TABLE OF CONTENTS

Life Sciences Teacher’s Guide: An Introduction 1

Strand: Life at molecular, cellular and tissue level

1. DNA: The Code of Life 21

2. Meiosis 45

Strand: Life processes in plants and animals

3. Reproductive Strategies in Vertebrates 69

4. Human Reproduction 77

Strand: Diversity, change and continuity

5. Genetics and Inheritance 102

Strand: Life processes in plants and animals

6. Human Responses to the Environment 143

7. The Human Endocrine System and Homeostasis 173

8. Plant Responses to the Environment 197

Strand: Diversity, change and continuity

9. Evolution by Natural Selection 218

10. Human Evolution 249

Life Sciences Teachers’ Guide: An Introduction

The purpose of this textbook and teachers’ guide series is to equip you, the teacher,
with the necessary tools to effectively teach life sciences within the FET phase. All
the materials have been designed with the aim of covering all the content required
for CAPS but at the same time effectively communicating the broader value of Life
Sciences to your students and classes in a way that is easy to read. We hope that
you find this book to be a helpful resource as you teach and engage with your
students, and may it facilitate an even greater appreciation within you of the subject.
Since January 2012 the teaching in all schools was adapted to meet the standards
laid out in the National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS)
document. It is highly recommended that you be familiar with this document.

Overview of the National Curriculum

(a) The knowledge, skills and values deemed most important for South African
learners is clearly set out in the National Curriculum and Assessment Policy
Statement for Life Sciences. The content is adapted to the unique environment
and context of South Africa, but at the same time provides an awareness of
important global trends.

(b) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R - 12 undertakes to:

 equip all learners, irrespective of their backgrounds, race, gender or
ability, with the knowledge, skills and values necessary to reach their
goals and be functioning members of society.
 facilitate access to higher education.
 smooth the transition of learners into to the workplace.
 provide employers with a profile of a learner’s competencies.

(c) The key principles of the National Curriculum Statement for Grades R - 12 are:
 social transformation: working to alleviate the educational differences of
the past and providing equal educational opportunities to all.
 active and critical learning: encouraging learners to think about and
understand what they are learning and not merely emphasising the rote-
memory of facts.
 high knowledge and high skills: specified minimum standards of
knowledge and skills are set to be achieved at each grade.
 progression: both the content and the context of subjects will be
expanded as one progresses through the grades.
 Social awareness: being sensitive to issues such as poverty, inequality,
race, gender, language, age, disability and other factors.
 Valuing human rights, inclusivity and environmental and social justice.

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  Valuing indigenous knowledge systems: acknowledging the rich history
and heritage of this country.
 Credibility, quality and efficiency: providing an education that is
comparable in quality, breadth and depth to those of other countries.

(d) The aims as listed in the National Curriculum Statement Grades R - 12 interpret
the kind of citizen the education systems tries to develop. It aims to produce
learners that are able to:
 identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and
creative thinking.
 work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team.
 organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and
effectively.
 collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information.
 communicate effectively both visually, symbolically and with language.
 use science and technology effectively and critically, showing
responsibility towards the environment and the health of others.
 demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems
by recognising that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation.

(e) Inclusivity is one of the key principles of the National Curriculum Statement
Grades R - 12 and should be a central part of the organisation, planning and
teaching at each school. Educators need to:
 have a sound understanding of how to recognise barriers to learning and
address them in the classroom.
 know how to plan for diversity .
 use various curriculum differentiation strategies (Consult the Department
of Basic Education’s Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning,
2010)
 address barriers to learning using the support structures within the
community, District-Based Support Teams, Institutional-Level Support
Teams, parents and Special Schools as Resource Centres.

What is Life Science?

The term ‘Life Sciences’ indicates clearly the two ideas held together in this subject.
Life refers to all living things- from the most basic of molecules through to the
interactions of organisms with one another and their environments. Science indicates
it is necessary to use certain methods in our study of the subject. The two broad
aims of any science are to increase existing knowledge and discover new things. We
approach this using a careful method that can be copied by others. The methods
include proposing hypotheses and carrying out investigations and experiments to
test these hypotheses. Scientific knowledge changes over time as more is

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discovered and understood about our world; as such, Life Sciences is a constantly
growing subject.

Life Sciences Strands for Grade 11 and 12

Everything within grade 11 and 12 will fit under one of these four broad strands.
These knowledge pathways grow over the three years of FET. Within each
knowledge strand, ideas should not be studied separately; you goal as a teacher
should be to encourage the students to rather seek to discover the links between
related topics so that they grow in their understanding of the inter- connectedness of
life. As you teach each section or chapter, highlight to them the broad strokes that
place it under one of these strands:

 Knowledge Strand 1: Life at the Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Level

 Knowledge Strand 2: Life Processes in Plants and Animals
 Knowledge Strand 3: Environmental Studies
 Knowledge Strand 4: Diversity, Change and Continuity.

Although there is some flexibility in the order in which the knowledge strands are
covered, it is important to remember that Knowledge Strand 1 must be taught before
Knowledge Strand 2, and that Knowledge Strand 3 must come before Knowledge
Strand 4. It is up to you to decide whether to start the school year with Knowledge
Strand 1 or Knowledge Strand 3.

The purpose of studying Life Sciences

There are three broad purposes, which will be expanded upon as we continue:
 Aim 1 – acquiring the knowledge of Life Sciences
 Aim 2 – doing practical work and investigations
 Aim 3 – understanding the applications of Life Sciences in society- both
present society (indigenous and western) and within the context of history.

Specific Aim 1: Acquiring knowledge of Life Sciences

Learners are expected to develop an understanding of Life Science concepts,

processes, phenomena, mechanisms, principles, theories and models. The specific
skills you are wanting to equip them with, is to be able to:

1. Acquire and recall knowledge

 Access information
 Select key ideas
 Recall facts
 Describe concepts, processes and theories

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 Verbs that can be used in testing this skill: State, name, label, list,
define, describe.

2. Understand, comprehend and make connections between ideas and concepts

• Write summaries
• Develop flow charts, diagrams and mind maps
• Recognise patterns and trends
Verbs that can be used in testing this skill: explain, compare, rearrange,
give an example, illustrate, calculate, interpret, suggest, make a
generalisation, predict, select, differentiate.

3. Apply knowledge in new and unfamiliar contexts

• Use information in a new way
• Construct meaning from new data using pre-acquired knowledge
Verbs that can be used when testing this skill: demonstrate, interpret,
predict, compare, differentiate, illustrate, solve, select.

4. Analyse, evaluate, and synthesise scientific knowledge, concepts and ideas

• Analyse information and data
• Recognise relationships between existing knowledge and new ideas
• Critically evaluate scientific information
• Identify assumptions
• Categorise information
Verbs that can be used when testing this skill: Appraise, argue, judge,
select, evaluate, defend, compare, contrast, criticise, differentiate,
distinguish.

Specific Aim 2: Investigating phenomena in Life Sciences

Practical investigations involve a specific range of skills, which can be summarised

as follows:

1. Follow Instructions
• Students must be able to adhere to instructions that they are given
• Adhering to safety rules

2. Handle Equipment/apparatus
• Knowledge of apparatus (naming, handling and what it is used for)
• How to use chemicals and taking necessary precautions when handling
them
• Using equipment appropriately and safely

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3. Make Observations
• Drawings
• Descriptions
• Grouping of materials (similarities and/or differences)
• Measurements
• Comparing materials before and after treatment
• Observing results of an experimental investigation and recording
information in the appropriate manner
• Counting

4. Record Information or data

• Simple tables
• Drawings
• Descriptions
• Constructing a pie chart
• Line graph
• Histogram or bar chart as suited to the data and choosing suitable axes
and scales

5. Measure
• Reading linear and two-dimensional scales
• Scaling by choosing a headings for axes
• Measuring quantities
• Making valid measurements of variables, repeating measurements to
obtain an average where necessary in all quantitative work
• Recognising, or supplying the correct units for common measurements
• Counting systematically

6. Interpret
• Convert information into an appropriate graph, table etc. and extract data
• Apply knowledge
• Analyse and recognise patterns or trends
• Acknowledge limitations of experimental procedures
• Make deductions based on evidence to reach a conclusion

7. Design/plan investigations or experiments

• Identifying a problem and formulate a question that will guide the
investigation
• The aim of the investigation
• The Hypothesis
• Selecting the correct apparatus or equipment and/or materials and
chemicals
• Identifying variables

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 • Adhere to laboratory safety procedures

Specific Aim 3: Appreciating and understanding the importance of Life

Sciences in society (present and past)

 Understanding the history and relevance of discoveries

• The history of scientific discoveries is the context of our learning.

 Being aware of the value indigenous knowledge systems give to Life Sciences
• Understand the different cultures in which indigenous knowledge systems
developed
• Link specific cultures directly to the areas in Life Science that they have
influenced

 Know the value and application of Life Sciences knowledge in industry,

careers and everyday life
• Analyse the applications of biotechnology
• Summarise and understand the positive and negative effects of biotechnology
on the environment
• Have a knowledge of the different career paths in Life Sciences

 Develop language skills

 Improve writing skills
 Grown in the ability to read and understand scientific text and produce
essays, summaries etc.

Time Allocation

The time allocation for Life Sciences in Grade 11 and 12 is 4 hours per week.
The curriculum for Grade 11 has been designed to be completed within 32 weeks
out of 40 weeks in the school year. The Grade 12 curriculum is designed to be
completed within 27 ½ weeks out of the 40 weeks. The extra weeks are designed to
allow for school-based activities that may disrupt teaching.

Syllabus

For the detailed syllabus descriptions applicable to Life Sciences for grade 11 and 12
please consult your CAPS document or access it online here (insert link)

Assessment

Assessment can be defined as the planned process of gathering and interpreting

data on the performance of students in your class.

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Assessment serves a purpose to both students and teachers. It allows students to
gauge their own progress and test their understanding and skills. For you as a
teacher, it will help you identify weak areas and intervene where needed to reinforce
concepts.
The four steps of assessment would be to generate and collect the evidence of
progress, evaluate it, record the results and use your findings to make adjustments
(in teaching and learning) where needed.

Using your findings entails

 Making judgements about a specific student’s progress

 Informing the students about their strengths, weaknesses and progress
 Using your findings to assist other teachers and the parents, in making the
best decisions possible for the student.

In both formal and informal assessments, always consider the content, concepts and
skills and the aims specified for Life Sciences. It is important to ensure that over the
year, all of the subject content is covered, the full range of skills is included and
different forms of assessment are used.

Types of assessments

Assessments should be both on learning (formal) and for learning (informal).

Informal or daily assessments
The aim of informal assessments is to provide consistent feedback to the learner of
their progress that can be used to improve their learning. Informal assessment
occurs daily. This is done through observations, discussions, practical
demonstrations, learner-teacher conferences and informal classroom interactions. It
should be seen as a part of the learning activities taking place in the classroom.

 There should be a minimum of three informal assessments done per week.

These can be marked by you or the students.
 There should be a consolidation task at the end of each topic.
 Practical skills should be taught in a way that integrates them into the theory
being taught.
 The assessments should vary in their difficulty and cognitive levels so that
collectively all the degrees are covered.

Formal Assessments

The aim of these assessments is to provide you a systematic way to evaluate how
your students are progressing. Examples of formal assessments include tests,
exams, tasks, projects, assignments, demonstrations and orals.

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These are the assessments that are marked by you, and those results recorded
formally for progression and certification purposes. For grade 11 and 12, these
assessments are broken up in the following way:
 25 % school-based formal assessments (incudes June exam, as well as trials
for grade 12)
 75% end of year examination

Degrees of difficulty for test/exam questions

Each question set will fall into one of the following levels:
Level 1: easy for the average student to answer
Level 2: moderately challenging for the average learner to answer
Level 3: difficult for the average learner to answer
Level 4: very difficult. The skills and knowledge required to answer these questions
allows for the level 7/high-achieving students to be discriminated from the other high-
ability learners.

Factors that influence the cognitive demand of questions

Content difficulty: A question that asks a student to recall an abstract theory or fact,
or complex content, is harder than once that asks for recall of a simple fact.
Writing difficulty: It is generally easier to recall a sequence of events in a few
sentences or point form, compared to being asked to answer in an essay form.

Reading difficulty: Different sources may be more complicated to comprehend and

interpret. For example a magazine article is in a simpler format than a classical
work like an excerpt from a textbook. The difference in content, vocabulary and
structure, and the way abstract ideas are presented will influence the student’s ability
to extract information.
It is important as an examiner to make sure that you are able to identify the type of
cognitive demand that a question will place on the learner, as well as the degree of
difficulty of the question or task. Combining these two features together we can
consider the question against a framework for question difficulty. It is important to do
this so that a paper is neither too difficult nor too easy. These are the other factors
that influence the difficulty level of a question

Content/concept difficulty: This refers to the difficulty of the subject matter, topic or
knowledge assessed and required. In this judgement, difficulty is present in the
academic and conceptual demands a questions makes, as well as the grade level
limits of the specific element being questioned.

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Stimulus difficulty: This refers to the difficulty of the language (linguistic complexity)
and the challenge presented to the learner when they try to read and understand the
language of both the question and any source material provided as part of it.

Task difficulty: This refers to the challenge the learner faces when trying to
formulate or produce an answer.

Expected response difficulty: This refers to the difficulty imposed by examiners in

the mark scheme and memorandum. This is largely applicable to constructed
response questions and less to selected response questions (multiple choice,
true/false, matching columns)

Weighting of cognitive levels for Grade 11 and 12

Knowing Science 40%

 State or name
 List
 Label
 Define
 Describe

Understanding Science 25%

 Communicate understanding
 Interpret
 Exemplify and classify
 Summarise
 Classify
 Infer
 Compare
 Explain

Applying scientific knowledge 20%

 Perform a basic or routine procedure or rule or method
 Apply an understanding of learned concepts or facts from a known to an
unfamiliar context.
 Demonstrate
 Solve

Evaluating, analysing and synthesising scientific knowledge 15%

 Analyse complex information and adapt appropriate strategies to solve
non-routine/complex/open ended questions.
 Evaluate or make a critical judgement, for example on the quality of
results, the probability or desirability of an outcome.

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  To create a new product by integrating concepts/ ideas/ information and
make connections between different ideas or the overall purpose or
structure of a system.
 To differentiate or suggest a reason.

School based assessments for Grade 12

Weighting % of reporting
TERM Task
(% of SBA) mark per term
Practical
10 25
Minimum 30 marks
1
Test
10 75
Minimum 50 marks
Practical
10 25
Minimum 30 marks
2 Mid-year Exam
One paper - 150 marks 20 75
Duration: 2½ hours
Assignment (50 marks)
15 25
Duration: 1 - 1½ hours
3 Trial Exam
Two papers - 150 marks each 35 75
Duration: 2½ hours each
Total 100

The different tasks of the Formal Assessment Programme

Tests and Examinations

 Minimum 50 marks
 It must cover the work taught in that specific term
 The mid-year exam must cover Term 1 and Term 2
 For grade 12, the trial exams must cover Terms 1-3
 The degree of difficulty must be considered and the assessment must be
balanced in terms of cognitive levels and topics.
 They must follow the NSC exam in design, rigor and format
 One minute must be allocated per mark
 Each test/exam must cover all three specific aims with at least 20% of the
weighting going to specific aim two.
 Remedial and intervention strategies must be in place where needed

Practical Tasks

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  One task must involve manipulation of apparatus or data collection
 All seven skills must be covered over the practicals for the year
 Each practical must assess at least 3 of the 7 skills
 Minimum 30 marks

Research Project
 All three specific aims must be covered
 The marks for this must be recorded in the third term, no matter when the
project was completed
 It must be 50 marks
 The task is long-term (more than three weeks non-contact time)
 It must be investigative
 Sub-skills to be included are formulating questions and hypotheses, gathering
information and being able to manipulate and process it. Patterns must be
identified and the data evaluated. Valid conclusions must be drawn and the
findings communicated effectively.

Assignment
 It must be skills based and not heavily weighted towards content recall
 All three specific aims must be covered
 The mark for the assignment must be recorded in the third term, no matter
when the assignment was completed.
 It must be 50 marks
 Short term task (1-1 ½ hours)
 Completed individually, at school, under controlled conditions.
 No resources may be used while completing the task
 It must include a short source-based essay (10-15 marks)
 As many of the following as possible must be covered: analysing and
interpreting data, making drawings and plotting graphs, drawing tables,
performing calculations and justifying conclusions.

Assessment Tools

The purpose of these tools is to assist you to record information gathered during
assessments. They allow your marking to be systematic, and they enable you do
check the quality and content of your assessments. It makes any analysis of a
student’s achievements more objective.

Types of assessment tools: These can be checklists, rubrics, an observation

notebook, recordings, written descriptions, portfolios and more.

Before assessment it is important for the students to know: How and when they will
be assessed, the format for the response and the consequences of the assessment.

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Questions to be answered after the assessment

Were the criteria used appropriate?

Has feedback been given to the learners?
Have any learning disabilities been identified?
What follow-up action is needed?
How will the assessment further the purpose of teaching and learning?

Rubrics for assessment (rubrics from Siyavula, Life Sciences Grade 10)

Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity

 To be used for any practical task where learners are required to follow
instructions to complete the task.

Assessment
0 1 2 Comments
criteria
Instructions
Following Unable to follow Able to work
followed with
instructions instructions independently
guidance
Sometimes does Able to follow safety
Observing safety Unable to observe
not follow safety precautions
precautions safety precautions
precautions completely

Ability to work
Cannot work tidily Can work tidily
tidily

Cleans up Does so once Does so

afterwards reminded without reminding

Organised and
Organisation Disorganised Fairly organised
efficient

Sometimes used Apparatus and

Use of apparatus, Always used
correctly and materials used
equipment and incorrectly and
aware of material correctly and
materials materials wasted
usage efficiently
Results or final No result or final Partially correct Results or product
product product results or product correct
Can answer
Answers to No answers Can answer
questions and at
questions based provided or most application and
least 60% are
on activity are incorrect questions correctly
correct

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Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
 To be used for an investigation, especially where learners have to write their own
experimental report or design the investigation themselves.

Assessment
0 1 2 3 Comments
criteria
Not stated or Not clearly
Aim Clearly stated
incorrect stated
Able to
Hypothesis or Not able to Clearly
hypothesize,
prediction hypothesize hypothesizes
but not clearly
Materials and Not listed or Partially
Correct
apparatus incorrect correct
Confused, not
Clearly and
Method None in order or Partially correct
correctly stated
incorrect

Results and accurately Correctly and

No results
observations Partially recorded but accurately
recorded or
(recorded either correctly not in the most recorded in the
incorrectly
as a graph, table recorded appropriate or most appropriate
recorded
or observations) specified way or specified way

No under- Some under-

Understands Insightful
Analysis or standing of standing of
the understanding of
discussion the the
investigation the investigation
investigation investigation
Critical
Partially Correct, but
Evaluation No attempt evaluation with
correct superficial
suggestions
Neatness of
Untidy Tidy
report
Some of
Logical Report is
report is
presentation of Not logical logically
logically
report presented
presented

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Assessment Rubric 3: Graph
 To be used for any graph or translation task you would like to assess, either on its own
or within another activity.

Assessment criteria 0 1 2 Comments

Correct type of graph Not correct Correct
Appropriate heading, Present, but
Not present Complete
describing both variables incomplete
Not present or
Independent variable on x-axis Present
incorrect
Not present or
Dependent variable on y-axis Present
incorrect
Appropriate scale on x-axis Incorrect Correct
Appropriate scale on y-axis Incorrect Correct
Not present or
Appropriate heading for x-axis Correct
incorrect
Not present or
Appropriate heading for y-axis Correct
incorrect
Units for independent variable Not present or
Correct
on x-axis incorrect
Units for dependent variable on Not present or
Correct
y-axis incorrect
Mostly or partially All
Plotting points All incorrect
correct correct
Neatness Untidy Tidy
Graph size Too small Large

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Assessment Rubric 4: Table
 To be used when learners have to draw their own table and you would like to assess it.

Assessment criteria 0 1 2 Comments

Appropriate heading,
Present, but
describing both Not present Complete
incomplete
variables
Appropriate column Not present or Correct and
Mostly correct
headings incorrect descriptive
Appropriate row Not present or At least half
All correct
headings incorrect correct
Units in headings and Present but in Present and in the
None present
not in body of table the body headings
All vertical and
No horizontal or Some lines
Layout of table horizontal lines
vertical lines drawn
drawn
Partially
Data entered in table Not correct All correct
correct

Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing

 To be used when learners have to do a drawing, particularly in Life and Living.

Assessment criteria 0 1 2 Comments

Appropriate, descriptive Present, but
Not present Complete
heading incomplete
Appropriate size of
Incorrect (too
drawing (sufficiently Correct
small)
large on page)

Accuracy of drawing
(correct shape and Incorrect Somewhat correct Correct
proportion of parts)

Structures or parts
Mostly Mostly correct, but
placed correctly in All correct
incorrect some misplaced
relation to each other

Diagram lines are neat, Not clear or

straight and done with a neat or blunt Clear and neat
sharp pencil pencil

Label lines do not cross

Incorrect Correct All correct
over each other
Mostly correct with
Mostly All correct
Parts are labelled some missing or
incorrect and labelled
incorrectly labelled

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Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or project
 To be used when learners have to do a research assignment or project, either outside of
class or in class time, and either individually or in groups.

Assessment
0 1 2 Comments
criteria
Conflict between Some conflict and
Group work (if Worked efficiently
members or some some members did
applicable) as a group
did not participate not always participate
Some parts are clear Clear and logical
No clear or logical
Project layout and logical, while layout and
organisation
others are not organisation
Many errors in A few errors in Content is
Accuracy
content content accurate
Resources used
Some or limited A range of
(material or No resources used
resources used resources used
media)
Of a high
Standard Poor standard Satisfactory
standard
Did not work Worked efficiently
Worked fairly
Use of time efficiently and ran and finished in
efficiently
out of time time

Assessment Rubric 7: Model

 To be used when learners have to design and build their own scientific models.

Assessment
0 1 2 Comments
criteria
Mostly accurate, but Accurate,
Scientifically Model inaccurate or
with some parts complete and
accurate incomplete
missing or incorrect correct.
Too big or too small,
Correct size, but
parts not in Correct size and
Size and scale some parts too big or
proportion to each proportional scale
too small
other
Creative and good
Use of colour Dull, with little use of
Somewhat colourful use of colour and
or contrast contrast
contrast

Satisfactory use of Excellent use of

Inappropriate use or
Use of appropriate materials materials and
only expensive
materials and recyclables recyclables where
materials used
where possible appropriate
Use of a key or Present but
Not present Clear and accurate
explanation incomplete or vague

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Assessment Rubric 8: Poster
 To be used when learners have to make a poster, either individually or in a group.

Assessment
0 1 2 Comments
criteria
Present, but not
Title Absent sufficiently Complete title
descriptive
Some points
Main points Not relevant All points relevant
relevant
Mostly correct, but
Accuracy of facts Many incorrect All correct
some errors
Language and
Many errors Some errors No errors
spelling
Organisation
Organisation and Disorganised and Excellent, logical
partially clear and
layout no logic layout
logical
No colour or only
Use of colour Some use of colour Effective colour
one colour
Text appropriate
Size of text Text very small Some text too small
size
Present but
Use of diagrams Present, relevant
Absent or irrelevant sometimes
and pictures and appealing
irrelevant
Accuracy of
Completely
diagrams or Inaccurate Mostly accurate
accurate
pictures
Eye catching and
Does not make an Makes somewhat
Impact of poster makes a lasting
impact of an impact
impact
Some signs of
Nothing new or creativity and Original and very
Creativeness
original independent creative
thought

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Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation
 To be used when learners have to give an oral presentation to the class on a selected
topic.

Assessment
0 1 2 3 Comments
criteria
Present, but Present, clear Interesting and
Introducing
Did not do with no clear links to content catching
the topic
link to content being covered introduction

Started off too

Speed of Too fast or too fast or too slow Good speed
presentation slow but reaches throughout
optimal pace

Started off Speaks clearly

Pitch and
Too soft or unclear or too and optimal
clearness of
unclear soft, but pitch
voice
improved throughout

Capturing Did not make Sustained

Sustained
audience’s an impact or no Interesting at interest
interest and
attention and attempt to times throughout with
stimulating
originality capture interest originality

Organisation
Clear and
of content Illogical or Clear and
logical
during unclear mostly logical
throughout
presentation
Factual Many errors in Some errors in
All correct
content content content
Insightful or
Make a
Concluding No conclusion thought-
satisfactory
remarks or inappropriate provoking
conclusion
conclusion
Answers to Was not able to Was able to
Was able to
the educator answer or gave answer recall
answer recall
and class’s incorrect and application
questions only
questions answers questions

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Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
 To be used to assess any work where learners are required to complete the task as a
group. This rubric is designed to assess the group as a whole.

Assessment Comments
0 1 2 3
criteria
Very few Only some At start, only Full
Member
members members some, but then participation
participation
participated participated full participation throughout
Discipline Some
Lack of Most members All members
within the members
discipline disciplined disciplined
group disciplined
Some
members Most members All members
Group Unmotivated or
motivated but motivated and focused and
motivation lack focus
others lack focused motivated
focus
Show Some
Respect for All members
disrespect to members show
each other are respectful
each other disrespect
Considerable
Some conflict No conflict or
conflict and
Conflict within which was issues were
disagreements
group either resolved resolved
which were
or unresolved maturely
unresolved
Disorganised Effective use of
Mostly able to
Time and unable to time to
work within the
management stick to time complete the
given time
frames tasks

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Recording and Reporting

Recording is the process of documenting the level of a student’s performance in an

assessment or task. It shows their progress towards achieving the knowledge and skills
within the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements. Records of the students’
performance should show evidence of their progression within a grade and their readiness to
move to the next grade. Records of performance are also a useful tool to show the progress
made by the teachers in the learning process.

Reporting is a process of communicating the performance to the students, their parents,

schools, and other stakeholders. It can be communicated through reports, parents’
meetings, school open days, parent-teacher conferences, phone calls, letters, newsletters,
etc. All reporting is done in percentages.

The various achievement levels and their corresponding percentage bands are as shown in
the table below. The seven point scale should have descriptions that give sufficient
information for each level and this should be contained within the report for efficient
communication to parents and other stakeholders.

Codes and Percentages for Reporting in Grades R – 12:

Rating Code Description of Competence Percentage

7 Outstanding Achievement 80 - 100

6 Meritorious Achievement 70- 79
5 Substantial Achievement 60 - 69
4 Adequate Achievement 50 - 59
3 Moderate Achievement 40- 49
2 Elementary Achievement 30- 39
1 Not Achieved 0 - 29

Schools are required to provide quarterly feedback to parents on the Programme of

Assessment using a formal tool such as a report. The report should indicate the overall level
of performance of a student.

20
CHAPTER 1: DNA – THE CODE OF LIFE

Overview

Time Allocation: 2 ½ Weeks (10 Hours)

This chapter consists of:

1. Introduction
2. Key concepts
3. Revision on cellular structure
4. The structure of nucleic acids
5. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
6. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
7. Comparison between DNA and RNA
8. DNA replication
9. DNA fingerprinting
10. Protein synthesis
11. Summary
12. End of topic exercises

Introduction

All living organisms contain both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid) – we focus on their location, structure and function.
We explore the discovery of DNA, its role in the human body and how it replicates.
Protein synthesis is vital for life – we examine how proteins are formed by both DNA
and RNA.

Key concepts

 Cellular structure was studied in grade 10. The nucleus, ribosomes and
cytoplasm are essential parts of the cell when studying DNA and RNA.
 There are two types of nucleic acid: DNA and RNA.

21
  Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a
phosphate and a nitrogenous base.
 DNA makes up the genes of chromosomes (nuclear DNA) and is found in the
mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA).
 Watson and Crick are credited for the DNA molecular theory.
 DNA contains four nitrogenous bases (thymine) and is a long chain which
twists to form a double helix.
 DNA replication is important to produce identical daughter cells which contain
the same number and type of chromosomes.
 DNA profiling can be used for paternity testing and in criminal investigations.
 There are three types of RNA found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells.
 RNA contains four nitrogenous bases (uracil), is short and single stranded.
 RNA plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins, using transcription
and translation.

Revision on Cellular Structure

Learners need to revise the structure and functioning of cytoplasm, ribosomes and
the various parts of the nucleus.

The Structure of Nucleic Acids

Key terminology
nucleic acid a type of organic compound
monomer a building block
nucleotide the monomer which forms DNA and RNA

There are two nucleic acids in the human body – DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA (ribonucleic acid). Together these form the basis of all life of earth. They consist
of monomers (building blocks) called nucleotides.
Learners are required to know that monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides
composed of a sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

22
Key terminology
 deoxyribonucleic acid is made up of nucleotides
 nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, guanine and
DNA
cytosine
 carries the genetic code for protein synthesis
nuclear DNA DNA found in the nucleus
DNA found outside of the nucleus: mitochondrial and
extra- nuclear DNA
chloroplastic DNA.
the shape of DNA consists of two strands joined together
double helix
and twisted spirally
hereditary genetic information passed on from parent to offspring

Learners must know the location, structure and function of DNA. It is important to
point out that thymine is only found in DNA as a nitrogenous base. Learners must
have an understanding of the complementary bases i.e. adenine bonds with thymine
and guanine bonds with cytosine.
For assessment purposes learners must apply their knowledge of structure and
include deoxyribose sugar as the sugar in the nucleotides forming DNA.
Learners are required to know Watson and Crick are credited for the formulation of
the DNA molecular theory.
Learners should be able to perform a basic investigation to extract DNA. Examples
of this can be found in many textbooks, one is included below for your use:

Extraction of chromosomal DNA from bananas

Materials:
 ¼ of a banana  dishwashing liquid
 masher or a fork  5 mL pineapple juice
 50 mL water  300 mL surgical spirits or
 pinch of salt rubbing alcohol
 filter paper  tooth picks
 2 clear plastic beakers  funnel

Method:
1. Dissolve the salt in 50 mL water to make a salt solution in one beaker.
2. Mash the banana in the salt solution. Make sure that the banana is thoroughly
mashed.
3. Pour the banana ‘soup’ through the filter paper into the second cup. Use the
funnel.

23
 4. Add a few drops of dishwashing liquid to the filtrate formed, and swirl the
mixture gently. Do not shake it!
5. Let the mixture rest for about 5 to 10 minutes.
6. Add 1 to 2 mL of pineapple juice to the mixture.
7. Slowly add the surgical spirits. Add enough to double the volume of your
mixture.
8. Remove the DNA from the mixture, by winding it onto a toothpick.
9. Congratulations! You are holding the stuff of life itself!

Activity 1: DNA

The diagram shows part of a DNA molecule

1. Label parts 1, 2 and 3 (3)
1 – adenine ,
2 – deoxyribose sugar 
3 – hydrogen bonds 
2. Give the number of nucleotides shown
in the diagram (1)
10 
3. Name two places in an animal cell
where this nucleic acid may be found.
(2)
Nucleus  and mitochondria 
4. What is the natural shape of this
molecule? (1)
Double helix 
5. Draw a nucleotide with the
nitrogenous base adenine. (4)
 for structure,  - for each correct label

P phosphate group

sugar adenine

(11)

24
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Key terminology
RNA consists of nucleotides linked to the nitrogenous bases
RNA
adenine, uracil, guanine and thymine
mRNA carries the code for protein synthesis from DNA to the
messenger RNA
ribosome
ribosomal RNA rRNA forms ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis
transfer RNA tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome to form the protein

Learners must know the location, structure and function of RNA. It is important to
point out that uracil (rather than thymine) is only found in RNA as a nitrogenous
base.
For assessment purposes learners must apply their knowledge of structure and
include ribose sugar as the sugar in the nucleotides forming RNA.
It is important to know that there are three types of RNA and each plays a different
role during protein synthesis.

Comparison between DNA and RNA

Learners must be able to tabulate differences and list similarities between the nucleic
acids. If given a diagram learners should able to identify which molecule it is based
on observable differences.

DNA Replication

Learners need to know the process and application of DNA replication for
assessment purposes. In most cases, a diagram will be provided and learners must
be able to interpret and apply knowledge to the scenario given.
Learners often confuse DNA replication and protein synthesis, so teachers should
ensure that a clear distinction is made between the two processes.

Activity 2: DNA replication

Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

25
 4
A 1
G

1. Name the process illustrated in the diagram above. (1)

DNA replication 
2. State the significance of the process mentioned in question 1. (1)
DNA replication ensures that identical cells, with the same number and type
of chromosomes, can be produced during cell division. 
3. Identify the parts labelled as 1, 2, 3 and 4. (4)
1 – deoxyribose sugar , 2 – phosphate , 3 – nucleotide , 4 – thymine 
4. Describe how this process takes place. (6)
The process of DNA replication
 Double helix DNA unwinds as the weak hydrogen bonds between the
nitrogenous bases break 
 The two DNA strands separate from each other (DNA unzips) and each
original DNA strand serves as a template to form a new strand 
 Free DNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm attach to the original strand

 The nucleotides attach to their complementary bases (A to T and G to C)

 Each DNA molecule now consists of one original strand and one new
strand 
 The result is two genetically identical DNA molecules; the entire process
is controlled by enzymes 
5. Give one location of extra-nuclear DNA. (1)
Mitochondrial DNA in mitochondria or chloroplastic DNA in chloroplasts 
(13)

26
DNA Profiling

Learners are not required to know this in detail or the methods entailed to produce a
DNA fingerprint. They need to understand and apply knowledge with regards to
comparing profiles to make deductions about individuals.
Learners are required to know the uses of DNA profiling as well as the arguments
against its use.

Activity 3: DNA profiling

In a fight involving a number of people, one person was seriously injured. Police took
blood samples from the victim, the crime scene (CSS – crime scene sample) and
four suspects. The DNA was then extracted from each sample. The results are
shown in the DNA profiles below.

Victim CSS Suspect 1 Suspect 2 Suspect 3 Suspect 4

1. Which suspect probably injured the victim? (1)

Suspect 2 
2. Give a reason for your answer to the previous question. (1)
3 of the DNA bands match the evidence from the crime scene while none of
the other suspects match. 
3. List one application of DNA profiling other than for solving crime. (1)
Any one of … 
 identification of relatives such as paternity testing or tracing siblings
 testing for genetic disorders

27
  to determine matching tissues for organ transplants
 research into variation in populations
4. Give two reasons why DNA profiling may sometimes be challenged. (2)
Any two of …. 
 DNA samples may be planted or a person could be framed with the use
of false evidence
 Human error can lead to false results
 Only a small amount of DNA is analysed so it may not be unique to one
individual
 Testing standards may not be followed in various private labs
 Invasion of privacy and revealing personal information
(5)

Protein Synthesis

Key terminology
amino acids monomers forming proteins
base triplet three nitrogenous bases one after the other on DNA
1st stage of protein synthesis – mRNA formed carrying code
transcription
for the protein to be made
2nd stage of protein synthesis – amino acids combine to form
translation
protein
three nitrogenous bases one after the other on mRNA –
codon
these are opposite to the triplet on DNA
three nitrogenous bases one after the other on tRNA – these
anti-codon
are opposite to the codon on mRNA

Learners find this process quite challenging and teachers should ensure that a solid
understanding is obtained of both transcription and translation. Learners should be
able to identify the different stages using diagrams and be able to explain the various
structures involved as well as the process taking place.
This section is often asked as an application type question during assessments.
Learners are not required to learn the names of the amino acids but must know how
to apply knowledge when given their names. This type of question can be seen in
the activity provided.
Learners must understand the difference between the triplets, codons and anti-
codons and know how to apply this knowledge by being able to form complementary

28
bases from one to the other in the formation of proteins i.e. Triplet to codon to
anticodon.
This can be shown in the table below:
3 adjacent bases
Molecule Example
is called:
DNA Triplet AGC
mRNA Codon UCG
tRNA Anti-codon AGC
Amino Acid Alanine

Activity 4: Protein synthesis

The diagram below represents a process that occurs during protein synthesis.

D
E

1. Identify the process above. (1)

Translation of protein synthesis 
2. Name …
a) organelle A (1)
ribosome 
b) molecule B (1)
mRNA 
c) the bond at E (1)
peptide 
3. Provide the letter and name of the molecule that …
a) carries the amino acid (1)

29
 C – tRNA 
b) is the monomer of protein (1)
D – amino acid 
4. Name and describe the process occurring in the nucleus which results in the
formation of the mRNA molecule. (6)
Transcription 
 section of DNA double helix unwinds as the weak hydrogen bonds between
the nitrogenous bases of DNA break
 DNA unzips (in this section of DNA), and one strand acts as a template
 This DNA template is used to form a complementary strand of messenger
RNA (mRNA) 
 This is done using free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm 
 The mRNA now contains the code for the protein which will be formed 
 Three adjacent nitrogenous bases on the mRNA are known as codons.
These code for a particular amino acid. 
 mRNA moves out of the nucleus through a nuclear pore into the cytoplasm,
where it attaches onto a ribosome. 

Activity 5: Codons and amino acids

The sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule is coded for by DNA and RNA.
The table below shows some mRNA codons and the corresponding amino acids.

mRNA codons amino acid

AGC serine
GAU aspartate
CUA leucine
UAU tyrosine
UUC phenylalanine
AGU serine
GAC aspartate
UUU phenylalanine
CUC leucine
GAG glutamic acid

30
1. According to the table, how many codons code for phenylalanine? (1)
2
2. What is the anti-codon for glutamic acid? (1)
CUC 
3. A section of mRNA has the following base sequence and is read from left to
right:
GAU CUC GAC AGC AUG ACC
Give the …
a) DNA base triplet for the last codon on this section of mRNA (1)
TGG 
b) 1st amino acid coded for by this section of mRNA (1)
aspartate 
(4)

Summary

 There are two types of nucleic acids which are both made up of nucleotides. A
nucleotide is made up of a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogenous base.
 DNA’s structure is based on a theory put forward by Watson and Crick. Their
theory states that DNA has a three dimensional, double helix shape.
 DNA is mainly found inside of the nucleus (nuclear DNA) and in the
mitochondria and chloroplasts of animal and plant cells (extra-nuclear DNA).
 DNA is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose sugar and the
nitrogenous bases Adenine: Thymine and Guanine: Cytosine which are
complementary. It is double helix and the two strands of DNA are held
together by joining the bases using weak hydrogen bonds.
 DNA functions to control all metabolic processes and carries the hereditary
information of an individual.
 RNA is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells. It contains ribose sugar
as well as the nitrogenous bases Adenine: Uracil and Guanine: Cytosine
which are complementary. It is single stranded.
 DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself
during interphase of the cell cycle. This is important for ensuring that identical
daughter cells are formed with the same number and type of chromosomes.

31
 DNA profiling involves producing a pattern of lines with various lengths and
thicknesses. These are unique (except for identical twins) and are used to
determine biological parents and in criminal cases.
 Protein synthesis is the process by which proteins are formed. It uses both
DNA which codes for the protein being made and RNA which forms the
protein. This process involves two stages: transcription and translation.

32
End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A- D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 A molecule of RNA is copied from DNA by the process of

A transcription 
B mitosis.
C mutation.
D translation.

1.1.2 In a DNA molecule

A guanine pairs with adenine.
B adenine pairs with thymine. 
C cytosine pairs with adenine.
D Guanine pairs with thymine.

1.1.3 A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides on a molecule of

A rRNA.
B mRNA. 
C tRNA.
D DNA.

1.1.4 DNA was analysed and found to contain 14% T (thymine). What
percentage of the molecule is cytosine?
A 14%
B 28%
C 36% 
D 72%

1.1.5 A gene in a bacterium codes for a protein that has 120 amino acids.
How many mRNA nucleotides code for this protein?
A 30
B 40
C 360 
D 480 (5 × 2 = 10)

33
1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 Proteins that form part of the chromosomes.

Histones 
1.2.2 Which type of RNA travels from the nucleoplasm to the cytoplasm.
mRNA / messenger RNA 
1.2.3 The nitrogenous base found in RNA but not in DNA.
Uracil 
1.2.4 A sugar that is a component of DNA.
Deoxyribose 
1.2.5 A sudden change in the sequence / order of the nitrogenous bases
of a nucleic acid.
Mutation 
1.2.6 The name of the bond that forms between amino acids in a protein
molecule.
Peptide 
1.2.7 The type of nucleic acid that carries a specific amino acid.
tRNA / transfer RNA 
1.2.8 A segment of DNA coding for a particular characteristic.
Gene 
1.2.9 The bonds that form between nitrogenous bases in a DNA.
Hydrogen bond 
1.2.10 The organelle in the cytoplasm on which protein synthesis occurs.
Ribosome 
(10 x 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: DNA
1.3.1 Contains ribose sugar
B: RNA
A: Mendel
1.3.2 Discovery of DNA
B: Darwin

34
 A: nucleus
1.3.3 Location of DNA.
B: mitochondria
1.3.4 The process where one DNA A: replication
molecule produces two identical
B: reproduction
DNA molecules.
A: DNA
1.3.5 Pairing of nitrogenous bases
B: RNA

(5 x 2) = (10)
1.3.1 B only 
1.3.2 None 
1.3.3 Both 
1.3.4 A only 
1.3.5 A only 

1.4 The diagram below represents a portion of a nucleic acid.

1 2

C 3 4

1.4.1 Name the nucleic acid. (1)

DNA  / Deoxyribonucleic acid
1.4.2 Name two places in animal cells where this nucleic acid may be
found. (2)
Nucleus  / chromosome
Mitochondria  (mark first 2 only)
1.4.3 Identify
a) portion 1 (1)
Nucleotide 
b) nitrogenous base 3 (1)
Guanine 
c) molecule 5 (1)

35
 Phosphate 
d) bond 2 (1)
hydrogen bond 
1.4.4 What is the natural shape of this molecule? (2)
Double  helix 
1.4.5 Name the process in which this molecules make a copy of itself? (1)
DNA replication 
(10)

1.5 The diagram below represents DNA replication.

1.5.1 Identify the following:

a) molecules W and U (2)
W – nucleotide , U – DNA 
b) parts of molecule W labelled X and Y (2)
X – phosphate , Y – deoxyribose sugar 
c) bond Z (1)
hydrogen bond 
d) nitrogenous base V (1)
adenine 
1.5.2 Where in the cell does this process take place? (1)
Nucleus 
1.5.3 Name the phase of the cell cycle where replication takes place. (1)

36
 Interphase 
1.5.4 What is the purpose of DNA replication? (2)
For DNA to make an exact copy of itself  so that each daughter
cell will receive exactly the same DNA. 
(10)
Section A: [50]

Section B
Question 2

2.1 The following sequence represents a part of the nitrogenous base sequence
on a DNA molecule.

TAC TCT CCA

Triplet 1 Triplet 2 Triplet 3
2.1.1. Write down the base sequence of the anticodon of triplet 1 shown
above. (1)
UAC 
2.1.2. The table below shows the amino acids that correspond with different
mRNA codons.
mRNA codon Amino Acid
AGA arginine
AUG methionine
GGU glycine
AUC isoleucine
a) Give the correct sequence of amino acids for DNA triplets
1 to 3. (2)
Methionine- Arginine- Glycine 
b) During DNA replication a mutation occurred on triplet 1 resulting
in C being replaced by G. Describe how this mutation will affect
the structure of the protein formed. (3)
• the corresponding mRNA codon will be AUC 
• resulting in isoleucine being picked up tRNA 
• resulting in a different protein 

37
 2.1.3. Name and describe the process occurring in the nucleus which results
in the formation of an mRNA molecule. (6)
• The process is transcription  - Compulsory mark
• The double helix DNA molecule unwinds 
• When the hydrogen bonds break 
• the DNA molecule unzips  / two DNA strands separate
• One strand is used as the template  to form mRNA
• using free RNA nucleotides  from the nucleoplasm
• The mRNA is complementary to the DNA  / A-U, C-G
• The process is controlled by enzymes 
(Compulsory mark + Any 5)

2.1.4. Draw a RNA nucleotide with a complementary base to adenine. (2)

S: ribose sugar
P: phosphate
NB: uracil

Guidelines for assessing diagram

Correct Structure 
(Phosphate, Sugar,
Nitrogenous base)
Uracil 

(14)

2.2 The diagrams below represent the process of protein synthesis. Study them
and answer the questions that follow.

38
 Nucleus

X
1
W Amino
acid
Amino
acid

2
3

2.2.1 Identify the structures labelled 1,2 and 3. (3)

1 – DNA template , 2 – tRNA , 3 – ribosome 
2.2.2 Name and describe the stage of protein synthesis taking place
at Z (5)
• The stage of protein synthesis taking place at Z is translation 
- compulsory mark
• According to the codons of mRNA 
• tRNA molecules with complementary anticodons 
• bring the required amino acids to the ribosome 
• the amino acids link by peptide bonds 
• to form the required protein 
(Compulsory mark + ANY 4)
2.2.3 Using the table below, work out the names of the amino acids
labelled W and X. (4)

39
 Base Triplet on mRNA coding
Amino acid coded for
for the amino acid
GAG glutamate
CAG histidine
AGG arginine
CUG leucine
UCC proline
GUG valine
W – arginine , X – proline 
(12)
[26]
Question 3
3.1 The diagram below represents two stages of protein synthesis.

3.1.1 Provide labels for:

a) molecule 1 (1)
DNA 
b) organelle 6 (1)
ribosomes 
3.1.2 Give only the number of the part which represents a:
a) DNA template strand (1)
2
b) monomer of proteins (1)
5

40
 c) codon (1)
7
3.1.3 Describe translation as it occurs in organelle 6. (4)
• The mRNA attaches to the ribosome 
• When each codon  of the mRNA
• matches with the anticodon  on the tRNA
• the tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome 
• When the different amino acids are brought in sequence 
• adjacent amino acids are linked by peptide bonds 
• to form the required protein  / polypeptide
3.1.4 Provide the:
a) DNA sequence that codes for glycine (2)
CCT 
b) codon for proline (2)
CCU 
3.1.5 State two differences between a DNA nucleotide and an RNA
nucleotide. (4)
DNA RNA
Has deoxyribose sugar  Has ribose  sugar
Has nitrogen base thymine  Has nitrogen base uracil 
(T) / A, G, C and T (U) / A, G, C and U

Mark first two only; table not required

(17)

3.2 The first 7 triplets of nitrogenous bases that form part of the gene coding for
one chain of the haemoglobin protein that makes up red blood corpuscles in
humans is shown below. Study the table and answer the questions that
follow.
DNA
CAC GTG GAC TGA GGA CTC CTC
Template
Base
triplet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
number

41
3.2.1 How many of the following are coded for in the DNA template
sequence above?
a) Nitrogenous bases (1)
21 
b) Different types of tRNA molecules that are required to form the
polypeptide from this piece of DNA . (1)
6
3.2.2 Write down the mRNA sequence for the triplets numbered 4 and 6
in the above table. (2)
4 – ACU , 6 – GAG 
3.2.3 Using the table below, determine the amino acid sequence
coded for by triplet numbers 4 and 6. (2)

Anticodons on tRNA
Amino acid coded for
coding for the amino acid
CUC glutamate
GUC histidine
GGA proline
GAC leucine
UGA threonine
CAC valine
4 – threonine , 6 – glutamate 
3.2.4. If the T in the 6th base triplet changed to A in the DNA template
above, write down the new amino acid (using the table above) that
this 6th triplet now codes for. (1)
Valine 
(7)
[24]

Section B: [50]

Total Marks: [100]

42
Cognitive level distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  2
1.4.3 a - d  4
1.4.4  2
1.4.5  1
10
1.5.1 a - d  6

43
 1.5.2  1
1.5.3  1
1.5.4  2
10
2.1.1  1
2.1.2 a - b  5
2.1.3  6
2.1.4  2
14
2.2.1  3
2.2.2  5
2.2.3  4
12
3.1.1 a - b  2
3.1.2 a - c  3
3.1.3  4
3.1.4 a - b  4
3.1.5  4
17
3.2.1 a - b   (1+1)
3.2.2  2
3.2.3  2
3.2.4  1
7
40 37 21 2 100

44
CHAPTER 2: MEIOSIS

Overview
Time allocation: 2 weeks (8 hours)
This chapter consists of the following sections:
1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Genetic code and chromosomes
4. The process of meiosis
5. The importance of meiosis
6. Abnormal meiosis
7. Summary
8. End of topic exercises

Introduction

In this section we discuss how meiosis takes place and why it is vital for sexual
reproduction. We will also cover what happens if meiosis goes wrong.

Key concepts and terminology

 Meiosis is divided into two divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II).

 Each division is divided into four phases which are Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase and Telophase.
 The importance of meiosis is that it produces haploid daughter cells and
variation.
 Differences and similarities of mitosis and meiosis.
 Abnormal meiosis will be discussed. When meiosis goes wrong syndromes
result e.g., Down syndrome.

45
Key terminology

a threadlike structure made up

of DNA and protein found in
chromosome the nucleus of most living cells, chromosome
carrying genetic information in
the form of genes chromatid
one of the two identical strands centromere
chromatid
of a replicated chromosome
region where the two
centromere chromatids of a chromosome
are held together homologous chromosomes
– one from the mother and
a pair of chromosomes of the one from the father
same shape, size and having
homologous similar genes for each
chromosomes
characteristic occupying the
same position

a pair of homologous
chromosomes which lie next to
each other and are physically
bivalent
in contact with each other at a
point where crossing over will
occur

an unreplicated "chromosome" unreplicated

unreplicated chromosome
has a single double-stranded
chromosomes
DNA molecule
DNA replication
a replicated "chromosome" has
replicated replicated
two identical double-stranded
chromosomes chromosome
DNA molecules

the phase in the cell cycle

interphase
when DNA replication occurs

diploid (2n) haploid (n)

two complete set of
diploid (2n)
chromosomes in a cell

one complete sets of

haploid (n)
chromosomes in a cell

46
 a segment of DNA in a
chromosome that contains the gene
gene
code for a particular
characteristic

DNA

organelle (containing two spindle fibres

centrosome centrioles) found only in animal
cells centriole

structures formed when the

centrosome divides into two;
centriole
they move to opposite ends of
the cell during cell division chromosome

Overlapping of homologous
chromosomes resulting in the
crossing over
exchange of genetic material
during Prophase I

point where two chromatids crossing over chiasma

chiasma
overlap during crossing over

a representation of the
number, shape and
karyotype arrangement of a full set of
chromosomes in the nucleus of
a somatic cell
the first 22 pairs of
chromosomes which control
autosome
the appearance, structure and
functioning of the body
gonosomes the pair of chromosomes (XX
(sex chromo- or XY) responsible for sex
somes) determination

47
 Any cells in an organism
excluding male and female
somatic cells gametes – they are diploid
(body cells) (have 2 sets of chromosomes)
and are produced through
mitosis
somatic cell – chromosomes
are in homologous pairs

specialized cells called

gametes (sperm cell and egg
sex cells
cell). They have a haploid
(gametes)
number of chromosomes and
are produced through meiosis gamete
single unpaired chromosomes
normal
meiosis

when homologous
non- chromosome pairs
disjunction fail to separate in
meiosis

non- normal
disjunction meiosis

Karyo means
“nucleus” and
kinesis means
“synthesis or
division.”
karyokinesis
Karyokinesis is the
process of division
of the nucleus of a
cell

48
 Cyto means
“cytoplasm,” and
kinesis mean
“synthesis or karyokinesis
division.”

cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the

process of division
during which the
cytoplasm of a
single cell divides cytokinesis
into two daughter
cells.

Genetic code and chromosomes

In this section, start by revising mitosis and its role in somatic cells. Emphasize the
fact that mitosis always makes two identical copies of the mother cell. Then explain
that if two somatic cells fuse during fertilisation, the chromosome number of the
zygote will be double the normal number. This could lead to developmental
problems in the offspring. So a “special” type of cell division called meiosis, is
essential.
By producing haploid gametes the characteristic chromosome number will be
maintained. Meiosis halves the chromosome number (haploid) so that after
fertilisation, it will return to normal (diploid). Meiosis, therefore, only occurs in sex
organs (gonads in animals, anther and ovule in flowering plants) to produce
gametes in animals and spores in flowering plants.
The other important function of meiosis is to bring about genetic variation so that the
offspring have a unique combination of genes from the mother and father.
Emphasise that if this new combination results in a better adapted organism, this is
an advantage in terms of survival. If these genes are passed on over many
generations, it could lead to evolution.

49
The process of meiosis

Learners usually pick up the various phases quite easily as it is similar to mitosis, but
it is VITAL that they distinguish between Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The number
MUST be written after the name of the phase or else they will lose the mark in the
exam.
Learners need to know the names of the phases for each division and be able to
identify each from diagrams. They must be able to describe the fundamental fact(s)
that defines each phase. For example, Telophase I produces two haploid daughter
cells whereas Telophase II produces FOUR daughter cells.
Explain that Meiosis I is a reduction phase whereby the diploid number of
chromosomes is reduced to haploid. It is also where variation is brought about due
to a “shuffling” of genes during crossing over so that each daughter cell will be
slightly different genetically. It is important to stress that homologous chromosomes
pair up to form bivalents. This is important because when crossing over occurs,
similar genes are exchanged so no genes are doubled up or lost.
Explain that Meiosis II has to occur because the chromosomes present in the
daughter cells at the end of Meiosis I are made up of TWO chromatids. This is due
to the fact that DNA replication occurs before meiosis as well as mitosis. So during
Prophase I each chromosome is made up of two identical chromatids. These
chromatids are NOT separated during Anaphase I as the whole chromosome moves
to a pole. Consequently, each chromosome must go through a division like mitosis
so that the chromatids are separated during Anaphase II resulting in each daughter
cell having daughter chromosomes made up of ONE chromatid only.
Due to the fact that there are TWO divisions, there will be FOUR daughter cells
formed at the end of meiosis, each with a haploid number of chromosomes.

Importance of meiosis

Reducing the diploid number of chromosomes to haploid is one function. Bringing

about genetic variation is the other important role of meiosis. This is brought about
during Prophase I and Metaphase I and II.
The “shuffling” of genes during Prophase I has been mentioned previously.
The way in which the chromosomes arrange themselves on the equator during
Metaphase I and II is called random arrangement and is purely due to chance.
When the chromosomes or chromatids move apart and move to the poles, it is called
random assortment.

50
Independent assortment is often confused with this. However, independent
assortment refers to the genes (not the chromosomes) that are separated into the
four gametes (one gene on each of the four chromatids in the two chromosomes of
the bivalent). Independent assortment is crucial in genetics and is the basis for the
formation of gametes in the genetic diagram. This will be discussed in the Genetics
chapter.

Activity 1: Meiosis I and Meiosis II

1. Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.

Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A – D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D
1.1 Which one of the following correctly describes the daughter cells
produced by meiosis?
Cells produced by meiosis
Chromosome number Genetic composition
A haploid different 
B diploid identical
C diploid different
D haploid identical

1.2 If there are 38 chromosomes in the body cell of a donkey. How many
of these chromosomes are autosomes?
A 38 B 19 C 36  D 44

1.3 Use the sketch below to identify processes 1, 2 and 3.

1 2 3
A meiosis fertilisation mitosis

51
 B fertilisation mitosis meiosis
fertilisation
C mitosis meiosis

D fertilisation meiosis mitosis

1.4 Cytokinesis is a term that describes …

A nuclear division
B cytoplasmic division 
C reduction of the chromosome number
D doubling the chromosome number

1.5 The diagrams below represent six different phases of meiosis taking
place in a particular cell.

1 2

3 4

5 6

1.5.1 The diploid number of chromosomes in this cell is …

A 2 B 4  C 8 D 46
1.5.2 The correct sequence from the start of meiosis till the end is …
A 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 B 6, 2, 5, 4, 1, 3
C 3, 5, 4, 2, 6, 1  D 3, 4, 5, 6, 1, 2

1.6 Interphase is the stage during which …

A nothing happens in the cell.
B a dividing cell forms a spindle.
C cytokinesis occurs.
D a cell grows and duplicates its DNA.  (7 × 2) = (14)

52
2. Each of the following questions consist of a statement in Column I and two
items in Column II. Decide which item(s) relate(s) to the statement. Write A
only, B only, Both A and B or None next to the question number.

Column I Column II
Chromosome number changes from A: Meiosis
2.1
diploid to haploid B: Mitosis
A: Mitosis
2.2 Takes place to form sex cells
B: Meiosis
A: before mitosis
2.3 Replication of DNA takes place
B: before meiosis
A: Prophase in mitosis
2.4 Crossing over takes place
B: Prophase I in meiosis
Chromosomes are pulled to opposite A: Anaphase in mitosis
2.5
poles B: Anaphase I in meiosis
A: crossing over
2.6 Results in genetic variation
B: random arrangement
Chromosomes lengthen to form a A: Metaphase
2.7
chromatin network B: Anaphase
(7 × 2) = (14)
2.1 A only  2.4 B only 
2.2 B only  2.5 B only 
2.3 Both A and B  2.6 Both A and B 
2.7 None 

3. Study the diagram.

1

A B
3

53
 3.1 What type of cell division is occurring? (1)
Meiosis 
3.2 What phase is depicted? (1)
Anaphase I 
3.3 Provide labels for parts labelled 2 and 3. (2)
2 – centromere  , 3 – centriole 
3.4 What process resulted in the exchange of segments labelled 1? (1)
crossing over 
3.5 Explain why the process mentioned in 3.4 is important. (1)
Results from the swopping of genetic material during Prophase I which
brings about genetic variation 
(6)

4. Refer to the diagram below which shows two cells dividing by meiosis.

4.1 Which phase of meiosis is depicted? (1)

Metaphase II 
4.2 Give two visible reasons for your answer to 4.1. (2)
Single chromosomes are lined up at the equator  in two cells 
4.3 Why do some of the chromatids have two different colours? (1)
Crossing over between the maternal and paternal chromosomes results
in genetic variation (different gene combinations) 
4.4 Do you think that these cells were taken from a human? No  (1)
4.5 Give a reason for your answer to 4.4. (1)
Only 2 chromosomes – in humans, there would be 23 
4.6 If these cells were taken from an angiosperm, name the two parts
of the flower where this type of division would occur. (2)
Anther  and ovule 
(8)

54
 5. Explain why meiosis is important for the survival of a human. (8)

Meiosis  is vital so that sexual reproduction  can occur. This is due to

the fact that the chromosome number is halved  (diploid to haploid  ).
This allows haploid male and female gametes to fuse  to form a diploid
zygote which has the correct  diploid number. It also allows genetic
variation  so that the offspring has a unique genetic makeup. In this way a
better adapted  offspring could be formed which could lead to evolution.
(50)

Abnormal Meiosis

Problems can arise if crossing over does not occur equally resulting in one
chromosomes having extra genes and the other missing genes. This is not part of
the syllabus, but is happening more often nowadays so you need to be aware of this
in case a learner asks about it.
Problems occurring during Anaphase I and II are in the syllabus. Incorrect
separation of chromosomes is called non-disjunction. If only ONE PAIR of
chromosomes fails to separate it is called aneuploidy and if ALL the chromosomes
do not separate (i.e. one daughter cell has none and the other has the diploid
number) it is called polyploidy.
Down syndrome is an example of aneuploidy, and polyploidy in plants is important
for genetically modified crops.

Summary

Genetic code and chromosomes

 At the start of meiosis the chromatin network condenses to form a
characteristic number of chromosomes (46 in humans).
 Each chromosome is made of two chromatids joined by a centromere, due to
DNA replication during interphase.
 The full set of chromosomes is called the karyotype and is inherited from
both parents – a haploid set from the mother (maternal) and a haploid set
from the father (paternal).
 In humans: there are 44 autosomes and 2 gonosomes.

55
Meiosis – the process
 Meiosis takes place in two divisions each going through four phases:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.
 Meiosis I can be summarised as follows:
Prophase I - chromosomes pair up (bivalents are formed);
crossing over takes place to exchange genetic material.
Metaphase I - chromosomes move to middle (equator) but stay in pairs,
randomly arranged above and below the equator.
Anaphase I - chromosomes move apart to the poles without
centromere splitting.
Telophase I - terminal phase where daughter cells are formed
consisting of a haploid number of chromosomes, each made of two
chromatids and genetically different.
 Meiosis II takes place in both daughter cells as follows:
Prophase II - chromosomes do not pair up.
Metaphase II - chromosomes are randomly arranged on the equator,
not in pairs.
Anaphase II - centromere splits and chromatids move to opposite
poles.
Telophase II - four haploid, non-identical daughter cells are formed.

Importance of Meiosis
 Haploid daughter cells are formed. Gametes (sex cells) can be formed
which can fuse during sexual reproduction without doubling the
chromosome number.
 Genetic variation is brought about by crossing over and the random
arrangement of chromosomes during Metaphase I and chromatids during
Metaphase II. These changes could lead to evolution.

Abnormal Meiosis
 If the chromosomes fail to separate properly during Anaphase I it is called
non-disjunction.
 If this only involves one pair of chromosomes, it is called aneuploidy, e.g.
Down syndrome.
 If this involves the full set of chromosomes, it is called polyploidy which is an
advantage to agriculture.

56
End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A – D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 During which phase of meiosis do homologous chromosome pairs

separate?

A Metaphase I
B Anaphase I 
C Anaphase II
D Telophase II

1.1.2 Which of the following distinguishes Prophase I of meiosis from

Prophase of mitosis?

A Homologous chromosomes pair up 

B Spindle forms
C Nuclear membrane breaks down
D Chromosome becomes visible

1.1.3 Which ONE of the following events occurs during Metaphase I of

meiosis?

A Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves at the

equator. 
B Centrioles move to the opposite poles.
C Chromosomes arrange themselves singly at the equator.
D The cytoplasm is split.

1.1.4 Which one of the following combinations results in genetic variation

in organisms?

A Mitosis; sexual reproduction; mutations.

B Meiosis; asexual reproduction; mutations.
C Mitosis; meiosis; sexual reproduction.
D Meiosis; sexual reproduction; mutations. 

57
 1.1.5 In bees, females are diploid and males are haploid. Females and
males produce haploid gametes. This means that

A females produce gametes by mitosis.

B males produce gametes by meiosis.
C males produce gametes by mitosis. 
D Females have half the number of chromosomes that males have.
(5 × 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 The division of the cytoplasm after a cell nucleus has divided.
Cytokinesis 
1.2.2 The point of crossing over between two adjacent chromosomes.
Chiasma 
1.2.3 The name of the process when homologous chromosome pairs fail
to separate during meiosis.
Non-disjunction 
1.2.4 Region where the two chromatids of a chromosome are held
together.
Centromere 
1.2.5 Chromosome condition describing the presence of a single set of
chromosomes in a cell.
Haploid 
1.2.6 The structure responsible for pulling chromosomes to the poles of an
animal cell during cell division.
Spindle fibres / spindle threads / spindle 
1.2.7 The DNA in a nucleus of a non-dividing cell.
Chromatin network 
1.2.8 The structure that is made up of two chromatids joined at the
centromere.
Chromosome 
1.2.9 A phase in the cell cycle that occurs before cell division.
Interphase 
1.2.10 A source of genetic variation that arises during Metaphase I.
Random arrangement  of homologous chromosomes
(10 × 1) = (10)

58
1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B
ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: Metaphase I
1.3.1 Chromosomes align at equator
B: Metaphase II
A: division of the cytoplasm
1.3.2 Occurs during Telophase of
B: centrioles move to the
meiosis I
opposite poles
1.3.3 Phase during which chromatids A: Anaphase I
are pulled to opposite poles B: Anaphase II
1.3.4 Contributes to each gamete
A: Prophase I
receiving DNA segments from
B: Prophase II
each parent.
1.3.5 The structure that moves
A: centrosomes
chromosomes / chromatids to
B: spindle fibres
the poles during cell division.
(5 × 2) = 10

1.3.1 Both A and B  1.3.4 A only 

1.3.2 A only  1.3.5 B only 
1.3.3 B only 

1.4 The diagrams below represent a chromosome pair in a female human cell.
The cells (A, B and C) show different events in a phase of meiosis, which
are not necessarily in the correct sequence.

A B C

1.4.1 How many pairs of chromosomes occur in a normal human cell? (1)
23 

59
 1.4.2 Give labels for:
a) region X centromere  (1)
b) area Y chiasma  (1)
1.4.3 Name the organ in the human female where meiosis occurs. (1)
Ovary 
1.4.4 Name the
a) process occurring in diagram B. (1)
crossing over 
b) phase represented by the diagrams above. (1)
Prophase I 
c) type of cell that would result from meiosis of this cell. (1)
Ovum  / female gamete
1.4.5 Arrange letters A, B and C to show the correct sequence of the
events. (1)
C→B→A
1.4.6 What is the biological importance of meiosis? (2)
 Leads to the formation of haploid gametes  in some
organisms and haploid spores in other organisms.
 The halving effect of meiosis overcomes the doubling effect of
fertilisation, 
 thus maintaining a constant chromosome number  from one
generation to the next.
 Crossing over during prophase I and random arrangement of
chromosomes during metaphase I and II introduces genetic
variation  (Mark any 2 × 1)
(10)

1.5 The diagrams below show different phases in meiosis. Study the diagrams
and answer the questions that follow.

A B C D

60
 1.5.1 Label structures W and X. (2)
W – cell membrane / plasmalemma 
X - bivalent/homologous chromosomes 
1.5.2 How many chromosomes are present in each cell:
a) phase A 4 (1)
b) phase C 2 (1)
1.5.3 Give the letter of the diagram that represents Anaphase II. D  (1)
1.5.4 State the name and function of region Y and structure Z. (4)
Y – centromere: holds sister chromatids together 
Z – spindle fibres: pulls chromosomes/chromatids to poles 
1.5.5 Which phase precedes (occurs before) phase A? (1)
Interphase 
(10)
Section A: [50]

Section B
Question 2
2.1 The diagram below represents a phase in meiosis. Cell Y undergoes
division to give rise to cells X and Z. Some alleles are indicated by letters.

Cell Y

Cell X Cell Z

2.1.1 Explain why cell Y does NOT belong to a human. (2)

Human somatic cells have 23  pairs of chromosomes / 46
chromosomes and this cell only has 2 pairs  / 4 chromosome

61
 2.1.2 How many chromosomes would be present in:
a) cell X at the end of Telophase I. 2 (1)
b) the daughter cells produced by cell Z after meiosis II. 2 (1)
2.1.3 Draw a labelled diagram of a gamete that will result from cell Y. (5)

centromere

R chromosome
nucleoplasm
nuclear membrane

T cell membrane
cytoplasm

Gamete

Guidelines for marking diagram:

Criteria Mark

Single cell is drawn 

Only 2 unreplicated chromosomes in drawing 

Short unreplicated chromosome indicating T 

Long unreplicated chromosome indicating R 

Any one correct label 

2.1.4 Describe the events of Anaphase II. (3)

 the spindle fibres contract 
 the centromere of each chromosome splits into two 
 the chromatids move to opposite poles 
(12)

2.2 Study the diagrams below representing two phases of meiosis and answer
the questions that follow.

62
 B

Diagram 1 Diagram 2

2.2.1 Identify the phase represented by:

a) Diagram 1 Metaphase II  (1)
b) Diagram 2 Anaphase II  (1)
2.2.2 Name the part labelled B. chromatid  (1)
2.2.3 Describe what happens during the phase illustrated in Diagram 1. (2)
Chromosomes arranged singly/randomly along the equator 
Chromosomes attached to spindle fibres 
2.2.4 In Diagram 2 the part circled, and labelled A is an abnormality during
the process of meiosis.
a) Name this abnormality. Non-disjunction (1)
b) What genetic disorder would result in humans if this abnormality
occurred in chromosome pair no. 21? (1)
Down Syndrome 
c) Give one symptom of the genetic abnormality mentioned in
question 2.2.4 (b). (1)
Mental retardation  Hearing loss 
Heart defects  Decreased muscle tone 
Upwardly slanting eyes  Small mouth 
Abnormal ear shape  Depressed nasal bridge 
Small nose  (Mark first one only)
(8)

2.3 The graph shows information about the movement of chromatids in a cell
that has just started Metaphase II.

63
 Movement of chromatids in a cell

Key
distance between chromatids
distance between each chromatid and
the pole to which it is moving

40

35

30
Distance (μm)

25 X
Y
20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time after start of metaphase (minutes)
Start of metaphase

2.3.1 Name one difference between Metaphase I and Metaphase II. (2)
Metaphase I – chromosomes come as homologous pairs to the
equator 
Metaphase II – individual chromosomes move to equator 
2.3.2 What is the duration of Metaphase II in this cell? (1)
18 minutes 
2.3.3 Use line X to calculate the duration of Anaphase II in this cell. (2)
(28 min – 18 min)  = 10 minutes 
(5)
[25]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Describe the behaviour of the chromosomes during the process of meiosis I
by referring to the following phases:

64
 3.1.1 Prophase I (6)
 Each chromosome shortens and becomes visible 
 as two chromatids  joined at the a centromere
 Homologous chromosomes come lie next to each other 
 Chromatids from each homologous chromosome overlap /
crossing over occurs  at the chiasma/chiasmata 
 and genetic material is exchanged 
3.1.2 Metaphase I (3)
 The homologous chromosome pairs  line up along the equator
randomly 
 and are attached to spindle fibres  / spindle threads
3.1.3 Anaphase I (2)
 Spindle fibres shorten  / contract
 Chromosomes of each homologous pair are pulled to the
opposite poles
3.1.4 Telophase I (3)
 The cytoplasm divides to form two new cells 
 with genetically different nuclei 
 Each nucleus has half the number of chromosomes of the
original cell. 
(14)

3.2 The diagram below shows chromosome pair 21 in the nucleus of a cell of the
ovary of a woman. The chromosomes are involved in a process that takes
place in a phase of meiosis.

Diagram X Diagram Y Diagram Z

3.2.1 Give labels for A and B. (2)

A – bivalent / homologous chromosomes 
B – centromere 

65
3.2.2 Rearrange the letters X, Y and Z to show the correct sequence in
which the events take place in this phase. (1)
Y → Z→ X 
3.2.3 Explain why chromosomes in Diagram X and Diagram Y are
different in appearance. (3)
Genetic material was exchanged  between the chromosomes in
diagram X due to crossing over  whereas the chromosomes in
diagram Y did not undergo crossing over
3.2.4 The diagram below shows the nuclei of the four cells that resulted
from meiosis involving chromosomes in Diagram X above.

Nuclei of the cells formed at the end of meiosis II

Daughter chromosomes

a) Explain why nuclei O and P do NOT have chromosomes. (2)

 During meiosis the chromosome pair does not separate  /
there is non-disjunction.
 Two gametes (M and N) will have an extra copy of chromo-
some  number 21 and therefore the other gametes (O
and P) do not have a copy of chromosome 21.
b) Name and explain the disorder that will result if Diagram M
represents an egg cell that fuses with a normal sperm cell. (3)
 Down Syndrome 
 If the gamete fuses with a normal sperm having one copy of
chromosome 21 
 The resulting zygote will have 3 copies  of chromosome
number 21 / 47 chromosomes
(11)
[25]

Section B: [50]

Total Marks: [100]

66
Cognitive levels distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
4 4 2 10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2 a - b  1+1
1.4.3  1
1.4.4 a - c  1+1+1
1.4.5  1
1.4.6  2
4 6 10

67
 1.5.1  2
1.5.2 a - b  1+1
1.5.3  1
1.5.4  4
1.5.5  1
9 1 10
2.1.1  2
2.1.2 a - b  1+1
2.1.3  5
2.1.4  3
3 5 4 12
2.2.1 a - b  2
2.2.2  1
2.2.3  2
2.2.4 a - c (c) (a) (b) 1+1+1
4 4 8
2.3.1  2
2.3.2  1
2.3.3  2
4 1 5
3.1.1  6
3.1.2  3
3.1.3  2
3.1.4  3
14 14
3.2.1  2
3.2.2  1
3.2.3  3
3.2.4 a- bb  5
2 9 11
36 57 5 2 100

68
CHAPTER 3: REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
IN VERTEBRATES

Overview
Time allocation: ½ week (2 hours)
This chapter consists of the following sections
1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. External and internal fertilisation
4. Ovipary, ovovivipary, vivipary
5. The amniotic egg
6. Precocial and altricial development
7. Parental care
8. Summary

Learners are exposed to the reproductive strategies used by vertebrates to maximise

their reproductive success. All five vertebrate classes (Amphibians; Fish; Aves;
Reptiles and Mammals) with relevant examples of each must be discussed.

Introduction

There is a great deal of variety of reproductive strategies in the Kingdom Animalia and
it is recommended to acquaint your learners with as many examples as possible (time
dependent). CAPS allocates half a week or two hours to this topic.

Key concepts and terminology

 Differences between internal and external fertilisation.
 The organisation of vertebrate classes according to the presence of internal or
external fertilisation.
 Definitions of ovipary, ovovivipary and vivipary.
 Labelling and descriptions of the parts of an amniotic egg.
 Differentiate between precocial and altricial development, including examples of
animals born precocial or altricial.

69
  Descriptions of the effects of parental care, or the lack of it, on the survival of
offspring.
 Examples of parental care.

Key terminology
reproductive structural, functional and behavioural adaptations that improve
strategy the chances of fertilisation and the survival of offspring.
external fertilisation that takes place outside the female’s body, usually in
fertilisation water
internal fertilisation that occurs inside the female’s body where the male
fertilisation has deposited its sperm
ovipary eggs are laid; the embryo develops outside the mother’s body
young develop from eggs fertilised internally and retained within
ovovivipary
the mother's body after fertilisation until they hatch
the young develop inside the uterus of mother after eggs are
vivipary
fertilised internally; young are nourished through the placenta
the embryo inside the egg is protected by a hard shell; the egg
amniotic egg consists of many extra-embryonic membranes that serve
different functions
extra-
membranes that surround the developing embryo inside the
embryonic
amniotic egg or uterus.
membranes
produces amniotic fluid which cushions embryo and protects it
amnion
from mechanical injury, temperature changes, dehydration
collects the embryo’s nitrogenous waste and assists in the
allantois
exchange of gases
allows for gaseous exchange in the amniotic egg and forms the
chorion
placenta in mammals
yolk sac contains the food reserves for the developing embryo
precocial when hatchlings are well developed as they hatch, able to move
development and feed themselves, with eyes open – limited parental care
when hatchlings are underdeveloped as they hatch, unable to
altricial
move or feed or fend for themselves – young require more
development
parental care
includes the building of nests, protection, teaching of young and
parental care feeding – the care, or lack thereof, directly influences the
survival of the young

70
External and internal fertilisation

Differences between internal and external fertilisation and the organisation of

vertebrate classes according to the presence of internal or external fertilisation
occurring are to be stressed.

Ovipary, ovovivipary; vivipary

Important definitions
ovi / pary Eggs are laid, and development occurs
ovipary
egg + bearing outside the female’s body.
ovo / vivi / pary Eggs develop and hatch within the female’s
ovovivipary
egg + live + bearing body and young are born live.
vivi / pary No eggs are present, young develop from the
vivipary
live + bearing placenta and are born live.

Have a good reading knowledge on different examples of vertebrate reproductive

strategies (at least two per class). Exposure to the sources that you can read for your
learners is also vital. This can be in the form of a summary table, with two examples
per vertebrate class, under the following headings:
 Vertebrate class
 Internal / external fertilisation
 Oviparous / ovoviviparous / viviparous
 Precocial / altricial young
 Amount of parental care provided

Lastly, remember that entire vertebrate classes do not fall under ‘one-label’ only. For
example, it is incorrect to say that snakes are only oviparous and that amphibians
show no parental care. Use the following trend table as a guide:

external / oviparous /
precocial / parental
internal ovoviviparous /
altricial young care
fertilisation viviparous
fish mostly external oviparous highly precocial mostly none
amphibia external oviparous precocial none / little
oviparous or
reptiles internal precocial mostly none
ovoviviparous

71
 precocial or none / little /
aves internal oviparous
altricial high
oviparous
mammals internal (monotremes) but altricial high
mostly viviparous

To avoid confusion about the above, remind learners that in most questions an image
will be given of the vertebrate class. From this image it will be easier to identify the
specific reproductive strategy.
Present the topic using images, charts (life cycles of vertebrates), multi-media clips or
documentaries. Only go through to this extent IF time is available. Use the end of
chapter activity to gauge where your learners’ understanding of content lies.

Activity 1: Fertilisation

The diagram below shows a certain species of fish mating.

male

female

1. Identify the type of fertilisation displayed by the fish species. (1)

External fertilisation 
2. State two visible ways in which the chances of fertilisation in these fish are
increased. (2)
The fish are close to each other when they release their gametes . Many
egg and sperm cells are released to maximise the chances of fertilisation 
3. Name the reproductive strategy used by these fish that involves the
production of eggs. (1)
Oviparous / Ovipary 
4. Give two reasons why there is no need for the eggs of these fish to be
covered by a hard or leathery shell. (2)
The eggs are already in water , no desiccation drying-out will occur .
5. Explain the challenge that external fertilisation poses and how organisms with
external fertilisation overcome this challenge. (4)
The chances of fertilisation are reduced as gametes have to meet in water 

72
 . To overcome this challenge, many gametes are produced and released
shortly after each other and while the parents are close to each other to
maximise the chances of fertilisation  .
Offspring do not have a large degree of protection from the external
environment and are easily predated upon  . To overcome this challenge,
parents can offer parental care and defend eggs and juveniles. Offspring are
also precocially developed and well-suited for their environment meaning that
they can fend for themselves  .
(10)

The amniotic egg

In discussing the amniotic egg, pay particular attention to the naming and description
of the various parts as given in the learner text.

Activity 2: Amniotic egg

Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow.

1. Identify the membrane numbered 1 and 2. (2)

1 – Amnion  ; 2 – chorion 
2. Describe any two functions of the fluid found in part 1. (2)
Temperature regulation; limits mechanical injury; prevents dehydration of the
embryo  - any two
3. Identify the organ that will replace the function of membrane 3 in the adult
organism. (1)
The bladder 
4. Explain why the allantois and yolk sac are non-functional in a human foetus.
The foetus is directly connected to the mother via the umbilical cord to the

73
 placenta. Through these structures, the foetus can receive nourishment
(replacing the function of yolk sac)  and release nitrogenous waste to the
mother’s body (replacing the function of the allantois)  (2)
5. Briefly explain how the amniotic egg allowed life to evolve onto land. (5)
The outer shell is porous to allow gaseous exchange but prevents the
desiccation of the embryo as it limits water loss  . The chorion allows
gaseous exchange to take place through the porous egg shell  . The
amnion cushions the developing embryo from mechanical injury  and
helps regulate temperature  and prevents dehydration  .
(12)

Precocial and altricial development

Differentiate between precocial and altricial development, including examples of

animals born precocial or altricial. Learners must be able to identify whether or not a
offspring is precocial or altricial based on images.

Parental care
Descriptions of the effects of parental care, or the lack of it, on the survival of offspring.
Examples of parental care. Know the major vertebrate classes and their respective
degrees of parental care.

Activity 3: Development and care

Study the diagrams below showing different forms of development

A B C D

1. Write down the letters of the organisms which show

a) altricial development B  &D  (2)
b) precocial development A  &C  (2)

74
2. Ovoviviparous animals can display either precocial or altricial development.
Explain how these development approaches differ in respect to
a) the degree of parental care offered (4)
Parental care for precocially developed young would be less intensive
as these young are already mobile at birth and can feed and fend for
themselves  .
Parental care for altricial young however would require a greater
degree of parental care as these young cannot feed themselves  as
their bodies are still under-developed  . Parents would need to feed
and protect these young until they reach a more developed state  .
b) how well young are developed at birth (2)
The bodies of precocial young are well developed. Precocially
developed young’s eyes are open, they have down feathers or fur and
can move soon after birth  . The bodies of altricially developed young
however are not as well developed as their eyes are closed, bodies are
naked and have very limited movement  .
c) the amount of yolk present in eggs (2)
In precocial ovoviviparous species’ eggs, more yolk is found to assist in
the development of a well-developed body. This also sustains the
young for a longer incubatory period  . In altricial ovoviviparous
species’ eggs, less yolk is found and the offspring are born sooner,
thus being under-developed  .
3. Tabulate three differences between precocial and altricial development. (7)
precocial developm. altricial developm.
development of the
well developed under developed
body
eyes after birth open closed
presence of fur /
have fur / feathers usually naked
feathers
parental care low degree of parental high degree of parental
required care required care required
young usually have
young can move soon
mobility limited capability to
after birth.
move freely
yolk amount in egg greater quantity lower quantity

 - for tabulating answer;  - 2 marks per correct development – one for

precocial, and one for altricial development
(19)

75
Summary

 Reproduction ensures the continued existence of a species.

 During reproduction, energy is invested in the young in various forms, e.g. amount
of energy in pre-natal (yolk per egg; incubation, etc.) and post-natal parental care
(protecting young, feeding, teaching, etc.).
 Fertilisation of egg cells could either be external or internal.
 Ovipary, Ovovivipary and Vivipary are reproductive strategies that tell us where the
embryo develops, how it feeds and whether a shell is present or not.
 The amniotic egg is an adaptation for reproduction on land. It contains the embryo
surrounded by three extra-embryonic membranes, the yolk sac, albumen and a
hard-calcareous shell that assist in the embryo’s development and protection.
 Precocial and altricial development differ in the respective amounts of pre-natal
and post-natal energy input and how well developed the young are at birth.
 Parental care as a reproductive strategy ensures the survival of young until they
can fend for themselves.

Enrichment

Courtship behaviours: https://youtu.be/SFwgCh1hh4U

Monotremes: https://youtu.be/NGuIezLFidY
Vertebrate reproduction: https://youtu.be/ce3M1Xwhsas

There are no End of topic exercises for this short chapter.

76
CHAPTER 4: HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Overview

Time Allocation: 3 weeks (12 Hours)

This chapter consists of the following sections:

1. Introduction
2. The male reproductive system
3. The female reproductive system
4. Puberty
5. Gametogenesis
6. The menstrual cycle
7. Fertilisation and development of zygote to blastocyst
8. Implantation of the blastocyst and gestation
9. Summary
10. End of topic exercises

Introduction

In this chapter we will be studying human reproduction. All organisms must

reproduce to ensure the survival of the species. We will be looking at the structure of
the male and female reproductive systems, how they produce gametes and in
particular menstruation and the hormonal control of females. We will also briefly
study puberty and gestation, including the processes leading to gestation and birth.

Key concepts and terminology

 The male reproductive system consists of the main sex organ, various ducts
and tubules, accessory glands and the external genitalia. Each of these plays
a vital role in sperm cell production.

77
  The female reproductive system consists of the main sex organ, the fallopian
tubes, the accessory organs and the external genitalia. Each of these plays a
vital role in ova production.
 The sperm cells and ova are known as gametes, and these are fused during
fertilisation to form offspring.
 Puberty begins between the ages of 11 and 15 in both girls and boys and
prepares their bodies for sexual reproduction in various ways.
 The process of forming gametes begins at puberty and is known as
gametogenesis.
 Gametogenesis takes place through different processes in males and
females, which is spermatogenesis and oogenesis respectively.
 Females go through a 28 day cycle known as menstruation, this occurs to
prepare both the ovum and uterus for possible pregnancy.
 There are four important hormones which control the changes that take place
during menstruation namely follicle stimulating hormone, oestrogen,
luteinizing hormone and progesterone.
 If fertilisation takes place a zygote is formed and will go through
developmental changes to form a blastocyst. The blastocyst will implant and
continue to develop throughout gestation first as an embryo and later on as a
foetus.
 The formation of the placenta and umbilical cord ensures that the foetus
receives nourishment and oxygen, while removing waste products.

Key terminology
gamete an egg or sperm cell with half the number of chromosomes
the process in which gametes are produced in the testes
gametogenesis
and ovaries through meiosis
the process that occurs when egg cells are made in the
oogenesis
ovary through meiosis
the process that takes place when sperm cells are made in
spermatogenesis
the testes through meiosis
cuboidal epithelium found on the surface of the testes and
germinal
ovaries which gives rise to the cells which mature to form
epithelium
sperm cells and egg cells respectively

The male reproductive system

78
Learners must be able to identify structures in the diagrams by providing labels as
well as the functions of these parts. They should be able to discuss the key
structures in detail.

The female reproductive system

Learners must be able to identify structures in the diagrams by providing labels as

well as the functions of these parts. They should be able to discuss the key
structures in detail.

Activity 1: Reproductive systems

Study the diagrams below showing the male and female reproductive systems.

B
C
G
E
A
D H

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

1. Identify the parts labelled A – H. (8)

A – urethra , B – vas deferens , C – prostate gland , D – testes ,
E – uterus , F – fallopian tube , G - ovary , H – vagina 
2. State one function of the each of the following:
a) The fluid produced by C. (1)
Protects the sperm cell from the acidic environment of the vagina or
provides a fluid medium in which sperm cells can swim / increases
mobility of sperm 
b) Part E (1)
place for the foetus to develop ; maintains pregnancy ; assists in
child birth; implantation of the blastocyst ; protects the foetus ;
passage for sperm cells  (any one)

79
 3. Provide two functions of part H. (2)
serves as a birth canal ; allows for passage of blood  / endometrial lining /
amniotic fluid / placenta; facilitates sexual intercourse  / receives semen;
secretes acid which prevents infections  (any two)
4. Explain why it is necessary for part D to be ‘outside’ the human body in
males. (2)
to keep the testes at a temperature that is lower than body temperature ,
optimum temperature for sperm production which is necessary for the
production of healthy sperm and so that healthy sperm can survive. 
(14)

Puberty

Puberty is covered in many learning areas so learners should be aware of the

changes that take place during puberty. Here, key changes with regards to
hormones are emphasized however there are many changes which occur and can
be discussed with learners.

Gametogenesis

Learners are not required to know the individual names of the stages of
spermatogenesis and oogenesis. This section is not often asked in the form of a
diagram but rather as shorter questions. Diagrams depicting spermatogenesis and
oogenesis might require some explanation from the teacher.
Diagrams are available on the internet but these are too detailed for what the
learners are required to know. For example, in spermatogenesis learners do not
need to learn about the spermatogonium becoming the primary spermatocyte and
then changing into a secondary spermatocyte. They are required to know spermatid
and spermatozoa which are sperm cells. The same applies to oogenesis.

Activity 2: Gametogenesis
1. Name the organ where meiosis takes place in the male and female
reproductive systems respectively. (2)
In males meiosis occurs in the testes  and in females meiosis occurs in the
ovaries .
2. Define gametogenesis. (1)

80
 Gametogenesis is the process in which cells undergo meiosis to form
gametes 
3. Name the type of gametogenesis that takes place in the male and female
reproductive systems respectively. (2)
Gametogenesis in males is called spermatogenesis  and in females it is
known as oogenesis 
4. Draw a fully labelled diagram of an ovum. (5)
Structure of ovum  follicle cells

cytoplasm

layer of jelly

nucleus

1 mark for title, one for actual drawing, 3 marks for any 3 correct labels.
5. Discuss the functions of the four main parts of a sperm cell. (8)
 acrosome  – contains enzymes to penetrate the ovum 
 head  – contains the nucleus with the male genetic information 
 middle portion  – contains many mitochondria to provide energy for the
sperm cell to swim 
 tail  – propels the sperm cell forward / allows the sperm to swim 
(18)

The menstrual cycle

Key terminology
Graafian follicle fluid filled vesicle in which the egg cell grows
ovulation the release of an egg from the Graafian follicle of the ovaries
endometrium the lining of the uterus wall

menstruation the monthly loss of blood and tissue as a result of changes

that occur in the lining of the uterus

menopause stage in the life of a woman when she stops ovulating and
menstruating; usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55

81
 fertilisation the fusion of the haploid sperm cell nucleus and the haploid
egg cell nucleus to form a diploid nucleus and zygote

implantation the attachment of the embryo to the endometrium lining the

uterus

The menstrual cycle occurs in two parts of the reproductive system but at the same
time. Learners often struggle to understand this concept. Learners must be able to
discuss what is happening in both of these cycles with regards to the development of
the ova and the endometrium under hormonal control.
The hormones (follicle stimulating hormone, oestrogen, luteinising hormone and
progesterone) are important not only in the development of the ova and
endometrium but also with regards to their negative feedback mechanism.
Learners must be able to interpret and provide information as to what is happening in
the graph provided in this section.

Activity 3: Hormones

Study the graphs below, then answer the questions that follow.

Levels of female hormones during the menstrual cycle

Levels of female hormones
(arbitrary units)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .. 12 .. 14 .. 16 ... 18 .. 20 .. 22 ... 24 .. 26 .. 28

Days
Key:
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Luteinising hormone

82
 1. On which day did ovulation occur? (1)
Day 14 (13 or 15 is accepted) 
2. Give one reason for your answer to question 1 that can be seen on the
graph. (1)
The level of oestrogen decreases sharply or the level of luteinising hormone
increases 
3. Which structure in the ovary produces the following hormones?
a) Oestrogen (1)
Graafian follicle 
b) Progesterone (1)
corpus luteum 
4. Explain why there is a sharp increase in the production of …
a) oestrogen from day 9 to 13. (2)
The follicles have developed into the Graafian follicle secreting more
oestrogen  to make the endometrial wall thicker / more vascular
b) luteinising hormone from day 13 to 14. (2)
Increased levels of oestrogen stimulate the pituitary gland to release
more LH  so that ovulation can occur 
5. What conclusion can be drawn if the level of progesterone …
a) Remains high from day 20 to 28? (1)
pregnancy has resulted or the woman is pregnant 
b) Drops as shown in the graph above? (1)
no pregnancy or leads to menstruation 
(10)

Activity 4: Menstrual cycle

The diagram shows some changes that may take place during the menstrual cycle.

Growth of
follicle

Thickness of
uterine lining

1 7 14 21 28
Days

83
 1. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones. Name one hormone that will
increase in level between days 2 and 10. (1)
oestrogen / follicle stimulating hormone 
2. Give one observable reason for your answer to question 1. (2)
the lining of the endometrium thickens during this period stimulated by the
increased level of oestrogen OR the follicle develops during this period
stimulated by increased levels of FSH ()
3. Explain what evidence there is in the diagram to indicate that no fertilisation
took place? (3)
corpus luteum has not disintegrated, it continues to secrete progesterone so
the endometrial lining remains thickened ()
(6)

Fertilisation & development of zygote to blastocyst

Learners must know how, where and when fertilization takes place. Learners are
required to know the transformation of the zygote to becoming a blastocyst.
The concept of diploid and haploid should be revised with learners, and they should
know that the chromosome number is returned to diploid from the fusion of the
haploid gamete nuclei.

Implantation of the blastocyst and gestation

After implantation the blastocyst becomes known as the embryo and after 12 weeks
of development it is then called the foetus.
Learners must know the various extra-embryonic membranes involved in foetal
development. The placenta is vitally important and learners should be able to provide
its functions as well as the implications of the placenta not functioning correctly.
Learners should be able to identify the parts and structures involved during foetal
development and be able to provide their functions. These can be seen on the
diagram provided.
Learners only need to know what is meant by the term gestation, they are not
required to know the week by week development of the foetus.

Activity 5: Fertilisation
The diagram below shows a human ovum about to be fertilised

84
 G

A
B
F
C

1. Identify the parts labelled A – G. (7)

A – jelly coating , B – cell membrane , C – cytoplasm , D – head , E –
acrosome , F – nucleus , G – middle part (neck) 
2. Give the letter of the part that …
a) contains the mitochondria. G  (1)
b) contains enzymes required to penetrate the ovum. E  (1)
c) will enter the ovum during fertilization. D (1)
3. Describe the developmental changes in the fertilised ovum until implantation
occurs in the uterus. (5)
The zygote undergoes mitosis  until a ball of cells is formed called the
morula . The morula continues to divide and forms a mass of cells with a
hollow cavity  called a blastocyst . The outer membrane of the blastocyst
forms the chorionic villi which attaches it to the endometrium 
4. Define gestation. (1)
Gestation is the period of development inside the uterus between fertilisation
and birth 
(16)

Summary

 The male reproductive system consists of: the testes, seminiferous tubules,
epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate gland, Cowper’s gland, seminal
vesicles and the penis.

85
 The female reproductive system consists of: the ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina and the vulva.
 Puberty is when sexual maturity occurs. There are many primary and
secondary sexual characteristics that develop.
 Gametogenesis is the process by which gametes are formed. In males this is
referred to as spermatogenesis and the process occurs in the testes to
produce sperm cells. In females this is referred to as oogenesis and the
process occurs in the ovaries to produce ova.
 In females, menstruation begins shortly after the onset of puberty.
 The menstrual cycle is composed of two separate cycles. The ovarian cycle
describes the development of follicles within the ovary to produce ova. The
uterine cycle describes the changes that take place in the endometrium of the
uterus. These changes are controlled by four hormones which are follicle
stimulating hormone, oestrogen, luteinizing hormone and progesterone.
 Progesterone and follicle stimulating hormone function together in a negative
feedback mechanism to maintain optimal conditions within the uterus for
implantation and pregnancy.
 During copulation sperm cells are released and swim towards the ovum so
that fertilisation can occur. The nucleus of the sperm cell and ovum fuse to
form a zygote.
 The zygote divides by mitosis forming a blastocyst which will implant itself in
the endometrium. This process is known as implantation and the female is
pregnant.
 Pregnancy otherwise known as gestation lasts for approximately 40 weeks.
 The important structures to ensure the development and survival of the foetus
are: placenta, umbilical cord, chorion and amnion.

86
End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A – D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 The following statements describe the functions of the placenta:

i. Serves as an attachment of the embryo to the mother
ii. Allows for the diffusion of dissolved nutrients from the mother
to the foetus.
iii. Allows for diffusion of excretory wastes from the mother to the
foetus
iv. Allows for diffusion of oxygen from the mother to the foetus.
Which one of the following combinations correctly describe the
functions of the placenta?

A (i), (ii), and (iii)

B (ii) only
C (i), (ii) and (iv) 
D (ii) and (iii)

1.1.2 Contraceptive pills which prevent pregnancy are likely to contain…

A high levels of FSH and progesterone.

B high levels of LH and oestrogen.
C high levels of only FSH.
D high levels of only progesterone. 

1.1.3 Before copulation the male sperm is stored temporarily in the…

A seminal vesicles.
B scrotum.
C prostate gland.
D epididymis. 

87
1.1.4 Which one of the following parts in the diagram of a sperm cell
contains a haploid number of chromosomes?

1 2 3 4

A 1 B 2 C 3  D 4

1.1.5 The graph shows the changes in concentration of female hormones

FSH and LH in two females during the first two weeks of the
menstrual cycle.
Concentration of hormones in blood

Both females
(A and B)
LH
(arbitrary units)

FSH

Female A

Female B

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Days of menstrual cycle

Which one of the following statements is correct regarding female

A?
A FSH increases on day 14 because the Graafian follicle is
secreting progesterone.
B FSH increased after day 9 as the pituitary gland is secreting
progesterone.
C FSH decreased after day 4 to ensure implantation occurs.
D FSH increases in the first two days to stimulate the
development of the follicle. 
(5 x 2) = (10)

88
1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.
1.2.1 The gland which produces a fluid to provide the sperm cells with
energy.
Seminal vesicles 
1.2.2 The vesicle containing enzymes found in the head of a sperm cell.
Acrosome 
1.2.3 The process which produces ova.
Oogenesis 
1.2.4 The type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with
the nucleus of an ovum inside the body of the female.
Internal  fertilisation
1.2.5 A hormone that stimulates the development of the corpus luteum.
Luteinising hormone  / LH
1.2.6 The fluid that protects the human embryo against injuries and large-
scale temperature changes.
Amniotic  fluid
1.2.7 The blood vessel in the umbilical cord that transports nutrients to the
foetus.
Umbilical vein 
1.2.8 The inner lining of the uterus where implantation of the embryo
occurs.
Endometrium 
1.2.9 A type of reproduction in humans where the foetus develops inside
the uterus.
Vivipary  / Viviparous
1.2.10 The stage in humans were sexual maturity is reached.
Puberty 
(10 x 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: chorionic villi
1.3.1 Forms the placenta
B: endometrium

89
 A: menopause
1.3.2 The production of ova by meiosis
B: ovulation
1.3.3 A hollow ball of cells into which A: amnion
fertilised ovum develops B: chorion
1.3.4 The reproductive structures where A: testes
meiosis occurs. B: ovaries
1.3.5 Place where fertilisation occurs in A: cervix
humans B: fallopian tube
(5 x 2) = (10)
1.3.1 Both A and B 
1.3.2 None 
1.3.3 None
1.3.4 Both A and B 
1.3.5 B only 

1.4 Diagrams I and II below (not to scale) represent gametogenesis in human

males and females (not in any particular sequence).

Meiosis I

1
Meiosis II

3
2
Degenerating
cells Diagram II
Diagram I

1.4.1. Identify the specific type of gametogenesis in Diagram I. (1)

Oogenesis 
1.4.2. Explain your answer to question 1.4.1 by referring to a visible
difference between Diagram I and Diagram II. (2)
- At the end of the process in Diagram I, one gamete forms  / three
cells degenerate
- At the end of the process in Diagram II, four gametes form  / none
of the cells degenerate

90
 1.4.3. Where in the human body does the type of gametogenesis shown in
Diagram II take place? (1)
Testes  / Seminiferous tubules
1.4.4. Give the chromosome number of:
a) the cells at 1 (1)
23 
b) cell 2 (1)
23 
1.4.5. Name two processes that take place during Meiosis I that lead to
genetic variation in the four cells at 3 in Diagram II. (2)
Crossing over 
Random arrangement of chromosomes 
1.4.6. Explain the implication for the human population size if the three
cells referred to in Diagram I did not degenerate, but remained as
gametes. (2)
- This will result in multiple births  / there will be an increased
chance of fertilisation
- which will lead to an increased population 
(10)

1.5 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

A
B

1.5.1 Give labels for each of the following:

a) A Epididymis  (1)
b) B Testis  (1)
c) C Vas deferens  / sperm duct (1)
1.5.2 State one function of part A. (1)
Store sperm cells temporarily 

91
 1.5.3 What is the name of the structure in which part B is enclosed? (1)
Scrotum 
1.5.4 Explain the consequences for reproduction if part C is surgically
cut. (3)
 Sperm cells will not pass to urethra 
 to fertilise the egg 
 and hence he will not be able to have children. 
1.5.5 Explain why it would still be possible for an HIV-positive man to
infect another person during sexual intercourse after part C is
surgically cut. (2)
The HI-virus may still be passed on  during sexual intercourse
through the secretions of the accessory glands  (semen without
sperm cells will be released during ejaculation)
(10)
Section A: [50]

Section B
Question 2
2.1 An investigation was carried out to determine the effects of smoking during
pregnancy on the baby's birth weight. Babies born weighing 2 499 g or less
have a low birth weight.
The table below compares the percentage of babies with a low birth weight
born to mothers who smoked with mothers who did not smoke in a certain
city in 2009.

Birth weight Percentage of total births in 2009

(grams) Mothers who smoked Non-smoking mothers
< 1000 0,7 0,2
1000 – 1499 0,9 0,3
1500 – 1999 2,2 1,1
2000 – 2499 7,1 3,2
(adapted from www.ainw.gov.au)

2.1.1 Draw a histogram to represent the percentage of births in each

weight group born to mothers who smoked. (6)
Guidelines for marking graph
Criteria Mark allocation
Histogram drawn 
Title of graph (with both variables) 

92
 Correct label for X- and Y-axes 
Correct scale and width of bars 
Plotting : 1 to 3 bars drawn correctly
: All 4 bars drawn correctly

Percentage of low birth weight babies born to

mothers who smoked during pregnancy in 2009

7,1
Births (%)

2,2

0,9
0,7

< 1000 1000 - 1499 1500 – 1999 2000 - 2499

Birth weight (grams)

2.1.2 Why were babies that weighed more than 2 500 g at birth not
included in the investigation? (1)
Babies that weigh 2500 g or more are considered to be of a normal /
healthy birth weight 
2.1.3 State a general conclusion for the investigation based on the data in
the table. (2)
The total percentage of low birth weight babies born to mothers who
smoked was higher than those born to mothers who did not smoke
 OR
The total percentage of low birth weight babies born to mothers who
did not smoke was lower than those born to mothers who smoked

2.1.4 Describe how chemicals from cigarette smoke are able to reach the
baby's blood from the mother's blood. (2)
Chemicals are dissolved in the mother’s blood 

93
 are able to move across the placenta  / and through the umbilical
cord into the babies blood
by diffusion     (any two × 1)
(11)
2.2. The diagram below represents the sequence of events that takes place
during the ovarian cycle of a female.

2.2.1 Give the name of the:

a) Hormone that controls the development of structure A. (1)
FSH  / Follicle stimulating hormone
b) Process taking place at C. (1)
Ovulation 
2.2.2 Structure B degenerates if fertilisation does not take place. Explain
the implications of this for the …
a) ovarian cycle (2)
 The levels of progesterone drop 
 therefore, FSH secretion is no longer inhibited  / FSH
secretion is resumed
 and a new follicle starts to develop. 
(Mark any two)
b) uterine cycle (2)
 The levels of progesterone drop 
 therefore, the endometrium is no longer maintained 
 and menstruation takes place.  (Mark any two)
(6)

94
2.3. The diagram shows some changes during the menstrual cycle.

Growth of
follicle

Thickness of
uterine lining

1 7 14 21 28
Days

2.3.1 Describe the developmental changes in the fertilised ovum until

implantation occurs in the uterus. (4)
 The zygote 
 undergoes mitosis 
 until a ball of cells in formed 
 called a morula. 
 The morula continues to divide and forms a mass of cells
with a hollow cavity 
 called a blastocyst 
 the outer membrane of the blastocyst forms chorionic villi /
attachment villi 
 which attaches to the endometrium  (Any four × 1)
2.3.2 Some females use an ovulation monitor so that they can be aware of
the days when they are fertile. These monitors measure the level of
hormones in the blood.
a) Why would females want to know when they are fertile? (1)
For family planning  / to know when they can get pregnant
b) Explain which hormone is likely to be monitored by the ovulation
monitor. (3)
 LH  / FSH / oestrogen
 There is a rise in levels  of LH / FSH / oestrogen around the
time of ovulation 
(8)
[25]

95
Question 3
3.1 The diagram below represents the relationship between the blood system of
the foetus and that of the mother. The arrows indicate the direction of blood
flow in the blood vessels.

blood vessel B
of the mother
blood vessel A
of the mother
blood space /
sinuses of mother
placenta

blood vessel D blood vessel C

of the foetus of the foetus
umbilical cord
foetus

3.1.1 Apart from playing a role in the diffusion of substances from the
mother’s blood to the foetus’ blood, and vice versa, state two other
functions of the placenta. (2)
 It acts as a micro-filter  / prevents harmful substances from
reaching the foetus.
 It secretes progesterone  / oestrogen during pregnancy
 Immunity is transferred from mother to foetus  (Any 2)
3.1.2 Blood vessel D is an artery. Tabulate two differences between the
composition of the blood found in blood vessel C and blood found in
blood vessel D. (5)
Blood vessel C Blood vessel D
High concentration of nutrients  Low concentration of nutrients 
/ example of nutrient / example of nutrient
Low concentration of waste High concentration of waste
products  / example of waste products  / example of waste
product product
High concentration of oxygen  Low concentration of oxygen 

96
 Low concentration of carbon High concentration of carbon
dioxide dioxide 
(Mark first two only)
Table: (1) and (Any two × 2)
3.1.3 Explain one consequence for the foetus if blood vessel D becomes
blocked preventing blood flow. (2)
 Waste products / nitrogenous waste / CO2 will accumulate  in
the foetus’ body
 causing the death of the foetus 
3.1.4 If the blood of the mother and the blood of the foetus come into
contact with each other, it could lead to the death of the foetus.
Describe why this would occur. (2)
 Harmful substances  / bacteria
 May pass from mother’s blood to the blood of the foetus 
OR
 The blood types  / other proteins of the mother and baby
may not be compatible (any two)
(11)

3.2 Read the following extract and answer the questions that follow.

Several recent studies have suggested a gradual decline in sperm

production in men. Endocrine disruptions as well as life style have been
suggested as risk factors. One life style factor that may affect human
fertility is driving a vehicle for a prolonged period. It is suggested that
the driving position may increase the scrotal temperature.

3.2.1 State any one risk factor identified by the researchers. (1)
 The endocrine disrupter  / malfunctioning of endocrine glands
 Life style  / life style variations / driving a vehicle for a
prolonged period of time (any one × 1)
3.2.2 Explain why regular long-distance driving with no breaks could
possibly lower the sperm count in healthy males. (3)
 Long distance drive extends the period sitting in a fixed position
causing male reproductive organ to remain tightly squeezed
between the thighs for a considerable period of time 
 As the temperature rises  in the area, the scrotum is unable to
pull the testis away from the body due to lack of spacing,
 Hence, the testes remain in contact with the body and maintain a
higher temperature causing a disruption in spermatogenesis. 

97
 3.2.3 Suggest a consequence of lower sperm count in males. (2)
The low sperm count reduces the chances of fertilization  and may
lead to male infertility. 
3.2.4 State any one daily life style trend or routine (other than the one
mentioned in the extract) that should be avoided to maintain the
optimum scrotal temperature. (1)
 Use of tight underwear 
 Sitting in a hot water tub for a long time as daily routine. 
(Any one × 1)
(7)

3.3 The diagram below represents a developing foetus in a human body.

A
D
B

3.3.1 Identify:
a) A Chorion  / Amnion (1)
b) C Umbilical cord  (1)
3.3.2 State two functions of the fluid B. (2)
 Protects the foetus from shock  / Acts as a shock absorber
 Protects the foetus from drying out 
 Protects the foetus from temperature changes 
 Allows free movement of the foetus 
(Mark first two only; any 2 × 1)
3.3.3 Name one system in the baby’s body that takes over the function
of part D once the baby is born. (1)
 Gaseous exchange system 

98
  Excretory system 
 Digestive system 
Mark first one only; any one × 1)
3.3.4 Explain one negative impact on the foetal development if part D
is reduced significantly. (2)
 The foetus will receive less nutrients 
 and therefore, have a lower birth mass  / physical under-
development / mental under-development
OR
 The foetus will receive less oxygen 
 and therefore, have a lower birth mass  / physical under-
development / mental under-development
OR
 Waste will accumulate 
 And it will affect the functioning of the foetus 
(Mark first one only; any one × 2)
(7)
[25]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [100]

99
Cognitive levels distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
4 2 4 10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  2
1.4.3  1
1.4.4 a - b  2 (1+1)
1.4.5  2
1.4.6  2
1 3 3 4 10
1.5.1 a - c  3 (1+1+1)
1.5.2  1
1.5.3  1
1.5.4  3
1.5.5  2

100
 5 5 10
2.1.1    6 (2+2+2)
2.1.2  1
2.1.3  2
2.1.4  2
2 7 2 3
2.2.1 a - b  2 (1+1)
2.2.2 a - b  4 (2+2)
2 4 6
2.3.1  4
2.3.2 a - b  4 (1+3)
4 4 8
3.1.1  2
3.1.2   5 (4+1)
3.1.3  2
3.1.4  2
2 6 1 2 11
3.2.1  1
3.2.2  3
3.2.3  2
3.2.4  1
1 4 2 7
3.3.1  2
3.3.2  2
3.3.3  1
3.3.4  2
5 2 7
42 28 11 20 100

101
CHAPTER 5: GENETICS AND INHERITANCE

Overview
Time allocation: 4 weeks (16 hours)
This chapter consists of the following sections:
1. Introduction
2. Key concepts
3. Concepts in inheritance
4. Mendel as father of genetics
5. Genetic diagrams
6. Genetic lineage (pedigree diagrams)
7. Mutations
8. Biotechnology
9. Summary
10. End of topic exercises

Introduction
This chapter will build on what was covered in the sections on DNA, protein synthesis,
meiosis and sexual reproduction to help the learner understand how characteristics
are passed down from one generation to the next. Genetics is the study of heredity –
how characteristics are passed on from parents to child. Every individual inherits a
set of genes from a father and a mother which is unique to that individual, but similar
enough to identify the individual’s species.

Key terminology
passing of hereditary characteristics from parent to
hereditary
offspring
filial generation (F1) offspring of parent organisms
locus the exact position (location) of a gene on a chromosome
techniques used to change the genetic material of a cell or
genetic engineering
living organism – a form of biotechnology

102
Key concepts
 Terminology in inheritance
 Gregor Mendel is the ‘Father of Genetics’
 Monohybrid crosses: a genetic cross involving one characteristic controlled by
a pair of alleles
 Sex determination: sperm has either an X or a Y gonosome so the sex of the
offspring depends on which sperm gets to the egg first.
 Sex-linked inheritance: examples of genetic diseases carried on the sex
chromosomes.
 Blood grouping and paternity testing: an explanation of the four blood groups
in man and how blood groups can be used as a way to see if the man could
be the father of a particular baby.
 Genetic lineage/pedigrees: how to use pedigree diagrams to trace ancestry.
 Dihybrid crosses: a genetic cross involving two different characteristics.
 Mutations: how changes to the DNA/chromosomes in a sex cell affects the
offspring produced after fertilisation.
 Genetic engineering: how knowledge of DNA has led to biotechnology to help
humans in various ways.
 Genetic links in evolution: specifically how mitochondrial DNA has been used
to trace human evolution.

Concepts in Inheritance

Table 1 below provides further definitions and explanations of key terms that you
must know very well.

Table 1: Terms, their explanation and supporting diagrams and notes.

a segment of DNA in
a chromosome that gene
gene contains the code for
a particular
characteristic

DNA

103
 different forms of a
gene which occur at
dominant allele (T) – tall plant
alleles the same locus on
recessive allele (t) – short plant
homologous
chromosomes
genetic composition of alleles
genotype
an organism
T T
the physical  homozygous
appearance of an dominant (both
phenotype organism based on
alleles are
the genotype, e.g. tall,
dominant)
short
an allele that is  genotype TT
expressed (shown) in  phenotype – tall
the phenotype when
dominant  homozygous
found in the t t
allele recessive (both
heterozygous (Tt) and
homozygous (TT) alleles are
condition recessive)
an allele that is  genotype tt
masked (not shown)  phenotype –
in the phenotype short
when found in the
recessive  heterozygous
heterozygous (Tt)
allele T t (one dominant
condition; only
expressed in the and one
homozygous (tt) recessive allele)
condition  genotype Tt
two different alleles  phenotype - tall
heterozygous for a particular
characteristic, e.g. Tt
two identical alleles
for a particular
homozygous
characteristic, e.g. TT
or tt

only one
characteristic or Flower colour only, e.g. yellow or white flower
monohybrid
trait is shown in – OR – shape of seeds only, e.g. round seeds
cross
the genetic or wrinkled seeds
cross
two different
Example: flower colour, e.g. yellow or white
characteristics
dihybrid cross flower – AND – shape of seeds, e.g. round
shown in
seeds or wrinkled seeds
genetic cross

104
 a genetic cross - the allele for tall (T)
is dominant over the Tall (TT) x short (tt)
where the
dominant allele allele for short (t)
complete masks the - offspring will be tall
dominance expression of a because the dominant
recessive allele allele (T) masks the
in the heterozy- expression of the
gous condition recessive allele (t) Tall (Tt)
cross between red × white flower
two phenotyp-
a red-flowered plant is
ically different
crossed with a white-
parents prod-
flowered plant – with
incomplete uces offspring
incomplete domi-
dominance different from
nance, offspring will
both parents but
have pink flowers -
with an inter- pink flowers
intermediate colour.
mediate
phenotype

red-flowered plant is red × white flower

cross in which crossed with a white-
both alleles are flowered plant – with
co-dominance expressed co-dominance, the
equally in the offspring has flowers
phenotype. with red and white flowers with red and
patches white patches
more than two blood groups are controlled by three alleles,
alternative namely IA, IB and i.
multiple
forms of a gene
alleles all three alleles are present in a population, but
at the same
an individual can only have two alleles
locus

Some examples: haemophilia and colour-

blindness - alleles for haemophilia (or colour-
blindness) are indicated as superscripts on the
traits that are
sex chromosomes, e.g. XHXH (normal female),
sex-linked carried in the
XHXh (normal female), XhXh (female with
characteristics sex
haemophilia), XHY (normal male), XhY (male
chromosomes
with haemophilia).
Both haemophilia and colour blindness are
caused by recessive alleles.

105
 the number,
shape and

chromosomes
arrangement of
the
karyotype
chromosomes
in the nucleus
of a somatic
cell

process by which Dolly the sheep was cloned using a

genetically identical diploid cell from one parent; therefore, it
cloning
organisms are formed had the identical genetic material of that
using biotechnology parent
manipulation of the An example: insertion of the human
genetic genetic material of insulin gene into the plasmid of bacteria
modification an organism to get so that the bacteria produce human
desired changes insulin

mapping of the exact

Example: haemophilia is the last gene on
position of all the
human the X chromosome; gene number 3 on
genes in all the
genome chromosome 4 is responsible for a
chromosomes of a
particular characteristic
human
a set of one maternal and one paternal chromosome that pair up
with each other inside a cell during meiosis – homologous
chromosomes are the same size and shape, and carry the same
or similar alleles
allele for purple flowers

homologous
pair of
chromosomes homologous pair
locus for flower-colour gene of chromosomes

allele for white flowers

Activity 1: Traits, genes and alleles

1. The paired letters in the diagram below represent alleles of a gene. A number
of genes for different characteristics are shown. Write down the relevant letter
(A – D) for:

106
 a) The homozygous dominant state
B 
b) Two alleles from different genes
A 
c) The homozygous recessive state
C 
d) The heterozygous state
D and A  (4)

2. What is the relationship between a gene and a protein? (2)

Genes code for proteins 
3. What is an allele? (2)
Any of the alternative forms of a gene  that may occur at a specific locus 
4. What terms describe a pair of alleles that are:
a) the same? homozygous 
b) different? heterozygous  (2)
5. Write a definition of homologous chromosomes using the terms “genes” and
“alleles”. (3)
Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes , one from the mother
and one from the father , that have the same length, overall appearance,
and genes, although the alleles may differ 
6. How are alleles represented on paper? (1)
As letters , uppercase for dominant and lowercase for recessive
7. Fill in the table below with the missing genotype, phenotype (dominant or
recessive), or alleles (TT, Tt, tt) (6)
Genotype Phenotype Alleles

homozygous dominant Tall  T/T

homozygous recessive  short t/t

heterozygous  Tall  T/t 

8. Draw a pair of homologous chromosomes. Label the chromosomes with two

sets of genes, one with homozygous dominant alleles, one with homozygous
recessive alleles and one with heterozygous alleles. (5)

107
 Homologous chromosomes 

homozygous dominant allele pair (BB) 

gene
loci
heterozygous allele pair (Cc) 

homozygous recessive allele pair (dd) 

Correct drawing 
(25)

Mendel as father of genetics

Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk (a type of priest), is regarded as the father of
genetics for his work on garden pea plants that helped explain how genes are
passed from parents to offspring.
Mendel’s work on the genetics of peas began with the observing peas to determine
what traits were inherited. He noticed at least 7 traits that appeared to be inherited.

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Mendel formulated the following laws from his experiments.

Mendel’s First Law of Inheritance: Law (principle) of Segregation

 Each trait is controlled by two factors (now known as alleles) situated on

homologous chromosomes.
 When gametes form during meiosis, the two factors (alleles) are separated or
segregated. A gamete contains one of the two factors (alleles) from each
parent.

Mendel’s Second Law of Inheritance: Law of Dominance

 Certain alleles of a gene exist in either a dominant or a recessive form.
 If the pair of alleles are different (one dominant, one recessive), the
phenotype will only show the dominant trait.

108
Mendel’s Third Law of Inheritance: Law (principle) of Independent
Assortment

 Due to random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator during meiosis

(gamete formation), any one of the two alleles of ONE characteristic can sort
with any one of ANOTHER characteristic.
 The alleles of different genes move independently of each other into the
gametes. They can therefore appear in the gametes in different combinations.

Genetic diagrams

The next step is to discuss how the gametes COULD combine during fertilisation.
The Punnett square is the easiest way to work this out.

Possible fertilisation w w
two gametes from
R Rw Rw the other parent
two gametes from
one parent R Rw Rw

Using lines from the male and female gamete shows the process more clearly but
once all four possibilities are drawn in, the learners are confused.

Gametes formed R r R r
by meiosis

Possible fertilisation

RR Rr Rr rr

Writing each gamete onto individual pieces of paper, putting them into separate
‘male’ and ‘female’ bags, and then taking out a male gamete and a female gamete to
represent fertilisation works well. This also shows the learners that CHANCE is a
large contributing factor.
It is ESSENTIAL that the layout of the genetic diagram is followed exactly as marks
are allocated for the specific steps.
Learners tend to forget to put in the labels for P1 and F1 generations, so they need
constant reminders. Try to impress on them that P (Parental) is the PARENT
generation and that F (Filial) stands for FAMILY. This could help them to remember
the abbreviations.

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If you make the learners learn the layout off by heart, it will help them to answer the
genetic questions. By linking meiosis to gamete formation and fertilisation (sexual
reproduction) to the possible crosses, it should enable the learners to make sense of
the whole process.

Dominance

When you teach dominance, it is advisable to link it to the letters that are used in the
genetic cross so that the dominant allele is visible as a CAPITAL letter and the
recessive allele as a small letter. This means that capital letters are used in
complete dominance (ONE capital), incomplete dominance (BOTH capitals) and co-
dominance (BOTH capitals).

For co-dominance in blood types, the ONLY acceptable letters are IA , IB and i. Older
textbooks do not use these symbols so be careful when using such textbooks.

It is important to explain that in:

 Complete dominance the dominant allele will always be seen in the
phenotype even if only one dominant allele is present e.g. in Tt is tall.
 Incomplete dominance there is always a blending of the two alleles in the
phenotype to produce a NEW phenotype e.g. RW is pink.
 Co-dominance BOTH alleles can be seen in the phenotype of the offspring
e.g. red and white spotted cattle or roan horses which have both white and
red hairs in the coat resulting in a chestnut colour.

Activity 2: Monohybrid crosses with complete dominance

1. Mendel crossed homozygous plants with green seeds with homozygous

plants which had yellow seeds and found that all the offspring were yellow
(Figure 1). Construct a genetic diagram (using the above template) to show
the F1 and F2 generations.
Choose a letter for each allele. Note: use one letter: capitalised for the
dominant allele and small (lower-case) for the recessive allele. (6 + 6)

P1

homozygous
homozygous
yellow line
green line

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 F1

F2

Figure 1: Monohybrid cross showing inheritance of seed colour

P1 Phenotype Yellow seeds x Green seeds 

Genotype YY x yy 
Meiosis
G/gametes Y Y x y y 

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype Yy Yy Yy Yy 
Phenotype All (100%) Yellow seeds 
P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (any 6)

P2/F1 Phenotype Yellow seeds x Yellow seeds 

Genotype Yy x Yy 
Meiosis
G/gametes Y y x Y y 

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype YY Yy Yy yy 
Phenotype Yellow Yellow Yellow Green
seeds seeds seeds seeds 
Genotypic Ratio: 1YY : 2Yy : 1yy (1:2:1)
Phenotypic Ratio: 3 Yellow seeds : 1 Green seeds (3:1)

P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (any 6)

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 2. The ability to roll one’s tongue (Figures 2 and 3 below) is a dominant
characteristic. Explain (without a genetic diagram) why it is possible for a
non-roller child to be born to parents who can both roll their tongues. Use the
letters R and r in your answer. (3)

Figure 2: Tongue-roller Figure 3: Non-roller

Tongue rolling is dominant, and both parents were heterozygous (Rr) (). If
both parents have the recessive gene for non-rolling tongue and the child
received both the recessive alleles () one from father's recessive (r) and one
from mother (r) then it creates a strong gene for non-rolling tongue (rr). ()
(15)

Activity 3: Monohybrid cross with incomplete dominance

1. Two grey mice were mated. Some of the offspring were grey, others black
and some white. How is this possible? Do a genetic cross to explain this
result. (6)

P1 Phenotype Grey x Grey 

Genotype BW x BW 
Meiosis
Gametes B W x B W

Fertilisation Gametes B W
B BB BW
W BW WW
1 mark for gametes 
F1 Genotype BB BW BW WW 
Phenotype Black Grey Grey White 

Genotypic Ratio: 1BB: 2BW: 1WW (1:2:1)

P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (any 6)

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