TIMBER

Structure of a Tree
• Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree is
called the pith or medulla.

• Heart Wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is

known as heart wood. It is usually dark in colour.
• It does not take active part in the growth of tree. But it
imparts rigidity to tree and hence, it provides strong and
durable timber for various engineering purposes.

• Sap Wood: The outer annual rings between heart wood and
cambium layer is known as sap wood. It indicates recent
growth and it contains sap. It takes active part in the
growth of tree and sap moves in an upward direction
through it. Sap wood is also known as laburnum.
• Cambium Layer: The thin layer of sap between sap wood
and inner bark is known as cambium layer. It indicates sap
which has yet not been converted into sap wood.
• Inner Bark: It gives protection of cambium layer from any
injury.
• Outer Bark: It consists of cells of wood fibre and is also
known as cortex.
• Medullary Rays: The thin radial fibres extending from pith
to cambium layer are known as medullary rays. The
function of these rays is to hold together the annual rings
of heart wood and sap wood.
 SEASONING OF TIMBER
• By the process of seasoning, the excess water of timber is
extracted in such a way that the moisture content of seasoned
timber corresponds to the required moisture content in timber for
the environments in which it is to be used.
 Methods of Seasoning
Natural Seasoning
• In this method, the seasoning of timber is carried out by
natural air and hence it is also sometimes referred to as air
seasoning.
• Depending on the climatic conditions, the moisture content
of wood can be brought down 10-20%
Artificial Seasoning

(1) Bolling :
(2) Chemical seasoning
(3) Electrical Seasoning
(4) Kiln seasoning
(5) Water Seasoning
 Defects in Timber
Defects occurring in timber are grouped into the
following five categories:

1. Defects due to conversion

2. Defects due to fungi
3. Defects due to insects
4. Defects due to natural forces
5. Defects due to seasoning
Defects due to Conversion
(1) Chip mark: Marks or signs placed by chips on the finished
surface of timber.
(2) Diagonal grain: This defect is formed due to improper
sawing of timber
3. Torn grain: This defect is caused when a small depression
is formed on the finished timber by falling of a tool or so.

4. Wane: This defect is denoted by the presence of original

rounded surface on the manufactured piece of timber.
Defects due to fungi
Fungi attack timber only when the following two conditions
are satisfied simultaneously:
(1) The moisture content of timber is above 20 percent.
(2) There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of
fungi.
Following defects are caused in timber by fungi:

Blue Stain:
Sap of wood is
stained to bluish colour
by the action of certain types
of fungi.
Brown Rot: The term rot is used to indicate decay or disease
of timber. Certain types of fungi remove cellulose compounds
from wood and hence, wood assumes the brown colour due to
removal of cellulose.
Dry Rot: Dry rot occurs at places where there is no fre
circulation of air such as improperly ventilated basements
rooms, etc.
• Unseasoned soft woods and sap wood are easily attacked b
dry rot. Dry rot is also caused by charring, painting and
tarring the unseasoned timber.
Heart rot : Heart rot is generated in the trees when fungi attack
the heartwood through its newly formed branch. This type of
fungi makes the tree hollow by consuming heartwood. This
defect is known as heart rot.
Sap Stain: Certain types of fungi do not bring about the
complete decay of timber. But they feed on cell contents of
sap wood. In doing so, sap wood loses it colour.
• It generally occurs when moisture content goes beyond 25
per cent or so.
Wet Rot: Fungi cause chemical decomposition of wood or the
timber and in doing so, they convert timber into a greyish
brown powder. Alternate dry and wet conditions favour the
development of wet rot.
White Rot : In this case, certain types of fungi attack lignin of
wood and wood assumes the appearance of a white mass
consisting of cellulose compound.
 Defects due to Insects
Following are the insects which are usually responsible for
the decay of timber
(1) Beetles
• They form pin-holes of size about 2 mm diameter in wood.
• They attack the sap wood of all species of hard woods.
• The timber is converted into fine flour-like powder. They
usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover.
 (2)Marine Borers:
These are generally found in salty water. Most of the
varieties of marine borers do not feed on wood. But they
make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking shelter.
No timber is completely immune from the attack of marine
borers
 (3) Termites
• These are popularly known as white ants and they are found
in abundance in tropical and subtropical countries. These
insects live in a colony and they are very fast in eating away
the wood from core of the cross-section. They make tunnels
inside the timber in different directions and usually do not
disturb the outer shell or cover.
• Very few good timbers such as teak, sal, etc. can resist the
attack of white ants.
 Defects due to Natural Forces
Wind Cracks in Timber
If the wood is exposed continuously to the high-speed winds,
the outer surface shrinks and forms crack externally, which
are called wind cracks.
Shakes in Timber
 Twisted Fibers in Timbers
When the tree in its younger age is exposed to high-speed
winds, the fibers of wood gets twisted. This type of wood is
not suitable for sawing. So, this can be used for making poles,
posts, etc.
Rind Galls
Rind galls are curved swellings of trees which are formed at a
point where a branch of the tress is improperly removed or fell
down.
Burls
Burls are uneven projections on the body of the tree during its
growth. These are mainly due to the effect of shocks and
injuries received by the tree during its young age.
Water Strains
When the wood is in contact with water for some time, the
water will damage the color of the wood and forms a stain on
its surface. This defect is called as water stain.
Chemical Strain
Chemical stain is formed on the wood by the action of any
external chemical agents like reaction by the gases present in
the atmosphere etc. The stain area gets discolored in this
defect.
Knots in Timber
When Branches from the stem are removed, and the whole
rounded stem is taken. But the base of branches forms a mark
on the stem, which results in dark-colored stains on the
surface after conversion. This dark-colored stains are due to
the continuity of wood fibers. These dark-colored rings are
known as knots.
Druxiness
Druxiness is a defect of timber in which the top surface of
timber indicates white spots. These spots will give the access
to fungi.
Callus
The wound of the tree is covered by soft skin, which is called
a callus..
Defects due to Seasoning

Bow
When the converted timber is stored for a longer time, some
timber planks may have a curve along its length, which is
known as Bow
Cup
If the timber planks curve along its width, then it is called
Cupping of timber.
Check
is the formation of a crack in the wood, which will separate the
wood fibers. They form due to over seasoning of timber.
Split
Split forms when a check extends from one end to the other
end, which will split the wood into a number of pieces.
Twist
Twist forms when the timber piece is distorted spirally along
its length. It looks like a propeller blade after twisting.
 Preservation of Timber
Types of Preservatives
1. AsCu Treatment
• Composition :
1-Part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentoxide, (As₂O,
2H,0)
3-Part by weight of blue vitriol or copper sulphate, (CuSO4,
5H₂O).
4-Part by weight of potassium dichromate or sodium
dichromate This material is available in powder form.
• Six parts by weight of AsCu are mixed in 100 parts by weight
of water.
2. Chemical Salts

3. Coal Tar

4. Creosote oil

5. Oil Paints

6. Solignum Paints
 Fire Resistance of Timber
To make timber more fire-resistant, the following methods are
adopted:

Application of Special Chemicals

• It is found that two coats of solution of borax or sodium
arsenate with strength of 2 per cent are quite effective in
rendering the timber fire-resistant. When the temperature
rises, they either melt or give off gases which hinder or
forbid combustion.
• The antipyrines containing salts of ammonium or boric and
phosphoric acids are considered to be the best in making
the timber fire-resistant.
Sir Abel's Process
• In this process, timber surface is cleaned and it is coated
with a dilute solution of sodium silicate.
• A cream-like paste of slaked fat lime is then applied and
finally, a concentrated solution of silicate of soda is applied
on the timber surface.
• This process is quite satisfactory in making the timber fire
resistant.
 Industrial Timber
Veneers
• These are thin sheets or slices of wood of superior quality.
The thickness of veneers varies from 0.40 mm to 6 mm or
more.
• Edges of veneers are joined and sheets of decorative
designs are prepared.
• Indian timbers which are suitable for veneers are mahogany,
oak, rosewood, sissoo, teak, etc. The process of preparing a
sheet of veneer is known as veneering. Veneers are used to
produce plywoods, battenboards and laminboards.
Plywood
• Three or more veneers in odd numbers are placed one above
the other with the direction of grains of successive layers at
right angles to each other.
• They are held in position by application of suitable
adhesives. The placing of veneers normal to each other
increases the longitudinal and transverse strengths of
plywood.
• The pressure applied on plywood varies from 7 to 14 kg/cm²
Plywoods, however, are not suitable in situations subjected
to direct shocks or impacts.
• expansion and shrinkage are comparatively very low, do not
split in an axial direction. They possess uniform tensile
strength in all directions.
 Fiberboards
• These are rigid boards and they are also known as pressed
wood or reconstructed wood. The thickness varies from 3
mm to 12 mm.