Physiological psychology I

UNIT 2. BODY SENSES

1. Somatosenses

It refers to the general sensibility. Implies sensory informa on from the interior and exterior of
the body. The principal soma c modali es are touch, pression, temperature and pain.

The somatosensory system is different from other sensory systems so:

 It processes different types of s muli (mechanical, thermal...) and gives rise to different
modali es somatosensory (touch, pain...) and different submodali es (ex: epicri c
touch and touch protopathic).
 The receptors that capture somatosensory informa on are spread throughout the body
(levels of somesthesia).

1.1 Levels of somestesia

a) Body surface: cutaneous or exterocep ve senses. Percep on through the skin (touch,
pressure, temperature, pain...).
b) Muscles, tendons, joints: propriocep on and kinesthesia. Percep on of posi on,
weight, movement (pressure, stretch, pain). Unconscious and provide internal state
awareness.
c) Viscera: organic, interocep ve senses. State internal organs (pressure, pain) and
regula on vital func ons (e.g., hunger). Influence cogni ve processes (ex. Pleasure).
¡ The sense to which we give less importance or a en on are the viscera: because, if we were constantly aware of
what is happening inside us, we would not be able to pay a en on to our own external environment.

Somatosenses Receptors Func on

Provide informa on
CUTANEOS SENSES
from the surface of the
Allow us to analyse SKIN RECEPTORS detec ng pressure, vibra on,
body. It can be touch,
shapes and textures hea ng, cooling, ssue damage (and hence pain).
temperature, pain,
of s muli
itch…).
There are two types of muscle receptors:
- STRETCH RECEPTORS are the ones found in
skeletal muscles (these receptors report changes in
Provide informa on
muscle length to the CNS)
about body posi on and
KINAESTHESIA - RECEPTORS WITHIN JOINTS BETWEEN
movement through the
ADJACENT BONES (respond to magnitude and
space.
direc on of limb movement) Receptors detect
stretching of the skin during movements of the
joints and muscles, tendons…
Provide informa on
ORGANIC SENSES from and around
Unconscious. Provide Receptors in the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, kidneys, liver, internal organs (thirst,
internal state heart, and blood vessels sensi ve to heat/cold, hunger…) They are very
informa onto control distension, nutrients, and minerals. important for regula ng
movement vital func ons such as
intake/sa ety.
PROPRIOCEPTION
It can be conscious
Receptors located in skin, muscles, and joints Provide informa on
and unconscious.
These receptors detect stretching of the skin, about loca on of body
Provide internal state
tendons, joints, and muscles. in space.
informa on to
control movement.
 Physiological psychology I

2. Different s muli generate different somatosensory modali es

The skin is a complex and vital organ of the body. Is involved in thermoregula on (sweat). It
consists in subcutaneous ssues: dermis and epidermis, where we find the receptors.

Glabrous skin is the one that we have in our hands and feet, and it has a lot of receptors because
we need to ac vely explore the environment with these parts of our body.

2.1 Receptors of somatosensory modali es

2.1.1 Loca on and structure

MECHANORECEPTORS: Encapsulated: allow and amplifica on of the signal: PACINIAN,

detect s muli that cause RUFFINI, MERISSNER
vibra on and pressure
against the skin Unencapsulated MERKEL, HAIR FOLICLE ENDING, FREE NERVE
ENDINGS (FNE)
THERMORECEPTORS,
FINE
NOCIOCEPTORS

2.1.2 Cutaneous, mechanic or skin receptors

Touch receptors in the skin (mechanoreceptors)

provide us with tac le informa on about
quali es like the posi on, shape, texture,
pressure, and movement of things we come in
contact with.

We have different receptors because they have

different func ons and each of them is detec ng
different s mulus.

Merkel’s disk and Meissner’s corpuscles respond

to light touch (small recep ve fields) while
Pacinian and Ruffini respond to heavy pressure,
(large recep ve fields)

2.1.2.1 The recep ve field

Def. The recep ve field of a sensory cell is a par cular region of the sensory space (periphery,
e.g., the body surface) in which a s mulus (with specific features) will change the firing of that
cell.

If the receptor field is smaller, percep on is more accurate (like in our fingers) because we have
more receptors in a smaller area. In contrast, if they are bigger our percep on is less accurate
because the receptors are more separated
(like in our back), and because of that they
can’t differen ate that accurately.

Every touch in a recep ve field ac vates

one neuron (one neural signal to the
brain). In a nig recep ve field being touch
at two points will feel like a single touch.
 Physiological psychology I
Mechanoreceptors can have:

They have PRECISE SPATIAL DISCRIMINATION meaning that they have the
ability to discriminate the loca on of the s mulus accurately. Ex:
Small recep ve Meissner’s corpuscle (transmi ng informa on about movement between
field (sharp the skin and another surface) and Merkel’s disk (shape and texture, mainly
borders) in the finger ps. Its spa al resolu on is higher) Allow be er tac le
discrimina on.

They have less accuracy discrimina ng the loca on of the s mulus. Ex:
Large recep ve
Ruffini (skin stretching which helps to generate awareness of finger and
field (diffuse
hand posi on). and Pacinian corpuscles (transmi ng info about vibra ons
borders)
objects cause, important for the use of tools).

¡Each recep ve field conduct the informa on to one neuron.

- The recep ve field of a visual neuron is located in the RETINA (there, the ac on of light
alters the firing neuron).
- The recep ve field of a neuron of the auditory system is located inside the COCHLEA.

2.1.2.2 Sensory Adapta on

Def. The sensory adapta on is the receptor’s response frequency decreases over me with
con nuous and constant s mula on. It is the reduc on un sensi vity to a s mulus a er constant
exposure to it.

We can divide mechanoreceptors in:

Are ac vated when a s mulus is

PHASIC or first encountered but fall silent if the
rapidly s mulus remains present. Show a
adap ng: rapid decrease of the frequency of
Meissner and nerve impulses. They are important
Pacinian for detec ng things like movement.
(temperature They respond to changes,
and pressure) movement rather than sta c
objects.
They keep responding to a
con nuously present s mulus and
are important for detec ng things
TONIC or slowly
like the size and shape of objects.
adap ng:
They show a slow or non-existent
Merkel and
decline in the frequency of the
Ruffini (pain
nerve impulses as s mula on I
stretch)
maintained. Ex: not perceiving our
clothes. They detect pressure,
texture, and shapes.
 Physiological psychology I

Hair Meissner’s Pacinian Merkel’s Ruffini Free nerve

follicle corpuscle corpuscle disk corpuscle endings
ending
Tissue
Light or fine
Touch and damage
Sensa on touch Light or
pressure Pain, Cool or
S mulus of hair (finger ps Vibra on fine touch
itch, and warm
movement  read the (finger ps)
temperature Gentle
braille)
s muli
Dermis
Palms of
Dermis /
Loca on Dermis Epidermis the hands Epidermis Epidermis
epidermis
and feet
and fingers
Large Small
Recep ve Small (sharp Large (diffuse
(diffuse (sharp
field borders) borders)
borders) borders)
Sensory
Phasic Phasic Phasic Tonic Tonic Tonic
adapta on
Effec ve
transmi ng
informa on Detec ng Sta c force
Pain and
about vibra on against skin
Allowing Form and temperature
movement (shape)
the feeling Roughness
Func on between End of
of hair (shape and Tickling
the skin. elongated Skin stretching
movement texture)
Edge object in
Stroking
contours, hand Propriocep on
texture,
small bumps

3. Mechanotransduc on

Def. Mechanotransduc on consists of a mechanical energy through the receptors to neural

energy (electrical poten als). The physical s muli make Na+ enter into the cell, depolarizing it.

The adequate s mulus for every sense:

- Touch (somatosensa on): contact with or deforma on of body Surface

- Hearing: sound vibra ons in air or water
- Smell: odorous substances dissolved in air or water in the nasal cavity
- Vision: visible radiant energy.

Def. The sensory system is a complex neural network of pathways that relay informa on about
the external environment between the brain and the body.

Def. The transduc on converts energy in the language of the nervous system (Electric signals).
Occurs in all sensory systems.
 Physiological psychology I
THE RECEPTOR CELLS (TRANSDUCERS)/ SENSORY RECEPTOR ORGANS: are the neurons or
specialized cells of the sensory system that detect, respond, and transduce a certain form of
energy. They are responsible of conver ng the energy in the language of the nervous system;
neural signals (ac on poten als) thanks to a change in electrical poten al across its membrane
once the ac va on threshold has been reached. THE RECEPTOR CELLS (TRANSDUCERS)/
SENSORY RECEPTOR ORGANS  are the neurons or specialized cells of the sensory system that
detect, respond, and transduce a certain form of energy. They are responsible of conver ng the
energy in the language of the nervous system; neural signals (ac on poten als) thanks to a
change in electrical poten al across its membrane once the ac va on threshold has been
reached.

Func on: They a as filters of the environment because they detect and respond to some
s muli but not others. Receptors convert energy into the language of the NS: electrical
signals.

How does your brain differen ate messages from different senses? Different kind of energy
need different receptors to convert them in neural ac vity. Nowadays we know that the
messages for the different senses (seeing, hearing, touch…) are kept separated not only because
the different types of energy are received by different receptors, but also because they use
separate nerve tracts.

Def. Sensory or neural coding refers to how the sensory system translates (does the transduc on
process) from one type of energy to another following par cular rules. That is to say, how the
ac on poten als represent the s mulus and all of its proper es in our nervous system. It is the
neural representa on of the features of the s mulus (intensity, dura on, loca on…).

It refers to the different informa on coming from a s mulus that a single

neuron can transmit. Depending on the frequency of the ac on poten als
we can iden fy the intensity of the s mulus.
Temporal Frequency code: number of ac on poten als per unit of me in a single neuron).
coding For example: if in the same neuron a non-intense s mulus is making 2 ac on
poten als per second and an intense s mulus is making 10 AP/seg, depending on
the frequency code we will be able to iden fy which one of them is more intense
(as higher the frequency, higher the intensity).
It refers to the different informa on that a group of ac ve neurons can
transmit from a s mulus at a given me. Depending on how many neurons
are ac vated we can differen ate the intensity of the s mulus (as more
neurons are ac vated, more intense this would be) and also in the loca on
(because depending on the recep ve field that is being s mulated, more
Spa al coding
or less neurons would be ac vated).
Popula on code (range frac ona on): one cell can encode more than one sensory
modality, and it is the combina on of many cells that make up the percep on. Ex:
some mes the sense of smell is needed in addi on to the sense of taste to fully
perceive a flavor. Ex: labeled lines

Every type of receptor (stretch, vibra on, pain, touch) from each part of the body has a dis nct
pathway linking its surface to the brain, so different quali es and loca ons of skin s mula on
can be communicated to dis nct areas in the brain. We interpret ac on poten als differently
depending on the pathway along which they travel.
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Def. The topographic organiza on is the arrangement of components in a structure, par cularly
the orderly spa al rela onship between the distribu on of neural receptors in an area of the
body and a related distribu on of neurons represen ng the same func ons in the cor cal
regions of the brain. An example would be the re notopic organiza ons of the visual cortex.

- Somatotopic organiza on of the soma c cortex (it is in the postcentral gyrus, and it is
represented by the sensory homunculus)
- Re notopic organiza on of the visual cortex
- Tonotopic organiza on of the auditory cortex

3.1 An example of transduc on: The Pacinian Corpuscle

a) Strong pressure causes deforma on of the receptor
laminated layers.
b) Deforma on opens pours in membrane allowing Na+ in
the axon (that it is unmyelinated inside the corpuscle and
myelinated outside)
c) Na+ depolarizes the receptor (receptor poten al; EPSP).
d) Then, the AC is transmi ed through the axon very fast.
e) Poten al: propor onal to S strength.

4. Somatosensory afferent pathways from PNS to CNS

The sensory pathways lead from the sensory surface to the highest levels of the brain and each
sensory system or modality (vision, hearing, touch) has its own dis nc ve pathway. Today we
are having a look at the somatosensory pathways.

The somatosensory pathways relay informa on about somatosensa on from the receptors,
through subcor cal structures to the primary and secondary somatosensory cortex, enabling
somatosensory percep on. Somatosensory axons from the skin, muscles or internal organs enter
to the CNS through the spinal nerves. Those located in the face and head enter through the
trigeminal nerve (V cranial nerve).

4.1 Dorsal column – medial lemniscus pathway

The dorsal column- medial lemniscus pathway: First

of all, the informa on is detected by a sensory
neuron that has its soma in the dorsal root ganglion
there, the informa on is sended to the ipsilateral
brainstem through the dorsal column fasciculus.
There, it synapses with another neuron in the
cuneatus nucleus (brainstem). At this point the
decussa on is produced, and the informa on is
sended to the contralateral thalamus, more
specifically to the ventral posterolateral nucleus
where it synapses with a third neuron that will send
the informa on to the primary somatosensory area
(post central gyrus).

It carries:

 Epicri c/fine/light touch (skin): fine touch that allows discrimina ng the exact point
where the s mula on has occurred.
 Physiological psychology I
 Propriocep on (muscles and joints): informa on of muscle tension and the degree of
flexion of the joints that allows knowing the posi on of the different parts of the body.

It carries informa on from the limbs (upper and lower) and it has its
First order nucleus in the dorsal root ganglion. From the SC it ascends through the
neuron medial lemniscus to the ipsilateral brainstem where it synapses with the
second order neuron.
It has its nucleus in the brainstem (gracile nucleus) There the decussa on
Second order
is produced, and it ascends to the contralateral thalamus where its
neuron
synapses with third order neuron.
Third order It has its nucleus in the VPL nucleus of the thalamus, and it projects to the
neuron primary somatosensory cortex (post centra gyrus).

If the informa on is coming from the face or head the info is carried by the trigeminal nerve (v)
to the cuneate nucleus in the brainstem. From there the info is contralateralized and it arrives at
the VPM nucleus of the thalamus through the trigemino thalamic fasciculus. From there another
neuron sends the info to the primary somatosensory cortex.

Def. The decussa on is where the nerve fibers cross from one lateral side to the other. Axons
crossing over midline.

4.2 Spinothalamic tract

The spinothalamic tract: First of all, the informa on

is detected by the sensory neuron that has its soma in
the dorsal root ganglion. From there the informa on
is ascends through the spinothalamic fasciculus, the
decussa on is produced in the anterior white
commissure, and it ascends to the contralateral
thalamus (ventral posterolateral nucleus) where it
synapses with the third neuron. From there the
informa on is sended to the primary somatosensory
cortex.

It carries:

 Protopathic sensa on/ gross touch: non-discriminatory touch that gives us informa on
about the s mulates region, but without specifying the exact place here the s mula on
occurred.
 Temperature
 Nocicep on (pain)

First order It has its soma in the dorsal root ganglion, and it synapses in the dorsal
neuron horn with neuron 2
It has its nucleus in the dorsal horn, and it decussates in the anterior white
Second order
coissure and the ascends to the contralateral thalamus where it synapses
neuron
with neuron 3.
Third order It has its nucleus in the VPL nucleus of the thalamus and from there
neuron projects to the primary somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe).
 Physiological psychology I
5. Analysis of soma c informa on in the cerebral cortex
5.1 Primary somatosensory cortex

The primary somatosensory cortex (SI) is located in the postcentral gyrus (parietal lobe)

- Primary Somatosensory Cortex  SI, S1 (postcentral gyrus, parietal lobe: BA* 3a, 3b, 1,
2)
- Secondary Somatosensory (Unimodal Associa ve) Cortex  SII, S2 (parietal
operculum: BA 40)
- Mul modal Associa ve Cortex (posterior parietal cortex)  PPC (BA 5,7)

SI process and encode type, intensity and loca on of the sensory inputs that come from the VPL
nucleus of the thalamus (if the informa on is coming from the body) or the VPM (if the info is
coming from the head and face).

Inputs to the areas that make up the SI:

- 3a: propriocep on
- 3b: Touch (pain). It has connexions that send
info to areas 1 and 2
- 1: complex processing: Touch (texture)
- 2: complex processing: Touch and
propriocep on (Shape and size)

Nowadays we know more than 4 areas.

Somatotopic arrangement of sensory homunculus: a par cular SI por on receives informa on

from a par cular part of the body  somatosensory map (one for each SI region) of the parts of
the somatosensory cortex that correspond to specific parts of the body. There is a map for every
somatosensory.

How are most sensi ve areas of the body represented? Regions with high touch sensi vity, and
therefore high receptor density, have more cor cal space dedicated to their processing. Main
characteris cs of the maps:

- Contralateral
- Inverted
- Func onal

Is this body representa on (sensory homunculus) immutable in SI? It isn’t. They show
PLASTICITY  synap c connec ons can rearrange under certain condi ons.

 PLASTICITY IN CORTICAL MAPS: cor cal maps are not fixed; they can change with
experience. The detailed cor cal sensory maps are dynamically maintained, capable of
both rapid and gradual change with experience and use. Ex: if we cut a finger the cerebral
cortex readjusts to representa on the adjacent fingers. If we prac ce a task with our
fingers (playing an instrument) constantly the trained fingers have considerably enlarged
representa on over their previous areas. If we lose a par (hand) is completed to interpret
info from another area.
 Somatosensory maps are dynamic, they can be reorganized as a result of experience,
learning, injury…

Where do we have more convergence? In bigger recep ve fields (more s muli converge into
one neuron). The higher the sensi vity (acuity), the lower convergence.
 Physiological psychology I
5.2 Secondary somatosensory cortex

Secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) unimodal associa ve

Tac le object recogni on and memory (texture, shape, size...): integrates sensory informa on
from SI (temperature, pressure Touch...) from both hemispheres (bilateral recep ve fields: each
neuron in SII is receiving info from both sides of the body) and other regions to construct an
understanding of the object being felt. Ex: recognizing objects with both hands. Sensory
discrimina ve aspects of pain intensity? BA Brodman area 40)

¡SI differen ates the intensity, but SII allow us to a be er recogni on and dis nguishment of
the s mulus.

5.3 Posterior Parietal Cortex mul modal associa ve

- Large bilateral recep ve fields:
iden fica on and recogni on of objects
through Touch (orienta on, movement,
3D recogni on).
- Mul modal: Integrates informa on on
different sensory modali es (audi on,
visual...), motor systems, emo onal and
cogni ve areas  sensory-guided
movements
- Space (le hemisphere lateraliza on):
percep on and Integra on of spa al
rela onships representa on and
coordina on of body in space, body image.

5.3.1 Lesions

Astereognosis Inability to recognize objects by touch only (but not a sensi vity problem)
(tac le agnosia) SII is affected.
Inability to do learned movements or gestures (not due to muscle
Apraxia weakness or sensory loss). Posterior parietal cortex (mul modal
associa on area).
Hemispa al
Inability to perceive s mulus on one side of the body or environment (not
(neglect
due to a lack of sensa on). Deficits in a en on and awareness. PPC
syndrome)
Lack of Loss of soma c discrimina on deficit in the percep on of size, texture,
discrimina on loca on of s muli, propriocep on, thermocep on, nocicep on… SI is
and sensi vity affected

6. Pain and analgesia

Def. Pain is the subjec ve experience /actual /imminent harm.

Def. Nocicep on is the neural encoding of actual ssue damage.

Can nocicep ve s muli affect us without no cing a painful experience? Yes, there’s congenital
insensi vity to pain. This happens because the nociceptors= free nerve endings are blocked and
Na+ are insensi ve.
 Physiological psychology I
Can we experience pain without nocicep ve s muli? Yes, it is what happens with:

 THE NOCEVO EFFECT: the nocebo effect is the opposite of the placebo effect. It describes
a situa on where a nega ve outcome occurs due to a belief that the interven on will
cause harm.
 SYMPATHY PAIN: feeling physical or psychological symptoms from witnessing someone
else's discomfort. Such feelings are most o en talked about during pregnancy, where a
person might feel like they're sharing the same pains as their pregnant partner.
 PHANTOM LIMB: condi on in which pa ents experience sensa ons, whether painful or
otherwise, in a limb that does not exist. The classic explana on for phantom limbs has
been ac vity of the sensory axons belonging to the amputated limb.

What variables influence pain percep on? Emo ons, sugges ons, expecta ons, mood,
environment, previous experience, memory of how pain occurred…

 PLACEBO ANALGESIA: Pain can be reduced, at least in some people, by administering a

pharmacologically inert placebo. When some people take a medica on that they believe
will reduce pain, it triggers the release of endogenous opioids and actually does so.
 CONGENITAL INSENSITIVITY TO PAIN OR CIP condi on where the affected person is
unable to feel pain.

6.1 S muli components of pain

NOXIOUS s muli that ac vate nociceptors (FNE):

 MECHANICAL: excessive pressure

 THERMAL: extreme heat and cold
 CHEMICALS: chemicals, pH, ions…
 We have polymodal and specific
receptors (for example, they only
feel pressure when this is so intense)

Pain includes 3 components:

SENSORY-
Pure percep on of
DISCRIMINATIVE
intensity, or loca on of a
(iden fica on) (SI and
painful s mulus.
SII)
Immediate emo onal
EMOTIONAL- consequences of pain:
AFFECTIVE unpleasantness or degree
(recogni on)(amygdala, to which a person is
insular cortex and ACC) bothered by the painful
S mulus
COGNITIVE Stress response. Fight or
(assessment)(amygdala flight  long term
more involved here) emo onal implica ons of
(prefrontal cortex, chronic pain: threat to
hippocampus and one’s future comfort and
hypothalamus) well-being

We need all this structures because we have to be able to detect those s muli that are a threat
to our survival. Alarm mechanism (survival, main modulator of behavior).
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6.2 Nociceptors

We have 2 types of nociceptors:

- A δ fibers (huge diameter and myelinated, rapid

transmission in order to go away from the s muli) Very
localized and intense pain. Respond to more
threatening or dangerous s muli.
- C fibers (not myeline, slow transmission, small
diameter). It maintains pain more me but less
intense.

6.3 Pain pathway Percep on

Nociceptors are the first order neurons

(A δ and C) and they do the transduc on.
Then, the signal travels to the SC through
the spinal nerves where they synapse
with the second order neuron in the Transduc on

dorsal horn. Then, the decussa on is Modula on

produced, and they ascend to the brain

through the spinothalamic tract or the
spinore cular tract.

THE RETINORETICULAR TRACT This

pathway is responsible for the emo onal Transmission
aspect of pain.

The second order neuron ascend to the re cular forma on in the brainstem. There, they
synapse with the 3rd order neuron that sends the info to the thalamus, hypothalamus and then
it ascends to the SI. Pain signals from the face and head goes through the trigeminal nerve to the
brainstem (2nd order neurons) that go to the thalamus.

 Soma c pain: Pain from the skin, muscles, and joints

 Visceral pain: Pain from internal organs

6.4 Cor cal substrates

1) Somatosensory cortex SI and SII (receive inputs from the VP nuclei of the thalamus)
Sensory component  immediate iden fica on (loca on and intensity).
2) Painful s muli also ac vate other brain regions (input DM thalamus), the cingulate
cortex and the insular cortex.
Affec ve component  recogni on and immediate emo onal reac on.
3) Other areas ac vated are the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus (hypothalamus,
amygdala...)
Cogni ve component  sustained assessment and behavior.

Cingulate cortex and insular cortex are the ones more involved in sympathy-on-sympathy pain.
 Physiological psychology I
6.5 Modula on of pain – A

Descending pathway (through the

brainstem) modulate the ascending
transmission of nocicep ve informa on
(through release of endogenous opioids).

Neurons from the PAG will go down to the

nucleus raphe magnus (brainstem medulla)
and synapse with the second order neuron
(SHt/NA neuron) and will arrive on the
dorsal horn releasing noradrenaline and
serotonin in order to reduce the pain signal.