CHAPTER TEN

CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Introduction

 Electrical energy is used for lighting, Heating and operating electronic devices such as T.V,
computers etc. This energy is carried through conductors like wires.

Electric Current

 Electric current is the rate of flow of charge (flow of charge per unit time). SI unit is the ampere (A)
 From the definition above,

Charge , Q
Current , I =
Time , t
Q
I= , Q=¿
t

Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 360 coulombs of charge flows through it in
3.5 minutes.

Solution

Q
I=
t
360
I=
3.5 x 60
¿ 1.714 A

Types of Electric Current

a) Direct current(d.c) – which flows in one direction only

b) Alternating current(a.c) – which reverses direction with a given frequency

Simple Electric Circuits

 A simple electric circuit consist of a cell, a bulb and connecting wires.

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Notes

a) A circuit that allows charges to move in a complete path when the switch is closed is said to be a
closed circuit.
b) A circuit that does not allow charges to move in a complete path when the switch is closed is said to
be a open (broken circuit)
c) For clarity and neatness, symbols are used in representing an electrical circuit.

Direction of the Flow of Electric Current

 Conventionally, it is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell. It is opposite to
the direction of flow of electrons.
 The instrument for measuring electric current is called an ammeter while electric current flow is
controlled by a variable resistor.


Device Symbol
Cell

Battery
Switch

Bulb/filament lamp

Wires crossing with no connection

Wires crossing with connection

Fixed resistor
Potential divider

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 The table below shows
some of the electrical
symbols used in
drawing circuits. Fuse
Capacitor

Rheostat

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Galvanometer

Electromotive Force (E.m.f) and Potential

Difference

 Potential difference (Pd) refers to the voltage across the terminals of a battery in a closed circuit.
 Electromotive force (E.m.f) refers to voltage across the terminals of a battery in an open circuit (when
no current flows in the circuit)
 Pd and E.m.f are measured in volts by an instrument called voltmeter.
 The difference between Pd and E.m.f is known as lost voltage e .m . f =P . d +lost voltage

lost voltage=e . m. f −P . d
 This voltage is lost because of the opposition to the flow of charges within the cell (internal
resistance)

Connecting Cells in Series and Parallel

Cells in Series

 Two or more cells are connected such that the positive terminal of one is joined to the negative
terminal of another one.
 Two or more cells connected in series make a battery

Cells in Parallel

 Two or more cells are placed side by side, the positive terminals joined together and the negative
terminals also connected together.
 Current is supplied for a longer time in parallel connection of cells.

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Bulbs in Series and Parallel Connection

Bubs in Parallel

 Each bulb is controlled by its own switch. If one goes off, others continue lighting.
 There’s decreased resistance as the current has many alternative loops (complete paths) through
which to flow.

Bulbs in Series

 If one bulb goes off, others also go off.

 There’s increased resistance thus the bulbs might not be as bright as those in parallel connection.

An electrician installed electric wiring in a house and connected the bulbs and the switches as shown

in the below.C
(a) Explain what happens when switch:
(i) S1 is closed.

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 Only bulb B1 will light;
(ii) S2 is closed.
Bulb B1 and B2 lights but with less brightness because of increase in resistance.

(iii) S3 is closed.
Bulb B1B2 and B3 will all light but with much less brightness compared to a (ii)

(b) (i) Using a redrawn diagram show the best position the bulbs should be installed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) Explain why you consider the arrangement in (b) (i) above to be the best.
When the bulbs are connected such that they are in parallel, the circuit résistance is significantly
reduced; and hence more current flow, the bulb lights with equal brightness since the operation voltage is
the same;

Conductors and Insulators

 Conductors are materials that allow electric current to flow through them e.g. copper, silver, graphite
and aluminium.
 Insulators are materials that do not allow flow of electric current through them e.g. plastic, paper and
rubber.

Note:

1) Materials whose electrical properties fall between those of conductors and insulators are referred to as
semi-conductors e.g. silicon and germanium.
2) Some liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid, sodium chloride solution and potassium hydroxide
conduct electricity. They are referred to as electrolytes.

Sources of Electricity

 Main sources:
 Chemical cells
 Generators
 Solar cells
 Others include:
 Thermocouples
 Piezo electricity

Chemical Cells

These are cells that produce an E.m.f as a result of a chemical reaction. They are categorized into two:

I. Primary cells
 These are cells which cannot be recharged for use again e.g. simple cell.

Simple Cell

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Defects of a simple cell

 Polarization – accumulation of bubbles around the copper plate (positive plate). This defect provides
insulation to the flow of current and also sets up some “local” cells with copper whose electron flow
tends to oppose the flow of electrons from the zinc plate. The overall effect is increase in the internal
resistance of the cell, which reduces the flow of current.

Local action – the zinc plate is depleted as it reacts with dilute sulphuric acid. Impurities in zinc promote
local action.

Ways of correcting Polarization defect:

 Addition of potassium dichromate (depolarizer). Oxygen from the depolarizer combines with the
hydrogen atoms to produce water.
 Removing copper plate and brushing off the gas bubbles.

Ways of correcting Local action defect:

 Use of pure zinc.

 Coating zinc with mercury (amalgamation).

The Leclanche’ cell

Local action and Polarization have been minimized

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 The carbon rod (positive terminal) is surrounded with manganese (IV) oxide mixed with carbon
powder.
 Carbon powder increases the effective area of the plates hence reduced resistance.
 The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolarizer (depolarization is slow thus large currents cannot be
drawn out of this cell steadily for a long time).
 Local action is still a defect in this cell.

The cell is used for purposes where current is not drawn from it for a very long time, like operating bells
and telephone boxes. It has a longer life span than the simple cell.

The Dry Cell

 It is referred to as dry cell because it has no liquid.

 The ammonium chloride solution in the Leclanche’ cell is replaced with the ammonium chloride jelly
or paste which is used as the electrolyte.
 Manganese (IV) oxide and act as the depolarizer.
 carbon powder increases the surface area of the positive electrode (carbon Rod)

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 The zinc case acting as the negative electrode gets depleted by the ammonium chloride and changes
to zinc chloride. Local action is still a defect in this cell.
 The cell cannot be renewed once the chemical action stops. A new dry cell has an e.m.f of about 1.5
V.

Care for the dry cell

 Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell within a short time.
 The terminals should not be shorted.
 The cells must be stored in dry places.

Uses of the dry cells

 Dry cells are used in torches, calculators and radios.

II. Secondary Cells:

 These are rechargeable cells.
 They are also called storage cells as they can store electrical energy as chemical energy.
 Examples are the Lead-acid accumulator and the Nickel-alkaline accumulator.

Lead – acid accumulator

 Consist of positive and negative plates which are made of lead-antimony alloy.
 The plates are dipped in sulphuric acid solution which is an electrolyte.
 The caps have small vent holes which allow gases to escape(02 and H2)
 If the density of the acid becomes too low the accumulator is said to be discharged.
 It is charged by connecting a d.c source as shown below.

 This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost-effective of the secondary cells. A 12 V lead-acid
accumulator has six cells connected in series.

Capacity of an Accumulator

 This is the amount of current that can be drawn in a given time from the battery.
 It is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).

Examples

1. A battery is rated 120 AH. How long will it work if it steadily supplies a current of 4A?

capacity =current∈ amperes× time∈hours

120 AH =4 A × time
120 AH
time= =30 hours
4A

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2. The current capacity of an accumulator is 40Ah. Find the amount of current flowing if the
accumulator is used for 600 minutes.
capacity =current∈ amperes× time∈hours
600
40 AH =I ×
60
40 AH
I= =4 A
10 H

Maintenance of the Accumulators

1) The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly and maintained above the plates. Topping
should be done by distilled water; NOT ACID!
2) The accumulator should be charged when the e.m.f of the cell drops below 1.8 V and when the
relative density of the acid is falls below 1.12 (using a hydrometer).
3) Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a long time.
4) Should not be left in a discharged condition for a long period as sulphation may take place. (the lead
(II) sulphate deposits on the plates harden up and cannot be converted back to lead (II) oxide and
lead.)
5) Shorting/ overcharging of the accumulator should be avoided.
6) The terminals should always be kept clean and greased.
7) The accumulator should not be directly placed on the ground during storage. It should be rested on
some insulator like a wooden block.

Alkaline Accumulators:

 The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution, such as potassium hydroxide.

 The common types are nickel-cadmium and nickel-iron accumulators.

Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead – Acid Accumulators

1. Large currents can be drawn from them over a short period of time.
2. They require very little attention to maintain.
3. They are lighter (more portable) than the Lead – acid accumulators.
4. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a very long time before the cells are ruined.

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