logical expression of n
variables that employs only the complement
operator and the product operator.
 For example, abc, ab'c and abc' are 3 minterms
for a Boolean function of the three variables a, b,
and c.
 A maxterm is a logical expression of n
variables that employs only the complement
operator and the sum operator.
29
 Create Canonical Form Via
Truth Table
 It is easy to convert a function
to sum-of-products form from
its truth table.
 We only interested in the
production of the inputs which
yields TRUE (=1).
 We first highlight the lines that
result in 1.
 Then, we group them together
with OR.

30
Create Canonical Form Via Truth
Table (‘Cont)
 Look at this example:

 It may not the simplest

form. But, it is the standard
sum-of-products canonical
form
31
Exercise
 Convert ABC+A'BC+AB'C+A'B'C+ABC'
to its simplest form

32
Exercise
 Convert AB + C to the sum-of-products
form

AB+C

33
3.3 Logic Gates
 We’ve seen Boolean functions in abstract terms.
 You may still ask:
 How could Boolean function be used in
computer?
 In reality, Boolean functions are implemented as digital
circuits, which called Logic Gates.
 A logic gate is an electronic device that produces a
result based on input values.
 A logic gate may contain multiple transistors, but, we
think them as one integrated unit.
 Integrated circuits (IC) contain collections of gates,
for a particular purpose.
34
 AND, OR, and NOT Gates
 Three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates. “inversion
bubble”

 Their symbol and their truth tables are listed above.

35
 NAND and NOR Gates
 NAND and NOR
are two additional
gates.
 Their symbols and
truth tables are
shown on the
right.
 NAND = NOT
AND
 NOR = NOT OR

36
The Application of NAND and
NOR Gates
 NAND and NOR are
known as universal
gates! – gates of all
gates
 They are inexpensive
to produce
 More important: Any
Boolean function can
be constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.
37
 Multiple Inputs and Outputs of
Gates
 The gates could have multiple inputs and/or multiple
outputs.
 The second output can be provided as the
complement of the first output.
 We’ll see more integrated circuits, which have
multiple inputs/outputs.

39
 XOR Gates
 Another very useful gate is the Exclusive OR (XOR)
gate.
 The output of the XOR operation is true (1) only when
the values of inputs are different.

 The symbol for XOR is 

40
Parity generator / checker
 Electrical noise in the transmission of
binary information can cause errors
 Parity can detect these types of
errors
 Parity systems
 Odd parity
 Even parity
 Add a bit to the binary information

41
Even parity check
 Even parity check
 Example: input: A(7…0), Output:
even_parity bit
 If there are even numbers of 1 in A,
even_parity = ‘0’,
 If there are odd numbers of 1 in A,
even_parity = ‘1’
e.g., A = “10100001”,
even_parity = ‘1’
A = “10100011”,
even_parity = ‘0’
42
Odd parity check
 Odd parity check
 Example: input: A(7…0), Output:
odd_parity bit
 If there are odd numbers of 1 in A,
odd_parity = ‘0’,
 If there are even numbers of 1 in A,
odd_parity = ‘1’
e.g., A = “10100001”,
odd_parity = ‘0’
A = “10100011”,
43
odd_parity = ‘1’
Odd-parity generator/checker
system

44
Error detection
 Transmitting end: The parity generator
creates the parity bit.
 Receiving end: The parity checker
determines if the parity is correct.
 e.g., odd-parity check of 8-bit data
 Data send: 10111101 + 1
 Data received: 101011011
odd-parity check: The number of 1 is even →
error
45
Discussion point
 What are disadvantages of even parity
(or odd parity) check to detect
transmission errors? Consider the
following case:
 Protocol: 8-bit plus one even parity bit
 Information sent: 11011100 + 1
 Information received: 10010100 + 1
 The parity generator/checker system
detects only errors that occur to 1 bit.
46
 Parity check using XOR
 N-1 XOR gates can be cascaded to form a
circuit with N inputs and a single output
– even-parity circuit.
 Example: N=8, Inputs=10111101, even-parity
output
=((10)(11))((11)(01))=0
 Odd-parity check circuit: even-parity check
circuit Inverted Odd-parity check
 Example: N=8, Inputs=10111101, odd-parity
output
=NOT(((10)(11))((11)(01)))=1 47
 Binary comparators
 A one-bit comparator is the same as the XOR
4-bit comparator

1-bit comparator

 A n-bit comparator determines if two n-bit signal vectors

are equal:
EQ(X[1:n],Y[1:n])=(X1=Y1)(X2=Y2)….(Xn=Yn)
48
Two Types of Logic Circuits
 Combinational Logic Circuit (CLC)
 Good at designing computational
components in the CPU, such as ALU
 Sequential Logic Circuit (SLC)
 Good at designing memory components,
such as registers and memory

49
Logic Gates
 We use the combination of gates to implement
Boolean functions.
 The circuit below implements the Boolean function:

50
3.5 Combinational
Circuits
 The circuit implements the Boolean function:

 The major characteristics of this kind of circuits:

 The circuit produces an output almost immediately
after the inputs are given.
 This kind of circuits are called combinational
logic circuit (CLC).
 In a later section, we will explore circuits
where this is not the case.

51
Simplify CLC via Boolean
Algebra
 As I have mentioned previously:
 The simpler that we can express a Boolean function,
the smaller the circuit will be constructed.
 Simpler circuits are cheaper  consume less
power  run faster than complex circuits.
 We always want to reduce a Boolean function to its
simplest form.
 It is important to simplify combinational logic circuit
via Boolean algebra laws

52
Simplify CLC via Boolean
Can we simplify
Algebra this circuit? If
yes, then how?

 Look at this example

=
=

53
Steps to Simplify a Complex
Circuit
 From this example, we know that the
basic steps to simplify a complex
circuit is the following:
 Step1: Express a logical circuit into a
Boolean expression
 Step2: Simplify the Boolean expression
as much as possible
 Step3: Re-express the simplified
expression back to a circuit.

54
Example of Simplify a Logical
Circuit
 Simplify the following circuit

55
Example of Simplify a Logical
Circuit
 Step1: Express a logical circuit into a
Boolean expression

56
Example of Simplify a Logical
Circuit
 Step2: Simplify the Boolean expression
as much as possible

57
Example of Simplify a Logical
Circuit
 Step3: Re-express the simplified
expression back to a circuit

Obviously, the simplified circuit is much

simpler than the original one
58
Combinational Circuits: Half
Adder
 Combinational logic circuits
can be used to create many
useful devices.
 Half Adder: Compute the
sum of two bits.
 Let’s gain some insight of
how to construct a half
adder by looking at its truth
table on the right.

59
Combinational Circuits: Half
Adder (‘Cont)
 It consists two gates:
 a XOR gate -- the sum bit
 a AND gate -- the carry bit

60
 Combinational Circuits: Full
Adder
 We can extend the half
adder to a full adder,
which includes an
additional carry bit
(Carry In)
 The truth table for a full
adder is shown on the
right.

61
 Half Adder  Full Adder ?
 How can we extend the
half adder to a full
adder?

 Hint: First calculate X + Y by a half adder,

then the sum adds the carry in bit, then…… 62
The Full Adder

63
Ripple-carry Adder
 Just as we combined half adders to construct a
full adder, full adders can be connected in series.
 The carry bit “ripples” from one adder to the next.
This configuration is called a ripple-carry adder.

 This is the full adder for two 16 bits!

64
Decoder
 Decoder is another important combinational circuit.
 It is used to select a memory location according a
address in binary form
 Application: given a memory address  Obtain its
memory content.
 Address decoder with n inputs can select one out
of 2n locations.

Address Memory
Lines
65
Decoder

66
 A 2-to-4 Decoder
 This is a 2-to-4 decoder :
Memory
0
0

1 0

Address:
01
1

Only this piece of

memory will be 67
chosen/accessed
68
74138 as a memory address decoder
 Multiplexer
 A multiplexer works just the

Memory
opposite to a decoder.
 It selects a single value
from multiple inputs.
 The chosen input for output
is determined by the value
of the multiplexer’s control
1 0 Address
lines.
 To select from n inputs,
log2n control lines are
required.
69
A four-line multiplexer

What is the logic equation for

the output Y =?
70
Combinational Circuits
 This is a 4-to-1 multiplexer.

which input is transferred to the output? 71

A Simple Two-Bit ALU
3.6 Sequential Logic Circuits (SLC)
 Combinational logic circuits are perfect for those
applications when a Boolean function be immediately
evaluated, given the current inputs.
 Examples: multiplexer, ripple-carry adder, shifter, etc

 However, sometimes, we need a kind of circuits that

change value by considering the current inputs and its
current state.
 Memory is such an example that requires to remember
the current state
 The circuits need to “remember” their states.

 Sequential logic circuits (SLC) provide this functionality.

75
How to “remember”?
 Think about the states in your own
life-time
 1 years old, blabla…
 2 years old, blabla…
 3 years old, blabla…

Time
76
Essential Component of Sequential
Circuits: Clocks
 As the name implies, sequential logic circuits require a
means by which events can be sequenced.
 The change of states is triggered by the clock.
 The “clock” is a special circuit that sends
electrical pulses to a sequential logic circuit.
 Clocks produce electrical waveforms constantly, such
as the one shown below.

77
When Change Its State?
 State changes occur in sequential circuits, only
when the clock ticks.
 A sequential logic circuits could changes it state
 Either, at the rising/falling edge of the clock pulse ,
 Or, when the clock pulse reaches its highest/lowest level.

78
Edge-triggered Or Level-triggered?
 SLC that changes its state at the rising edge, or the
falling edge of the clock pulse is called Edge-
triggered SLC.
 SLC that changes its state when the clock voltage
reaches to its highest or lowest level are called
Level-triggered SLC.
Level-triggered SLC
Edge-triggered SLC

79
Latch And Flip-flop
 latch and flip-flop are two kinds of SLCs,
which are used to construct memory
 A latch is level-triggered
 A flip-flop is edge-triggered
 Which one depends on the length of the clock
pulse?
 Latch, or
 flip-flop?

80
Essential Component Of
Sequential Circuits: Feedback
 The most important design mechanism of SLC is
Feedback
 Feedback can retain the state of sequential circuits
 Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an
output is looped back as an input.
 A simple example of this concept is shown
below.
 If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will
always be 1. --- The motivation of Memory!

81
SR Flip-flop
 You can see how feedback works by examining
the most basic sequential logic components, the
SR flip-flop.
 The “SR” stands for set/reset.
 The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown below,
along with its block diagram. Clock Driven

82
C
 Behavior Of An SR Flip-flop
 The behavior of an SR flip-flop is illustrated in the
following truth table.
 Let’s denote Q(t) as the value of the output at time t, and
 Denote Q(t+1) is the value of Q at time t+1.

C 83
 Retain its Change its
original value value

SR Flip-flop Truth Table

 We consider Q(t), its
current output, as the
third input for SR flip-
flop, besides S and R.
Q(t+1)
 The truth table for this =Q(t)
circuit, as shown on the
0
right.
 When both S and R are 1
1, the SR flip-flop is in
forbidden state

forbidden state 84
Clocked SR Flip-flop

85
 JK Flip-flop
 One limitation of SR flip-flop is that, when S and
R are both 1, the output is undefined.
 This is not nice because it wastes a state
 Therefore, SR flip-flop can be modified to provide
a stable state when both S and R inputs are 1.

• This modified flip-flop is

called a JK flip-flop,
shown on the right.
- The “JK” is in honor of
Jack Kilby.

86
 3.6 Sequential Circuits
 On the right, we see
how an SR flip-flop can
be modified to create a
JK flip-flop.
 The truth table
indicates that the flip-
flop is stable for all
inputs.
 When J and K are
both 1, Q(t+1) = ¬Q(t)
87
 An Example
 Let’s say a JK flip-flop is rising-edge triggered
 At t0, Q(t) = 0. What will be the changes of the value of
Q over time?
Time
• Any time other than
the rising edge won’t
trigger this JK flip-flop
to change its state

88
 D Flip-flop
 Another modification of the SR flip-flop is the D
flip-flop, shown below with its truth table.
 You will notice that the output of the flip-flop
remains the same during subsequent clock
pulses. The output changes only when the value
of D changes.

89
 D Flip-flop
 The D flip-flop is the fundamental circuit of
computer memory.
 D flip-flop and its truth table are
illustrated as below.

90
 3.6 Sequential Circuits
 Sequential circuits are used anytime that we
need to design a “stateful” application.
 A stateful application is one where the next state of the
machine depends on the current state of the machine
and the input.
 A stateful application requires both combinational
and sequential logic.
 The following slides provide several examples of
circuits that fall into this category.
Can you think of
others? 91
 3.6 Sequential Circuits
 This illustration shows a
4-bit register consisting
of D flip-flops. You will
usually see its block
diagram (below) instead.

A larger memory configuration

is shown on the next slide.
92
 3.6 4X3 Memory

Read the
content
Write from the
the memory
content
into the
memory
(0,0); (0,1); (1,0); (1,1);
Choose a word, Wordi 93
(0<=i<=3)
 3.6 Sequential Circuits
 A binary counter is
another example of a
sequential circuit.
 The low-order bit is
complemented at
each clock pulse.
 Whenever it changes
from 0 to 1, the next
bit is complemented,
and so on through the
other flip-flops.

94
Synchronous MOD-16 counter
3.7 Designing Circuits
 Digital designers rely on specialized software
to create efficient circuits.
 Thus, software is an enabler for the
construction of better hardware.
 Of course, software is in reality a collection of
algorithms that could just as well be
implemented in hardware.
 Recall the Principle of Equivalence of
Hardware and Software.

95
Designing Circuits
 When we need to implement a simple, specialized
algorithm and its execution speed must be as fast
as possible, a hardware solution is often preferred.
 This is the idea behind embedded systems, which
are small special-purpose computers that we find in
many everyday things.
 Embedded systems require special programming
that demands an understanding of the operation of
digital circuits, the basics of which you have
learned in this chapter.
96
 Chapter 3 Conclusion
 Computers are implementations of Boolean
logic.
 Boolean functions are completely described by
truth tables.
 Logic gates are small circuits that implement
Boolean operators.
 The basic gates are AND, OR, and NOT.
 The XOR gate is very useful in parity
checkers and adders.
 The “universal gates” are NOR and NAND.
97
Chapter 3 Conclusion
 Computer circuits consist of combinational logic
circuits and sequential logic circuits.
 Combinational circuits produce outputs almost
immediately when their inputs change.
 Sequential circuits require clocks to control
their changes of state.
 The basic sequential circuit unit is the flip-flop:
The behaviors of the SR, JK, and D flip-flops
are the most important to know.

98
End of Chapter 3

99