LEARNING MATERIAL

FOR
ENERGY
CONVERSION – I
(CHAPTER 3, 4 & 5)

Th
4 semester

Electrical Department

B.O.S.E, CUTTACK
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
(4Th semester Electrical, E.C-1)

What is a Transformer?
 As the name suggest, Transformer transfers electrical power from one
electrical circuit to another electrical circuit. It does not change the value
of power.
 Transformer doesn’t change the the circuit frequency during operation.
 Transformer works through on electric i.e. mutual induction.
 Transformer operates when both circuits take effect of mutual induction.
 Transformer can’t step-up or step-down the level of DC voltage or DC
Current.
 Transformer only step-up or step-down the level of AC voltage or AC
Current.
 Transformer doesn’t change the value of flux.
 Transformer won’t operate on DC Voltage.

Without transformers the electrical energy generated at generating

stations won’t probably be sufficient enough to power up a city. Just
imagine that there are no transformers.How many power plants do you
think have to be set up in order to power up a city? It’s not easy to set up a
power plant. It is expensive.

Numerous power plant have to be set up in order to have sufficient power.

Transformers help by amplifying the Transformer output (stepping up or
down the level of voltage or current).
When the number of turns of the secondary coil is greater than that of
primary coil, such a transformer is known as step up transformer.
Likewise when the number of turns of coil of primary coil is greater than
that of secondary transformer, such a transformer is known as step down
transformer.
Main Parts of a Transformer
Several parts of the transformer are given different function with
the works as follow.

1. Laminated Iron Core

2. Winding of the Transformer
3. Insulating Material
4. Tap Changer
5. Transformer Tank
6. Oil Conservator Tank
7. Breather
8. Buchholz Relay
9. Bushing
10.Cooling Tube and Radiator
11.Explosion Vent
1. Laminated Iron Core
A core of the transformer is made up of iron or silicon steel or
ferromagnetic materials.

The main function of Core to support the winding and to provide a flux
flowing path in the magnetic circuit.

The soft iron core which made by the thin metal strips lamination.
Each metal strip has thickness near about the o.5mm. In the below
figure, you can see the number of metal strips connected to each
other with the lamination layer and form a single core.

It provides a low reluctance path and high permeability for the flux
in the magnetic circuit. And this lamination of the core helps to reduce
the eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.

2. The winding of the Transformer

The transformer winding is consists of several turns of the copper coil.
It is wrapped around the limb or core with the lamination. These
windings laminated by the insulation coating because it prevents the
short circuit condition.

The winding of the transformer is separated by the primary side and

secondary side.
On the bases of supply two types as

 High voltage winding

 Low voltage winding
Simply two types of winding are used as

 Concentric types winding

 Sandwich types winding
I. Concentric types of Winding(CORE TYPE)
Concentric types of windings are generally used in core types of
transformer. It contains the only single path for mutual flux (Φ). And
theses flowing flux are equally distributed on the side limbs of the
core.

In these core types of the transformer, windings are surrounded by

the core. So, it requires a huge amount of copper coil and laminated
materials.

II. Sandwich types of the Winding(SHELL TYPE)

Sandwich types of winding are used in shell types winding. In shell-

type winding, the primary and secondary winding is placed on the
central limb.
This central limb carries two flux paths (mutual flux and leakage flux)
in the magnetic circuit.

You can see the above diagram, in shell types of the transformer, the
core surround by the winding.

3. Insulating Material
In the transformer, insulating materials rely on their voltage rating.
Different types of insulating materials are used in the transformer.

These insulating materials maybe a transformer oil, insulating paper,

wood, the insulating glass material, tap changer insulating coil from
grounding, etc.

4. Tap Changer
Tap changer to regulate supply voltage or load and maintain both
conditions by changing the variable turn.

The tap changer is easily removed the first turn and connect the next
turn ratio. Tap changers can occur on the primary side or secondary
side.

Generally, tap changer use in the high voltage winding side because it
reduces load current.

Classification of Tap Changer –

It is classified into two following category,
  No-load tap changer
 On-load tap changer
5. Transformer Tank
The transformer tank is a cylindrically shaped tank. It is made of steel
metal with a high thickness. Core and transformer winding is placed in
the transformer tank.

The transformer tank is needed to store the oil especially mineral oil.
This oil provides insulation and cooling to the transformer winding.

6. Oil Conservator Tank

The oil conservator tank looks like a rectangular tank. It stores the
extra oil and directly connected with the transformer tank.

The oil conservator tank is played an important role in the transformer.

The purpose of the conservator tank is to protect the expansion of oil

in the main tank of the transformer. The oil is used in the transformer
two purposes-

 Insulation
 Cooling
When the oil level reduces due to losses or leakage, the conservator
will be delivering oil to the transformer. Thus, It acts as reservoir oil.

7. Breather
Breather is connected with the conservator tank. It is a cylindrical
vessel which filled blue color silica gel.

They have two purposes -remove the moisture from the air and to
have the capacity to absorb the moisture in a transformer.

It plays a role to act as the air filter and provide the free moisturizing
air to the conservator tank.
8. Buchholz Relay
Buchholz relay is a protective device that is oil and gas-operated the
relay. It is connected to the main transformer tank and conservator
tank.

When the internal fault occurs in the transformer due to leakage flux,
insulation core, core connection, breakdown core, etc. by producing
excess heat.

This excess heat decomposes oil in the transformer and gas bubbles
formed. Gas bubbles flow in the upward direction to the conservator
and collected in the relay.

Buchholz relay is a fault detected by the amount of nature of gas and

oil level in a transformer.

During several fault conditions, an alarm is alert then this command

send to the circuit breaker and isolates the transformer.

9. Bushing
The bushing is an insulating device that is made up of porcelain
materials. The terminal of the bushing is provided a path of the
conductor to the transformer tank.

With the help of the terminal, the transformer gives and provides the
supply to another system.
In the transformer, two types of bushing are mostly used- high voltage
(HV) bushing and low voltage (LV) bushing. Its rely on voltage ratings
may be a high voltage or low voltage.

10. Cooling Tube and Radiator

The cooling tube is necessary for maintaining the temperature and
circulating cooling oil in the transformer.

And the radiator is connected with the transformer tank. It is also

made of a number of metal strips or pipes.

Both the cooling tube and the radiator provide the same function in a
different way. When losses occur in the transformer, heat is
produced. This heat absorbs by the cooling tube and radiator in the
form of cooling systems.

It is divided into two types of cooling systems.

 Natural cooling system

 Forced cooling system
In the natural cooling system, a cooling tube and radiator are used.
And In the forced cooling system, we can connect the extra air fan to
the transformer.

11. Explosion Vent

The explosion vent is located at the topmost position on the
transformer. The conservator tank is directly connected to the
explosion tank with the help of a pipe.

The main purpose to prevent damage transformer oil tank by expelling

boiling oil during an internal fault. And it is necessary to remove
heated oil (in the form of gas) in the transformer.

This explosion tank use only for emergency purposes. It mostly works
when a breather and Buchholz replay will not doing work properly.

These eleven main important parts of transformers are covered with

the help of the tutorial.
If you are interested more about to learn practically and building
projects, here is the listing of the topmost challenging ideas for
the Electrical Engineering Project based on Transformer.
Let me know if you have any queries, you can share in the comment
section.

Cooling Methods Of A Transformer

No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses,
most of which get converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess
temperature in transformer may cause serious problems like insulation failure. It is
obvious that transformer needs a cooling system. Transformers can be divided in two
types as (i) dry type transformers and (ii) oil immersed transformers. Different cooling
methods of transformers are -
 For dry type transformers
 Air Natural (AN)
 Air Blast
 For oil immersed tranformers
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

Cooling Methods For Dry Type Transformers

Air Natural Or Self Air Cooled Transformer

This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA).
In this method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.

Air Blast
For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In
this method, air is forced on the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The
air supply must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation
ducts. This method can be used for transformers upto 15 MVA.
Cooling Methods For Oil Immersed Transformers
Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated
in the core and winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection,
the heated oil flows in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is
filled up by cooled oil from the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the
atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil in
transformer keeps circulating due to natural convection and dissipating heat in
atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be used for transformers upto
about 30 MVA.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating
surface. Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method,
fans are mounted near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic starting
arrangement, which turns on when temperature increases beyond certain value. This
transformer cooling method is generally used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.
Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced
through the heat exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on the heat
exchanger with the help of fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted separately from
the transformer tank and connected through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the
figure. This type of cooling is provided for higher rating transformers at substations or
power stations.
Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate
hear from the heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with
the help of a pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow.
The heated water is taken away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used
in very large transformers having rating of several hundreds MVA.

Maintenance of Transformer

A power transformer is most costly and essential equipment of an electrical

transformer.So for getting high performance and long functional life of the
transformer, it is desired to perform various maintenance activities. Not only
that, a power transformer also requires various maintenance actions
including measurement and testing of different parameters of the
transformer.

There are mainly two types of maintenance of transformer. We perform

one group is in routine basis, and second group is as when required. That
means for getting smooth performance from a transformer we have to
perform some maintenance actions in regular basis. Some other type of
maintenance of transformer we perform as when they are required. But if
one performs regular maintenance properly, he may not have any provision
of performing emergency maintenance. The regular checking and
maintenance of transformer is also known as condition maintenance.
Hence by proper condition maintenance one can avoid emergency and
breakdown maintenance. That is why one technical personnel should
mainly concentrate on condition maintenance. As 100% condition
maintenance causes 0% breakdown of an equipment. There are many
different maintenance action, to be performed on a power transformer.
Some of them in yearly basis, some of them are monthly basis, some other
are quarterly, some are half-yearly basis. These are mainly transformer
maintenance action, which to be performed in 3 to 4 years interval.
Monthly Basis Maintenance of Transformer
Let us first discuss about the action to be taken on power transformer in
monthly basis. 1. The oil level in oil cap under silica gel breather must be
checked in one month interval. If it is found the transformer oil inside the
cup comes below the specified level, oil to be top up as per specified level.
2. Breathing holes in silica gel breather should also be checked monthly
and properly cleaned if required, for proper breathing action. 3. If the
transformer has oil filled bushing the oil level of transformer oil inside the
bushing must be vidually checked in the oil gage attached to those
bushing. This action also to be done monthly basis. If it is required, the oil
to be filled in the bushing upto correct level. Oil filling to be done under
shutdown condition.

Daily Basis Maintenance and Checking

There are three main things which to be checked on a power transformer in
daily basis and they are : 1. Reading of MOG (Magnetic Oil Gage) of main
tank and conservator tank. 2. Color of silica gel in breather. 3. Leakage of
oil from any point of a transformer. In case of unsatisfactory oil level in the
MOG, oil to be filled in transformer and also the transformer tank to be
checked for oil leakage. If oil leakage is found take required action to plug
the leakage. If silica gel becomes pinkish, it should be replaced.

Yearly Basis Transformer Maintenance Schedule

1. The auto, remote, manual function of cooling system that means, oil
pumps, air fans, and other items engaged in cooling system of transformer,
along with their control circuit to be checked in the interval of one year. In
the case of trouble, investigate control circuit and physical condition of
pumps and fans. 2. All the bushings of the transformer to be cleaned by
soft cotton cloths yearly. During cleaning the bushing should be checked
for cracking. 3. Oil condition of OLTC to be examined in every year. For
that, oil sample to be taken from drain valve of divertor tank, and this
collected oil sample to be tested for dielectric strength (BDV) and moisture
content (PPM). If BDV is low and PPM for moisture is found high compared
to recommended values, the oil inside the OLTC to be replaced or filtered.

4. Mechanical inspection of Buchholz relays to be carried out on yearly

basis.

5. All marshalling boxes to be cleaned from inside at least once in a year.

All illumination, space heaters, to be checked whether they are functioning
properly or not. If not, required maintenance action to be taken. All the
terminal connections of control and relay wiring to be checked an tighten at
least once in a year.

6. All the relays, alarms and control switches along with their circuit, in
R&C panel (Relay and Control Panel) and RTCC (Remote Tap Changer
Control Panel) to be cleaned by appropriate cleaning agent.

7. The pockets for OTI, WTI (Oil Temperature Indicator & Winding
Temperature Indicator) on the transformer top cover to be checked and if
required oil to be replenished.

8. The proper function of Pressure Release Device and Buchholz relay

must be checked annually. For that, trip contacts and alarm contacts of the
said devices are shorted by a small piece of wire, and observe whether the
concerned relays in remote panel are properly working or not.

9. Insulation resistance and polarization index of transformer must be

checked with battery operated megger of 5 KV range.

10. Resistive value of earth connection and rizer must be measured

annually with clamp on earth resistance meter.

11. DGA or Dissolve Gas Analysis of transformer Oil should be performed,

annually for 132 KV transformer, once in 2 years for the transformer below
132 KV transformer and in 2 years interval for the transformer above 132
KV transformer. The Action to be taken once in 2 years :
Maintenance of Transformer on Half Yearly Basis
The transformer oil must be checked half yearly basis that means once in 6
months, for dielectric strength, water content, acidity, sludge content, flash
point, DDA, IFT, resistivity for transformer oil. In case of distribution
transformer, as they are operating light load condition all the time of day
remaining peak hours , so there are no maintenance required.

Types of Transformers
There are different types of transformer based on their usage, design,
construction as follow.
Types of Transformers based on its Phases
1. Single Phase Transformer
2. Three Phase Transformer
Types of Transformers based on its Core Design
 Core Type Transformer
 Shell Type Transformer
 Berry Type Transformer
Types of Transformers based on its Core
 Air core Transformer
 Ferromagnetic/Iron Core Transformer
Types of Transformer based on its usege
 Large Power Transformer
 Distribution Transformer
 Small Power Transformer
 Sign Lighting Transformer
 Control & Signalling Transformer
 Gaseous Discharge Lamp Transformer
 Bell Ringing Transformer
 Instrument Transformer
 Constant Current Transformer
 Series Transformer for Street Lighting

Related Post: Difference between Power and Distribution Transformers?

Types of Transformer based on Insulation & Cooling
 Self Air Cooled or Dry Type Transformer
 Air Blast-Cooled Dry Type
 Oil Immersed, Self Cooled (OISC) or ONAN (Oil natural, Air natural)
 Oil Immersed, Combination of Self Cooled and Air blast (ONAN)
 Oil Immersed, Water Cooled (OW)
 Oil Immersed, Forced Oil Cooled
 Oil Immersed, Combination of Self Cooled and Water Cooled
(ONAN+OW)
 Oil Forced, Air forced Cooled (OFAC)
 Forced Oil, Water Cooled (FOWC)
 Forced Oil, Self Cooled (OFAN)

EMF equation of the Transformer

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value
Φm from 0. It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e
in T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the sin wave of the supply = 1/f).
Therefore,
/
average rate of change of flux = Φm (T/4) = Φm (1/4f) /
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = 4f Φ m ....... (Wb/s).
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn

Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........(Volts).

Now, we know, Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per
turn.

As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm.

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of
emf per turn X Number of turns in primary winding

E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ............................. eq 1
 Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E 2) can be given as
E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2

from the above equations 1 and 2,

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf /

number of turns is same for both primary and secondary winding.

For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding

Ideal Transformer & Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is
known as an ideal transformer. It is an imaginary transformer that has
no core loss, no ohmic resistance, and no leakage flux. The ideal
transformer has the following important characteristic.

1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.

2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite
permeable means less magnetizing current requires for magnetizing
their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the
flux induces in the core of the transformer links with their primary and
secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is
free from hysteresis and eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical

transformer. In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss.
Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.
Since El ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to V2

Therefore, the transformation ratio will be given by the equation shown below

Where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

 If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
 If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down
transformer.
Transformer on No Load Condition
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is
open-circuited, which means there is no load on the secondary side of
the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero.
While primary winding carries a small current I0 called no-load current
which is 2 to 10% of the rated current.

This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and
eddy current losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper
losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses
in the transformer. The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to
0.15.
 The no-load current consists of two components:

 Reactive or magnetizing component Im

(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It produces flux in the
core and does not consume any power).

 Active or power component Iw, also know as a working component

(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and
a small amount of primary copper loss).

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:

1. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the

magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase with the flux.
2. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ
by 90 degrees.
3. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses
are zero as
I2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle
ϕ0 called the no-load power factor angle and is shown in the phasor
diagram above.
4. The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf
E1 because the difference between the two, at no load, is negligible.
5. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.

The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-
load current I0.

1. From the phasor diagram drawn above, the following conclusions are made
 Transformer on Load Condition
The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below:

 When the secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-
load current from the main supply. The no-load current induces the
magnetomotive force N0I0 and this force set up the flux Φ in the core of
the transformer.

o When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer,

I2 current flows through their secondary winding. The secondary current
induces the magnetomotive force N2I2 on the secondary winding of the
transformer. This force set up the flux φ 2 in the transformer core. The
flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, according to Lenz’s law.

 As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer
decreases and this flux reduces the induced EMF E1. Thus, the strength
of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary current I’1 drawn from
the main supply.
The additional current is used for restoring the original value of the flux
in the core of the transformer so that V1 = E1. The primary current I’1 is in
phase opposition with the secondary current I2. Thus, it is called
the primary counter-balancing current.
 The additional current I’1 induces the magnetomotive force N1I’1. And this
force set up the flux φ’1. The direction of the flux is the same as that of
the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces because of the MMF N2I2

Now, N1I1’ = N2I2

Therefore,

 The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle
ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load
connected to the transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power
factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will
be leading. The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the currents
I0 and I1’. i.e

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded
inductively is shown below:
 Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram

 Take flux ϕ, a reference
 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite
to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn
lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a
voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phase
difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

 The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’
and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop
in the primary winding.
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop

I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle
ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load
connected to the transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power
factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will
be leading. Where I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

Similarly
 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load
The Transformer on the Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is
shown below in the phasor diagram.

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

 Take flux ϕ a reference

 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite
to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn
leading E2
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a
voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor
difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

 The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’
and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop
in the primary winding.

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop

I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle
ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load
connected to the transformer.

This is all about the phasor diagram on various loads.

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in the
pre-determination of the behavior of the device under the various
condition of operation. It is simply the circuit representation of the
equation describing the performance of the device.

The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by

representing all the parameters of the transformer either on the
secondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit diagram of
the transformer is shown below:

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A TRANSFORMER

 Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Primary side
 Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Secondary
side

Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the transformation

ratio K = E2/E1

The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage V1 less

primary voltage drop. This voltage causes current I0 no-load current in
the primary winding of the transformer. The value of no-load current is
very small, and thus, it is neglected.

Hence, I1 = I1’. The no-load current is further divided into two

components called magnetizing current (Im) and working current (Iw).

These two components of no-load current are due to the current drawn
by a non-inductive resistance R0 and pure reactance X0 having voltage
E1 or (V1 – primary voltage drop).

The secondary current I2 is

The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the induced emf E2 in
the secondary winding less voltage drop in the secondary winding.

Equivalent Circuit when all the quantities are referred to Primary

side
In this case, to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all the
quantities are to be referred to the primary as shown in the figure below:

Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities are Referred to Primary Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below
Secondary resistance referred to the primary side is given as:

The equivalent resistance referred to the primary side is given as:

Secondary reactance referred to the primary side is given as:

The equivalent reactance referred to the primary side is given as:

Equivalent Circuit when all the quantities are referred to

Secondary side
The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below when
all the quantities are referred to the secondary side.
 Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities are
Referred to Secondary Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below

Primary resistance referred to the secondary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is given as

Primary reactance referred to the secondary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given as

No-load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5% of full load rated current, the parallel

branch consisting of resistance R0 and reactance X0 can be omitted
without introducing any appreciable error in the behavior of the
transformer under the loaded condition.

Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the transformer can be

done by neglecting the parallel branch consisting of R0 and X0.

The simplified circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below:

 Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer

This is all about the equivalent circuit of the Transformer.

Causes of Voltage Drop

Excessive dropping is due to increased resistance in a circuit,
typically caused by an increased load, or energy used to power electric
lights, in the form of extra connections, components, or high-resistance
conductors.
Approximate Voltage Drop in Transformer
Consider the equivalent circuit referred to secondary as shown in
the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
 From the Fig. 1 we can write,

As primary parameters are referred to secondary, there are no

voltage drops in primary.
When there is no load, I2 = 0 and we get no load terminal voltage
V20 as E2.
... V20 = E2 = No load terminal voltage
while V2 = Terminal voltage on load
Consider the phasor diagram for lagging p.f. load. The current
I2 lags V2 by angle Φ2. Take V2 as reference phasor. I2 R2e is in phase
with I2 while I2 X2e leads I2 by 90o. The phasor diagram is shown in the
Fig.2.

Fig. 2

To derive the expression for approximate voltage drop, draw the

circle with O as centre and OC as redius, cutting extended OA at M.
As OA = V2 and now OM = E2, the total voltage drop is AM = I2 Z2e.
But approximating this voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM
where N is intersection of perpendicular drawn from C on AM. This is
because angle is practically very very small and in practice M and N
are very close to each other.
 Approximate voltage drop = AN
Draw perpendicular from B on AM intersecting it at D and draw
parallel to DN from B to the point L shown in the Fig. 2.
... AD = AB cos Φ2= I2 R2e cos Φ2
and DN = BL = BC sin Φ2 = I2 X2e sin Φ2
... AN = AD + DN = I2 R2e cos Φ2 + I2 X2e sin Φ2
Assuming Φ2= Φ1= Φ
... Approximate voltage drop = I2 R2e cos Φ + I2 X2e sin Φ
If all the parameters are referred to primary then we get,
Approximate voltage drop = I1 R1e cos Φ + I1 X1e sin Φ
If the load has leading p.f. then we get the phasor diagram as
shown in the Fig. 3. The I2 leads V2 by angle Φ2 .

Fig. 3

In this case, the expression for approximate voltage drop remains

same but the sign of I2 X2e sin Φ reverses.
Approximate voltage drop = I2 R2e cos Φ - I2 X2e sin Φ ....... Using
referred to secondary values
= I1 R1e cos Φ - I1 X1e sin Φ ...........Using
referred to primary values
It can be noticed that for leading power factor E2 < V2.
For the unity power factor, the phasor diagram is simple and is
shown in the Fig. 4. For this case, as cos Φ = 1 and sin Φ = 0, the
approximate voltage drop is I2 R2e or I1R1e.
 Fig. 4

Thus the general expression for the total approximate voltage

drop is,
Approximate voltage drop = E2 - V2
= I2e R2e cosΦ I2e X2e sin Φ ........Using
referred to secondary values
= I1e R1e cos Φ I1e X1e sin Φ ........Using
referred to primary values
+ sing for lagging power factor while - sign for leading power
factor loads.

Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is a measure of change in the voltage magnitude
between the sending and receiving end of a component. It is
commonly used in power engineering to describe the percentage
voltage difference between no load and full load voltages
distribution lines, transmission lines, and transformers.
Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, meaning that
the load is not connected to the secondary terminals. In this
situation, the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be
its secondary induced emf E2.
Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the
transformer, rated current I2 flows through the secondary circuit and
voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation, primary winding
will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage
drop in the secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance
of transformer.
Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage
between secondary terminals, he or she will get voltage V2 across
load terminals which is obviously less than no load secondary
voltage E2 and this is because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the
transformer.
Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer,

represented in percentage, is

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging

Power Factor
Now we will derive the expression of voltage regulation in detail.
Say lagging power factor of the load is cosθ2, that means angle
between secondary current and voltage is θ2.

Here, from the above diagram,

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be

neglected and OD is considered nearly equal to OC i.e.
Voltage regulation of transformer at lagging power factor,

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading

Power Factor
Let’s derive the expression of voltage regulation with leading
current, say leading power factor of the load is cosθ2, that means
angle between secondary current and voltage is θ2.

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be

neglected and OD is considered nearly equal to OC i.e.
Voltage regulation of transformer at leading power factor,

Types of Losses in a Transformer

There are various types of losses in the transformer such as iron loss,
copper loss, hysteresis loss, eddy current loss, stray loss, and dielectric
loss. The hysteresis losses occur because of the variation of the
magnetization in the core of the transformer and the copper loss occurs
because of the transformer winding resistance

Iron Losses
Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the
transformer as this loss occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss.
Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis Loss

The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetizing

force, and for each cycle of emf, a hysteresis loop is traced out. Power is
dissipated in the form of heat known as hysteresis loss and given by the
equation shown below:
 Where

 KȠ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and

quality of the material of the core used in the transformer,
 f is the supply frequency,
 Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.

The iron or core losses can be minimized by using silicon steel material
for the construction of the core of the transformer.

Eddy Current Loss

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit
and the current flows, the value of the current depends upon the amount
of emf around the circuit and the resistance of the circuit.

Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulate

currents within the body of the material. These circulating currents are
called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the conductor experiences
a changing magnetic field. As these currents are not responsible for
doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic
material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin
laminations.

The equation of the eddy current loss is given as:

Where,

 Ke – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of

magnetic material like volume and resistivity of core material, the
thickness of laminations
 Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
 T – thickness of lamination in meters
 F – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
 V – the volume of magnetic material in m3
Copper Loss Or Ohmic Loss
These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.
If I1 and I2 are the primary and the secondary current. R1 and R2 are the
resistance of primary and secondary winding then the copper losses
occurring in the primary and secondary winding will be I12R1 and
I22R2 respectively.

Therefore, the total copper losses will be

These losses varied according to the load and known hence it is also
known as variable losses. Copper losses vary as the square of the load
current.
Stray Loss

The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage

field. The percentage of these losses are very small as compared to the
iron and copper losses so they can be neglected.

Dielectric Loss

Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is

in the oil of the transformer, or in the solid insulations. When the oil gets
deteriorated or the solid insulation gets damaged, or its quality
decreases, and because of this, the efficiency of the transformer gets
affected.

Open circuit or No load test on Transformer

Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed to determine
'no load loss (core loss)' and 'no load current I0'. The circuit diagram for
open circuit test is shown in the figure below.
Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV)
winding is connected to its normal supply. A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A)
and voltmeter (V) are connected to the LV winding as shown in the figure.
Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero to normal rated value of
the LV side with the help of a variac. When the applied voltage reaches to
the rated value of the LV winding, readings from all the three instruments
are taken.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current I0. As I0 itself is very small,
the voltage drops due to this current can be neglected.
The two components of no load current can be given as,

Iμ = I0sinΦ0

Iw = I0cosΦ0.

cosΦ0 (no load power factor) = W / (V1I0). ... (W = wattmeter reading)

From this, shunt parameters of equivalent circuit parameters of equivalent

circuit of transformer (X0 and R0) can be calculated as

X0 = V1/Iμ and R0 = V1/Iw.

Hence, it is seen that open circuit test gives core losses of transformer and
shunt parameters of the equivalent circuit.

Short circuit or Impedance test on Transformer

The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on
transformer is as shown in the figure below. The LV side of transformer is
short circuited and wattmeter (W), voltmere (V) and ammeter (A) are
connected on the HV side of the transformer. Voltage is applied to the HV
side and increased from the zero until the ammeter reading equals the
rated current. All the readings are taken at this rated current.

The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current (I sc).
The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared to rated
voltage. Hence, core loss due to small applied voltage can be neglected.
Thus, the wattmeter reading can be taken as copper loss in the
transformer.

W = Isc2Req....... (where Req is the equivalent resistance of transformer)

Zeq = Vsc/Isc.

Therefore, equivalent reactance of transformer can be calculated from the

formula

Zeq2 = Req2 + Xeq2

Efficiency of Transformer
Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can
be defined as the output power divided by the input power. That
is efficiency = output / input .

Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the
transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% . As a
transformer being highly efficient, output and input are having nearly
same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of
transformer by using output / input. A better method to find efficiency of
a transformer is using, efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses /
input).
 V2 – Secondary terminal voltage
 I2 – Full load secondary current
 Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
 Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses
 Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res

Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is
expressed by the given relation:

The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given
power factor the Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I2. In
equation (1), the numerator is constant and the transformer efficiency will be
maximum if the denominator with respect to the variable I2 is equated to zero.

Copper losses = Iron losses

Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their
copper loss is equal to the iron loss.

From equation (2) the value of output current I2 at which the transformer
efficiency will be maximum is given as

If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency of the

transformer is maximum then,

Copper losses = x2Pc (where Pc is the full load copper losses)

Iron losses = Pi

For maximum efficiency

x2 P c = P i

Thus, output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in equation (4) we will
get,

The above equation (5) is the maximum efficiency condition of the transformer.

All Day Efficiency of a Transformer

Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the
transformer throughout the day. It is defined as the ratio of output
power to the input power in kWh or wh of the transformer over 24
hours. Mathematically, it is represented as

Those distribution transformers which supply electrical energy to lighting

and other general circuits, their primary energize for 24 hours, but the
secondary windings does not energize all the time at once. In other
words, secondary windings only energize at the night time when they
supply electrical energy to lighting circuits. I.e. secondary windings
supply eclectic power for very small load or no load for maximum time in
24 hours.

It means that core loss occurs for 24 hours regularly but copper
loss occurs only when transformer is on load.

Therefore, it realizes the necessity to design a transformer in which the

core loss should be low. As copper loss depends on load, therefore,
they should be neglected. In this type of transformers, we can track their
performance only by all day efficiency.
All day efficiency may be also called “Operational efficiency”. On the
base of usable energy, we estimate the all day efficiency for a specific
time (during the 24 hours = one day). And we can find it by the following
formula
All Day Efficiency = Output (in kWh) / Input (in kWh)

Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required?

It is economical to installe numbers of smaller rated transformers
in parallel than installing a bigger rated electrical power
transformers. This has mainly the following advantages,
1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:
Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum
efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in
parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which will
give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating
for that time. When load increases, we can switch none by
one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the total
demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum
efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability:
If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can shutdown
any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other parallel
transformers in system will serve the load without total
interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability:
If any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to
fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share
the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted if the
shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.
4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility:
There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing future
demand of power system. If it is predicted that power demand
will be increased in future, there must be a provision of
connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra
demand because, it is not economical from business point of
 view to install a bigger rated single transformer by forecasting
the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment
of money. Again if future demand is decreased,
transformers running in parallel can be removed from system
to balance the capital investment and its return.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers
When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the
following conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the
conditions for parallel operation of transformers.
1. Same voltage ratio of transformer.
2. Same percentage impedance.
3. Same polarity.
4. Same phase sequence.
Same Voltage Ratio
If two transformers of different voltage ratio are connected in
parallel with same primary supply voltage, there will be a difference
in secondary voltages. Now say the secondary of these
transformers are connected to same bus, there will be a circulating
current between secondaries and therefore between primaries also.
As the internal impedance of transformer is small, a small voltage
difference may cause sufficiently high circulating current causing
unnecessary extra I2R loss.
Same Percentage Impedance
The current shared by two transformers running in parallel should
be proportional to their MVA ratings. Again, current carried by these
transformers are inversely proportional to their internal impedance.
From these two statements it can be said that, impedance of
transformers running in parallel are inversely proportional to their
MVA ratings. In other words, percentage impedance or per unit
values of impedance should be identical for all the transformers that
run in parallel.
Same Polarity
Polarity of all transformers that run in parallel, should be the same
otherwise huge circulating current that flows in the transformer but
no load will be fed from these transformers. Polarity of transformer
means the instantaneous direction of induced emf in secondary. If
the instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two
transformers are opposite to each other when same input power is
fed to both of the transformers, the transformers are said to be in
opposite polarity. If the instantaneous directions of induced
secondary emf in two transformers are same when same input
power is fed to the both of the transformers, the transformers are
said to be in same polarity.

Same Phase Sequence

The phase sequence or the order in which the phases reach their
maximum positive voltage, must be identical for two parallel
transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle, each pair of phases will be
short circuited.
The above said conditions must be strictly followed for parallel
operation of transformers but totally identical percentage impedance
of two different transformers is difficult to achieve practically, that is why
the transformers run in parallel may not have exactly same percentage
impedance but the values would be as nearer as possible.
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
Autotransformer
An autotransformer is a kind of electrical transformer where primary
and secondary shares same common single winding. So basically it’s a
one winding transformer.
Auto Transformer:
Now we let us discuss autotransformer which is a special case
of Transformers and why do we use auto transformer.The primary and
secondary windings of a two winding transformer have induced emf in
them due to a common mutual flux and hence are in phase.The
currents drawn by these two windings are out of phase by 180◦.This
prompted the use of a part of the primary as secondary.This is
equivalent to fusing the secondary turns into primary turns.The fused
section needs to have a cross sectional area of the conductor to carry
(I2 -I1) ampere.

Auto Transformer Construction:

This ingenious thought led to the invention of
an autotransformer.The figure shows the physical arrangement of
an auto transformer.The total number of turns between A and C are
T1.At point B a connection is taken. Section AB has T2 turns. As the
volts per turn, which is proportional to the flux in the machine, is the
same for the whole winding,

V1 : V2 = T1 : T2

For simplifying the analysis, the magnetizing current of

the transformer is neglected.When the secondary winding delivers a
load current of I2 ampere the demagnetizing ampere turns is I2T2.This
will be countered by a current I1 flowing from the source through

the T1 turns such that,

I1T1 = I2T2

Auto Transformer Working:

A current of I1 ampere flows through the winding between B
and C. The current in the winding between A and B is (I2 - I1)
ampere.The cross section of the wire to be selected for AB is
proportional to this current assuming a constant current density for
the whole winding.Thus some amount of material saving can be
achieved compared to a two winding transformer.The magnetic circuit
is assumed to be identical and hence there is no saving in the same.To
quantify the saving the total quantity of copper used in
an auto transformer is expressed as a fraction of that used in a two
winding transformer as,

This means that an auto transformer requires the use of a lesser

quantity of copper given by the ratio of turns.This ratio, therefore,
denotes the savings in copper.As the space for the second winding need
not be there, the window space can be less for an auto transformer,
giving some saving in the lamination weight also.The larger the ratio of
the voltages, smaller is the savings.As T2 approaches T1 the savings
become significant.Thus auto transformers become an ideal choice for
close ratio transformations.The savings in material is obtained, however,
at a price.The electrical isolation between primary and secondary has to
be sacrificed.

If we are not looking at the savings in the material, even then

going in for the autotransformer type of connection can be used with
advantage, to obtain a higher output.This can be illustrated as
follows.Fig. 29 shows a regular two winding transformer of a voltage
ratio V1 : V2, the volt ampere rating being V1I1 = V2I2 = S.If now the
primary is connected across a supply of V1 volt and the secondary is
connected in series addition manner with the primary winding, the output
voltage becomes (V1+V2) volt.The new output of
this autotransformer will now be
Thus an increased rating can be obtained compared to a two
winding transformer with the same material content.The windings can be
connected in series opposition fashion also.Then the new output rating
will be the differential connection is not used as it is not advantageous
as the cumulative connection.

Saving in Copper Material

It consists of only single winding which is common to both primary and
secondary winding.
It has two end terminals ( PR) acts as primary and one end terminal (
either P or R ) and inter mediate terminal Q acts as a secondary
winding ( Figure A ).

 The position of the intermediate terminal Q determines whether

auto – transformer works as step down transformer or step up
transformer.
 The theory and operation of the auto - transformer is similar to that
of conventional two winding transformer.
 The auto transformer is cheaper than the
ordinary transformer because of single winding uses less copper than
the two winding.
 Since the voltage / turn is equal in both winding,
the voltage develops across each winding depends on number of turns.

Figure B shows a step down transformer in which PQ winding acts as a

primary having N1 turns and QR winding acts as a secondary
winding consists of N2 turns.
 If the supply voltage V1 is given to primary winding
Induced emf per turn ( Et ) = V1 / N1
As we know that the value of Et is same for both winding
Secondary voltage V2 = Et × N2

Saving of Copper in Auto transformer as step down

transformer

 The weight of winding material ( Copper ) is proportional to the length

and area of cross section of the conductors.
 W  Volume of material

W a × L )
 The cross section of the conductor depends on current ( I ) and length of
conductors is proportional to the number of turns ( N ).
Therefore the weight of copper is directly proportional to ampere - turns ( NI ).
Weight of the copper in the ordinary transformer ( W O ) = N1I1 + N2I2

Weight of copper in the auto transformer ( Wa ) =

Weight of copper in part PQ  I1 ( N1 – N2 )

Weight of copper in part QR  ( I2 – I1 ) N2

Total weight of copper in the auto transformer  I1 ( N1 – N2 ) + ( I2 – I1 ) N2

 ( I1N1 + I2N2 – 2N2I1 )

Weight of copper in auto transformer ( W a ) / Weight of copper in ordinary

transformer ( WO ) = ( I1N1 + I2N2 – 2N2I1 ) / ( I1N1 + I2N2 )

= ( I1N1 + I1N1 – 2N2I1 ) / 2N1I1 ( As N1I1 = N2I2 )

= ( 2I1N1 / 2I1N1 ) – ( 2N2I1 / 2I1N1 )

=(1)–(K) ( As K = N2 / N1 = I1 / I2 )

=1–K

Therefore Wa = ( 1 – K ) WO

Saving in Copper = WO – Wa

= WO – ( 1 – K ) WO

= KWO

Therefore the saving in copper material depends on the value of K ( Voltage

transformation ratio ).
Higher value of K, more saving in copper material
 Saving of Copper in Auto transformer as Step up
transformer

Weight of the copper in the ordinary transformer ( WO ) = N1I1 + N2I2

Weight of copper in the auto transformer ( Wa ) =
Weight of copper in part PR  I2 ( N2 – N1 )
Weight of copper in part QR  ( I1 – I2 ) N1
Total weight of copper
in the auto transformer  I2 ( N2 – N1 ) + ( I1 – I2 ) N1
 ( I1N1 + I2N2 – 2N1I2 )
Weight of copper in auto transformer ( Wa ) / Weight of copper in ordinary
transformer ( WO ) = ( I1N1 + I2N2 – 2N1I2 ) / ( I1N1 + I2N2 )
= ( I1N1 + I1N1 – 2N1I2 ) / 2N1I1 ( As N1I1 = N2I2 )
= ( 2I1N1 / 2I1N1 ) – ( 2N1I2 / 2 N1I1 )
=(1)–(1/K) ( As K = N2 / N1 = I1 / I2 )
=(1–1/K)
Therefore Wa = [ ( 1 – 1 / K ) ] WO
Saving in copper = WO – [ ( 1 – 1 / K ) ] WO
= [ 1 – 1 + 1 / K ] WO
= ( 1 / K ) WO
 Therefore the saving in copper material depends on the value of 1 / K.
 Lower value of K, more saving in copper material
Application
1.The auto – transformer is used for starting of synchronous motor
and induction motor. Its winding is used only during starting period of the
motor for a few seconds.
2.It is used as a furnace transformer for getting suitable
supply voltage for furnace winding from 230 V supply.
3.It is used as laboratory equipment to get suitable supply voltage as per
requirement.
4.To compensate the small voltage drop in a distribution cable by giving
small voltage boost.
5.It may be used as interconnecting transformer in 132 kV / 66 kV supply
system.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Current Transformer (CT)
Definition: A current transformer is a device that is used for the transformation of
current from a higher value into a proportionate current to a lower value. It
transforms the high voltage current into the low voltage current due to which the
heavy current flows through the transmission lines is safely monitored by the
ammeter.

The current transformer is used with the AC instrument, meters or

control apparatus where the current to be measured is of such
magnitude that the meter or instrument coil cannot conveniently be
made of sufficient current carrying capacity. The current transformer is
shown in the figure below.

The primary and secondary current of the current transformers are

proportional to each other. The current transformer is used for
measuring the high voltage current because of the difficulty of
inadequate insulation in the meter itself. The current transformer is
used in meters for measuring the current up to 100 amperes.

Construction of Current Transformers

The core of the current transformer is built up with lamination of silicon
steel. For getting a high degree of accuracy the Permalloy or Mumetal is
used for the making cores. The primary windings of the current
transformers carry the current which is to be measured, and it is
connected to the main circuit. The secondary windings of the
transformer carry the current proportional to the current to be measured,
and it is connected to the current windings of the meters or the
instruments.

The primary and the secondary windings are insulated from the cores
and each other. The primary winding is a single turn winding (also called
a bar primary) and carries the full load current. The secondary winding of
the transformers has a large number of turns.

The ratio of the primary current and the secondary current is known as
a current transformer ratio of the circuit. The current ratio of the
transformer is usually high. The secondary current ratings are of the
order of 5A, 1A and 0.1A. The current primary ratings vary from 10A to
3000A or more. The symbolic representation of the current transformer
is shown in the figure below.
The working principle of the current transformer is slightly different from
the power transformer. In a current transformer, the load’s impedance or
burden on the secondary has slightly differed from the power
transformers. Thus, the current transformer operates on secondary
circuit conditions.

Burden on a Load
The burden of a current transformer is the value of the load connected
across the secondary transformer. It is expressed as the output in volt-
amperes (VA). The rated burden is the value of the burden on the
nameplate of the CT. The rated burden is the product of the voltage and
current on the secondary when the CT supplies the instrument or relay
with its maximum rated value of current.

Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of CT

The current transformer has two errors – ratio error and a phase angle
error.

Current Ratio Errors – The current transformer is mainly due to the

energy component of excitation current and is given as

Where Ip is the primary current. Kt is the turn

ratio and is the secondary current.

Phase Angle Error – In an ideal current transformer the vector angle

between the primary and reversed secondary current is zero. But in
an actual current transformer, there is a phase difference between the
primary and the secondary current because the primary current has also
supplied the component of exciting current. Thus, the difference
between the two phases is termed as a phase angle error.

Construction of Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is made with high-quality core operating at low
flux density so that the magnetising current is small. The terminal of the
transformer should be designed so that the variation of the voltage ratio
with load is minimum and the phase shift between the input and output
voltage is also minimum.
The primary winding has a large number of turns, and the secondary
winding has a much small number of turns. For reducing the leakage
reactance, the co-axial winding is used in the potential transformer. The
insulation cost is also reduced by dividing the primary winding into
the sections which reduced the insulation between the layers.

Connection of Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is connected in parallel with the circuit. The
primary windings of the potential transformer are directly connected to
the power circuit whose voltage is to be measured. The secondary
terminals of the potential transformer are connected to the measuring
instrument like the voltmeter, wattmeter, etc.The secondary windings of
the potential transformer are magnetically coupled through the magnetic
circuit of the primary windings.

The primary terminal of the transformer is rated for 400V to several

thousand volts, and the secondary terminal is always rated for 400V.
The ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage is termed as
transformation ratio or turn ratio.

Types of Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the
conventional wound types (electromagnetic types) and the capacitor
voltage potential transformers.

Conventional wound type transformer is very expensive because of the

requirement of the insulations.Capacitor potential transformer is a
combination of capacitor potential divider and a magnetic potential
transformer of relatively small ratio.
The circuit diagram of the capacitor potential transformer is shown in the
figure below. The stack of high voltage capacitor from the potential
divider, the capacitors of two sections become C1 and C2, and the Z is
the burden.

The voltage applied to the primary of the intermediate transformer is

usually of the order 10kV. Both the potential divider and the intermediate
transformer have the ratio and insulation requirement which are suitable
for economical construction.

The intermediate transformer must be of very small ratio error, and

phase angle gives the satisfactory performance of the complete unit.
The secondary terminal voltage is given by the formula shown below.

Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of Potential Transformer

In an ideal potential transformer, the primary and the secondary voltage
is exactly proportional to the primary voltage and exactly in phase
opposition. But this cannot be achieved practically due to the primary
and secondary voltage drops. Thus, both the primary and secondary
voltage is introduced in the system.
Voltage Ratio Error – The voltage ratio error is expressed in regarding
measured voltage, and it is given by the formula as shown below.

Where Kn is the nominal ratio, i.e., the ratio of the rated primary voltage
and the rated secondary voltage.

Phase Angle Error – The phase angle error is the error between the
secondary terminal voltage which is exactly in phase opposition with the
primary terminal voltage.

The increases in the number of instruments in the relay connected to the

secondary of the potential transformer will increase the errors in the
potential transformers.

Burden of a Potential Transformer

The burden is the total external volt-amp load on the secondary at rated
secondary voltage. The rated burden of a PT is a VA burden which must
not be exceeded if the transformer is to operate with its rated
accuracy.The rated burden is indicated on the nameplate.

The limiting or maximum burden is the greatest VA load at which the

potential transformer will operate continuously without overheating its
windings beyond the permissible limits. This burden is several times
greater than the rated burden.

Uses of C.T. and P.T.

CT & PT are called the instrument transformer, because those are used
to assist the measuring instruments for the measurement of electrical
parameters like current, voltage, frequency, power factor, active
power(MW), reactive power(MVAR) etc. of high voltage system.

UPS systems

 Transfer switches
 Motor-generator sets

 Commercial sub-metering,

 CT 's in one package for 3-phase metering

 Accurate measuring for metering/WATT/VAR

 Current sensing, recording, monitoring & control

 Control panels and drives

 Standard CT used as measuring standard for comparison

 Winding temperature indicator (WTI) for power transformers

 Summation current transformers.