Chapter 1: Applications of differential calculus in geometry

Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Nguyễn Duy Tân

email: [email protected]

Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics, HUST

February, 2025

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 Contents

Contnes

1 1.1. Application in plane geometry

1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line
1.1.2. Curvature
1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

2 1.2. Application in spatial geometry

1.2.1. Vector functions
1.2.2. Space curves
1.2.3. Surfaces

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

Normal line and tangent line

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

Problem:
In the coordinate plane Oxy , given a curve L and a point M ∈ L. Find the equations of the tangent line
and the normal line of L at M.
Remark: The curve L is defined by y = f (x). Let M(x0 , y0 ) ∈ L.
• The equation of the tangent line to L at M is

y − y0 − f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = 0.

• The equation of the normal line to L at M is

f ′ (x0 )(y − y0 ) + x − x0 = 0.

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

The curve given by F (x, y ) = 0

Non-singular point (điểm chính quy)

The curve L is given by F (x, y ) = 0. The point M(x0 , y0 ) ∈ L is called a non-singular point

(Fx′ (M))2 + (Fy′ (M))2 ̸= 0.

A point that is not non-singular is called singular (điểm kỳ dị).

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

The equation of the tangent line to L at M(x0 , y0 ) is

Fx′ (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + Fy′ (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ) = 0.

The equation of the normal line to L at M is

x − x0 y − y0
= ′ .
Fx′ (x0 , y0 ) Fy (x0 , y0 )

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line
(
x = x(t)
Parametrized curve
y = y (t)
Non-singular point
A point M(x(t0 ), y (t0 )) ∈ L is called non-singular (điểm chính quy) if at least one of x ′ (t0 ), y ′ (t0 ) is not
0.

The equation of the tangent line at M(x(t0 ), y (t0 )) is

x − x(t0 ) y − y (t0 )
′
= .
x (t0 ) y ′ (t0 )

The equation of the normal line at M(x(t0 ), y (t0 )) is

x ′ (t0 )(x − x(t0 )) + y ′ (t0 )(y − y (t0 )) = 0.

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

Example (GK20192)
Find the equations of the tangent line and normal line to x 3 + y 3 = 9xy at (2, 4).

Solution:
x 3 + y 3 = 9xy ⇔ F (x, y ) := x 3 + y 3 − 9xy .
Fx′ (x, y ) = 3x 2 − 9y và Fy′ (x, y ) = 3y 2 − 9x.
At (2, 4):
Fx′ (2, 4) = 3 · 22 − 9 · 4 = −24, Fy′ (2, 4) = 3 · 42 − 9 · 4 = 30.
The equation of the tangent line at (2,4):

−24(x − 2) + 30(y − 4) = 0 or 4x − 5y + 12 = 0.

The equation of the normal line at (2,4):

x −2 y −4
= or 5x + 4y − 26 = 0.
−24 30

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.1. Normal line and tangent line

Example (GK20181)
Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line of x = (t 2 − 1)e 2t , y = (t 2 + 1)e 3t at t = 0.

Solution:
At t = 0, we have a point M(−1, 1).
x ′ = 2te 2t + 2(t 2 − 1)e 2t , y ′ = 2te 3t + 3(t 2 + 1)e 3t .
At t = 0: x ′ = −2, y ′ = 3.
The equation of the tangent line:
x +1 y −1
= or 3x + 2y + 1 = 0.
−2 3

The equation of the normal line:

−2(x + 1) + 3(y − 1) = 0 or 2x − 3y + 5 = 0

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.2. Curvature

1.1.2. Curvature

The curvature measures how fast a curve is changing direction at a given (regular) point.
The curvature of a curve at any point is always non-negative.
The curvature of the curve L at M, is denoted by C (M).

Example
The curvature of any line is 0.

Example
The curvature of a circle with radius R at any point is 1/R.

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.2. Curvature

Curvature: Formulas
The curve L is given by y = f (x). Let M(x0 , y0 ) in L. The curvature at M is given by

|y ′′ |
C (M) = .
(1 + y ′ 2 )3/2

Let L be a curve given by x = x(t), y = y (t). Let M = (x(t0 ), y (t0 )) be a point in L. Then

|x ′ y ′′ − y ′ x ′′ | |x ′ (t0 )y ′′ (t0 ) − y ′ (t0 )x ′′ (t0 )|

C (M) = ′2 ′2
= .
(x + y ) 3/2 (x ′ (t0 )2 + y ′ (t0 )2 )3/2

Let L be a curve defined by r = f (φ) (in cylindrical coordinates). Let M be a point in L. Then

|r 2 + 2r ′2 − rr ′′ |
C (M) = .
(r 2 + r ′2 )3/2

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.2. Curvature

Example (GK20201)
Find the curvature of y = x 3 + x at M(1.2).

Solution:
y ′ = 3x 2 + 1, y ′′ = 6x.
At M(1, 2): y ′ (1) = 3 · 12 + 1 = 4, y ′′ (1) = 6.
The curvature at M(1, 2) is

|y ′′ (1)| |6| 6
C (M) = = = √ .
(1 + y ′ (1)2 )3/2 (1 + 42 )3/2 17 17

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.2. Curvature

Example (GK20192)
Find the curvature of x = 2(t − sin t), y = 2(1 − cos t) when t = −π/2.

Solution:
x ′ (t) = 2(1 − cos t), x ′′ (t) = 2 sin t, y ′ (t) = 2 sin t, y ′′ (t) = 2 cos t.
t = −π/2: x ′ (−π/2) = 2(1 − cos(−π/2)) = 2, x ′′ (t) = 2 sin(−π/2) = −2,
y ′ (−π/2) = 2 sin(−π/2) = −2, y ′′ (−π/2) = 2 cos(−π/2) = 0.
Then
|x ′ (t)y ′′ (t) − x ′′ (t)y ′ (t)| |2 · 0 − (−2)(−2)| 4 1
C (M) = = = √ = √ .
(x ′ (t)2 + y ′ (t)2 )3/2 (22 + (−2)2 )3/2 8 8 4 2

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.2. Curvature

Some exercises

(GK20213) Find the curvature of (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 5 at M(4, 2).

(GK20212) Find the curvature of the curve defined by z = x 2 + y 2 , z = 2x at A(1, 1, 2).
x2 y2
(CK20212) Let (E ) be the curve defined by + = 1. Find the curvature of (E ) at A(4, 0).
16 36
2x
(GK20192) Find the curvature of y = e at A(0; 1).
(GK20182) Find the curvature of x = t 2 , y = t ln t, t > 0 when t = e.

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1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

Given a family of curves F (x, y , c) = 0, where c is a parameter. The envelope of this family of curves is
a curve E such that
every curve in the family touches tangentially to E ;
and at each point of E , E touches tangentially to one of the curves of the family.

Example
Consider the circle C : (x − c)2 + y 2 = R 2 , where c is a parameter. The envelope of this family has two
lines y = ±R.

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

Rules to find the envelope

Theorem
Let F (x, y , c) = 0 be a family of curve, where c is a parameter. If any curve in the family has no
singular
® points then the parametric equations of the envelope are defined by the system of equations
F (x, y , c) = 0
Fc′ (x, y , c) = 0.

Remark: If any curve has a singular point, we must exclude the singular points.

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

Example (GK20201)
Find the envelope of (Γc ): 2x cos c + y sin c = 1.

Solution:
2x cos c + y sin c = 1 ⇔ F (x, y , c) := 2x cos c + y sin c − 1 = 0.
Fx′ = 2 cos c, Fy′ = sin c. The systems Fx′ = Fy′ = 0 has no solutions. The family (Γc ) has no
singular points.

®
F (x, y , c) = 0
®
2x cos c + y sin c = 1 x = 1 cos c
⇔ ⇔ 2
Fc′ (x, y , c) = 0 −2x sin c + y cos c = 0 y = sin c

The envelope is the ellipse

4x 2 + y 2 = 1.

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 1.1. Application in plane geometry 1.1.3. Envelope of a family of curves

Some exercises

x y
(GK20213) Find the envelope of + = 1, where c is a parameter.
c4 (1 − c)4
(GK20212) Find the envelope of y = 2cx 2 + c 2 + 1, where c ≤ 0 is a parameter.
(GK20192) Find the envelope of x 2 + y 2 − 4yc + 2c 2 = 0, where c ̸= 0 is a parameter.
(GK20192) Find the envelope of y = 4cx 3 + c 4 , where c ̸= 0 is a parameter.
(GK20182) Find the envelope of (x + c)2 + (y − c)2 = 2, where c ̸= 0 is a parameter.
(GK20181) Find the envelope of x = 2cy 2 + 3c 2 , where c ̸= 0 is a parameter.

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.1. Vector functions

1.2.1. Vector functions

Let I be an interval in R.
A map ⃗r : I → Rn , t 7→ ⃗r (t) is called a vector function of t defined in I .
Let n = 3 and write ⃗r (t) = (x(t), y (t), z(t)) = x(t)⃗i + y (t)⃗j + z(t)⃗k. The set of all points
M(x(t), y (t), z(t)) with t in I is called the graph of the function r . We also say that a space curve
L has the equation x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t).
Limit: The function ⃗r (t) has limit ⃗a as t approaches to t0 if lim ||⃗r (t) − ⃗a|| = 0, denoted by
t→t0
lim ⃗r (t) = ⃗a.
t→t0
Continuous: The function ⃗r (t) defined in I is continuous at t0 ∈ I if lim ⃗r (t) = ⃗r (t0 ). (This is the
t→t0
same as x(t), y (t), z(t) are continuous at t0 .)

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.1. Vector functions

Derivative

The limit (if exists)

∆⃗r ⃗r (t0 + h) − ⃗r (t0 )

lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h

d⃗r (t0 )
is called the derivative o ⃗r (t) at t0 , denoted by ⃗r ′ (t0 ) or .
dt
When ⃗r (t) has the derivative at t0 , we say ⃗r (t) is differentiable t t0 .
Remark: If x(t), y (t), z(t) are differentiable at t0 , then ⃗r (t) is differentiable at t0 and

⃗r ′ (t0 ) = x ′ (t0 )⃗i + y ′ (t0 )⃗j + z ′ (t0 )⃗k.

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.2. Space curves

1.2.2. Space curves: Tangent lines

Let L be a space curve with parametrized equations x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t). The
corresponding vector function is ⃗r (t) = (x(t), y (t), z(t)).
Let M(x(t0 ), y (t0 ), z(t0 )) ∈ L be a non-singular point (at least one of x ′ (t0 ), y ′ (t0 ), z ′ (t0 ) is
non-zero).
Then ⃗r ′ (t0 ) = (x ′ (t0 ), y ′ (t0 ), z ′ (t0 )) is called the tangent vector of L at M. „
The equation of the tangent line at M:

x − x(t0 ) y − y (t0 ) z − z(t0 )

′
= ′
= .
x (t0 ) y (t0 ) z ′ (t0 )

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.2. Space curves

Curves: Normal planes

Let L be a space curve with parametrized equations x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t). The
corresponding vector function is ⃗r (t) = (x(t), y (t), z(t)). Let M(x(t0 ), y (t0 ), z(t0 )) ∈ L be a
non-singular point.
The plane passing through M and is perpendicular (vuông góc) to the tangent line of L at M is
called the normal plane (pháp diện) of the curve L at M.
−−→
The normal plane of L at M consists of all points P such that the vector MP is perpendicular to
the vector ⃗r ′ (t0 ) = (x ′ (t0 ), y ′ (t0 ), z ′ (t0 )). The equation of the normal plane of L at M is

x ′ (t0 )(x − x(t0 )) + y ′ (t0 )(y − y (t0 )) + z ′ (t0 )(z − z(t0 )) = 0.

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.2. Space curves

Curvature
The curvature measures how fast a curve is changing direction at a given point.
Let L be a space curve defined by x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t). Let M(x(t0 ), y (t0 ), z(t0 )) in L. The
curvature of L at M is

s
2 2 2
x′ y′ y′ z′ z′ x′
+ +
x ′′ y ′′ y ′′ z ′′ z ′′ x ′′
C (M) =
(x ′2 + y ′2 + z ′2 )3/2

Remark: Let ⃗r (t) = (x(t), y (t), z(t)). Then

||⃗r ′ ∧ ⃗r ,′′ ||
C (M) = .
||⃗r ′ ||3

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.2. Space curves

Example (CK20182)
Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal plane of the curve defined by x = t cos 2t,
y = t sin 2t, z = 3t at t = π/2.

Giải:
At t = π/2, we have a point M(−π/2, 0, 3π/2).
x ′ (t) = cos 2t − 2t sin 2t, y ′ (t) = sin 2t + 2t cos 2t, z ′ (t) = 3.
At t = π/2: x ′ (π/2) = −1, y ′ (π/2) = −π, z ′ (π/2) = 3.
The equation of the tangent line is

x + π/2 y z − 3π/2
= = .
−1 −π 3

The equation of the normal plane is

(−1)(x + π/2) − πy + 3(z − 3π/2) = 0 hay − x − πy + 3z − 5π = 0.

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1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.3. Surfaces

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.3. Surfaces

1.2.3. Tangent planes and normal line

Given the surface S and a point M ∈ S. The line MT is called a tangent line of S at M if it is a
tangent line at M to a curve lying in S.
Let S be the surface defined by the equation f (x, y , z) = 0. A point M ∈ S is called non-singular
(điểm chính quy) if at least one of fx′ (M), fy′ (M), fz′ (M) is not zero.

Theorem
The set of all tangent lines of S at a non-singular point M forms a plane.

The plane containing all tangent lines of S at a non-singular point M is called the tangent plane
(tiếp diện) of S at M.
The line through M and is perpendicular to the tangent plane is called the normal line (pháp
tuyến) of S at M.

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.3. Surfaces

Formula

Given the surface S defined by the equationf (x, y , z) = 0. Let M(x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ S be a non-singular point.
The equation of the tangent plane of S at M is

fx′ (M)(x − x0 ) + fy′ (M)(y − y0 ) + fz′ (M)(z − z0 ) = 0.

The equation of the normal line of S at M is

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= ′ = ′ .
fx′ (M) fy (M) fz (M)

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.3. Surfaces

Example (GK20201)
Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of z = ln(2x + y ) at M(−1, 3, 0).

Solution:
Let F (x, y , z) = ln(2x + y ) − z.
Fx′ = 2/(2x + y ), Fy′ = 1/(2x + y ), Fz′ = −1.
At M(−1, 3, 0): Fx′ (M) = 2, Fy′ (M) = 1, Fz′ (M) = −1.
The equation of the tangent plane

2(x + 1) + (y − 3) − z = 0 or 2x + y − z − 1 = 0.

The equation of the normal line

x +1 y −3 z
= = .
2 1 −1

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.3. Surfaces

Some exercises

(GK20213) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line ofz = 2x 2 + y 2 at M(1, 1, 3).
(GK20212) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of arctan(x + y 2 ) + z = 0 at
M(−1, 1, 0).
(CK20193) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of x 2 − 2y 3 + 3z 2 = 11 at A(1; 1; 2).
(GK20192) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of x = 2(t − sin t),
y = 2(1 − cos t) at t = π/2.
(GK20182) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of x = sin t, y = cos t, z = e 2t at
M(0; 1; 1).
(GK20182) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of x 2 + y 2 − e z − 2xyz = 0 at
M(1; 0; 0).
(GK20172) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of ln(2x + y 2 ) + 3z 3 = 3 at
M(0; −1; 1).
(CK20171) Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line of z = ln(4 − x 2 − 2y 2 ) at
A(−1; 1; 0).

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 1.2. Application in spatial geometry 1.2.3. Surfaces

Curves defined by intersection of surfaces

(CK20181) Find the tangent vector at M(1; −1; 1) of the curve defined by
®
x + y + 2z − 2 = 0
x 2 + 2y 2 − 2z 2 − 1 = 0

(CK20142) Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal plane at A(1; −2; 5) of the curve
defined by z = x 2 + y 2 , z = 2x + 3.

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