Heat and Mass Transfer

ME-315

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Recommended Book
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
by Theodore L. Bergman, Adrienne S. Lavine, Frank P. Incropera and David P. Dewitt (7th Edition, Wiley)

Recommended Book
Heat and Mass Transfer
by Younus Cengel and Afshin J. Ghajar, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill

No. CLO PLO

Apply expressions of heat transfer modes on
1 PLO-1
various thermal systems

Apply convection and mass transfer

2 analogies for determining related PLO-2
parameters and coefficient

Design heat exchangers using standard

3 PLO-3
practice
Asad Akhter Naqvi
 Lecture 1
Introduction

Asad Akhter Naqvi

What is Heat?
• Heat transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature
difference.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer
• Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer both are part of thermal engineering and each has its
own meaning and importance.
• "Thermodynamics" deals with the amount of energy in form of heat or work during a
process and only considers the end states in equilibrium.
• It will not give information about how long it will take to reach to the final state in
equilibrium.
• "Heat Transfer" deals with the rate of energy transfer thus, it gives idea of how long a heat
transfer will occur?
• Heat transfer deals with time and non equilibrium phenomena.
• Heat can only transfer when there is a temperature gradient exists in a body and which is
indication of non equilibrium phenomena.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Different modes of heat transfer

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Conduction
• Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic particles of a
substance due to interactions between the particles.

• Heat transfer processes can be quantified in terms of appropriate rate equations.

• For heat conduction, the rate equation is known as Fourier's law.
′′
𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒙 = −𝒌
𝒅𝒙
• The heat flux (𝑊/𝑚2 ) is the heat transfer rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
𝑑𝑇
transfer, and it is proportional to the temperature gradient, , in this direction.
𝑑𝑥
• The parameter k is a transport property known as the thermal conductivity (W/m. K).
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Direction of Heat Transfer
B G

Face EFGH is at
Face ABCD is at temperature 𝑇2
temperature 𝑇1 C F

H
A
𝑻𝟏 > 𝑻𝟐

D E

• Heat will flow from face ABCD to EFGH since ABCD is at higher temperature than EFGH.
• The area perpendicular to the direction of heat is ABCD or EFGH.
• The heat flux will be amount of heat transfered divided by the area ABCD.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15𝑚 thick fireclay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.7 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 . Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 𝐾 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate
of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 𝑚 × 1.2 𝑚 on a side?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15𝑚 thick fireclay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.7 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 . Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 𝐾 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate
of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 𝑚 × 1.2 𝑚 on a side?

∆𝑥 = 0.15𝑚 ∆𝑻
𝑘 = 1.7𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 𝒒 = −𝒌𝑨 ∆𝒙
𝑇2 = 1400𝐾
𝑇1 = 1150𝐾
𝐴 = 0.5𝑚 × 1.2𝑚

𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝒒 = −𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟐 ×
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
𝒒 = −𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝑾 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Convection
• Convection heat transfer, which occurs between a fluid in motion and a bounding surface when the two are at
different temperatures.

• Regardless of the nature of the convection heat transfer process, the appropriate rate equation is of the form:
𝒒𝒙 ′′ = 𝒉 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞
• where , the convective heat flux (W/m2 ), is proportional to the difference between the surface and fluid
temperatures, 𝑇𝑠 and 𝑇∞ , respectively.
• This expression is known as Newton's law of cooling, and the parameter h (𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾) is termed the convection
heat transfer coefficient.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation
• Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a nonzero temperature.
• The energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves (or
alternatively, photons).
• While the transfer of energy by conduction or convection requires the presence of
a material medium, radiation does not.
• In fact, radiation transfer occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
• the rate at which energy is released per unit area (𝑊/𝑚2 ) is termed the surface
emissive power, E.
• There is an upper limit to the emissive power, which is prescribed by the Stefan
Boltzmann law.
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈𝑻𝒔 𝟒
• where 𝑇𝑠 is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and 𝜎 is the Stefan
Boltzmann constant . Such a surface is called an ideal radiator or blackbody.
• The heat flux emitted by a real surface is less than that of a blackbody at the same
temperature and is given by
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝐𝝈𝑻𝒔 𝟒
Asad Akhter Naqvi
• The amount of heat transfer by radiation is given by

𝒒 = 𝜺𝑨𝝈(𝑻𝒔 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓 ) 𝑻𝒔 > 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓

𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓

𝑻𝒔

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 2
Problems related to Introduction of Heat Transfer

Asad Akhter Naqvi

1-10. A freezer compartment consists of a cubical cavity that is 2 m on a side.
Assume the bottom to be perfectly insulated. What is the minimum thickness of
Styrofoam insulation (𝑘 = 0.030 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) that must be applied to the top and
side walls to ensure a heat load of less than 500 W, when the inner and outer
surfaces are at −10𝑜 and 35𝑜 𝐶?

5
2
Some important points
➢ The cubical freezer compartment is shown in the fig.
➢ The bottom side which is denoted by 6 is perfectly 3
insulated. 1 4
➢ It means that remaining 5 sides (1 to 5) are
responsible of heat loss from the freezer
compartment.

6
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The heat transfer through the freezer compartment is given by Fourier’s law of
heat transfer.
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
𝒒 = 𝒌𝑨
∆𝒙 𝟑𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎
𝑞 = 500 𝑊 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎
𝒌 = 0.030 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 ∆𝒙
𝑻𝟏 = 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 35𝑜 𝐶
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = −10𝑜
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Here Total area will be 5 × 2 × 2 = 20 𝑚2

The minimum thickness of Styrofoam insulation comes out to be

∆𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒 𝒎
∆𝒙 = 𝟓𝟒 𝒎𝒎
Asad Akhter Naqvi
1-15. The 5 𝑚𝑚 thick bottom of a 200 𝑚𝑚 diameter pan may be made from
aluminum (𝑘 = 240 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) or copper (𝑘 = 390 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾). When used to boil
water, the surface of the bottom exposed to the water is nominally at 110𝑜 𝐶. If
heat is transferred from the stove to the pan at a rate of 600 𝑊, what is the
temperature of the surface in contact with the stove for each of the two materials?

𝑇2 = 110𝑜 𝐶 𝐷 = 200 𝑚𝑚

∆𝑥 = 5 𝑚𝑚

𝑇1 =? 𝑞 = 600 𝑊

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The heat transfer through the pan is given by Fourier’s law of heat transfer.

𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 For Aluminum (𝑘 = 240 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾)

𝒒 = 𝒌𝑨
∆𝒙 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒
𝑻𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝑞 = 600 𝑊
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 110𝑜 𝐶
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅
𝑨=
𝟒
𝑫 = × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝟐
𝟒 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟒𝒐 𝑪
∆𝒙 = 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑻𝟏 = 𝑩𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =? For Copper (𝑘 = 390 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾)
𝑻𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟗𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒐 𝑪
Asad Akhter Naqvi
1-21. An electric resistance heater is embedded in a long cylinder of diameter
30 𝑚𝑚. When water with a temperature of 25𝑜 𝐶 and velocity of 1 𝑚/𝑠 flows
crosswise over the cylinder, the power per unit length required to maintain the
surface at a uniform temperature of 90𝑜 𝐶 is 28 𝑘𝑊/𝑚. When air, also at 25𝑜 𝐶,
but with a velocity of 10 𝑚/𝑠 is flowing, the power per unit length required to
maintain the same surface temperature is 400 𝑊/𝑚. Calculate and compare the
convection coefficients for the flows of water and air.

𝑇𝑠 = 90𝑜 𝐶

𝒒
𝑻∞ = 𝟐𝟓𝒐 𝑪

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The heat transfer from the cylinder to the fluid is given by Newton’s law of cooling.

The area which is perpendicular to the

𝒒 = 𝒉𝑨 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ direction of heat is the equal to the surface
area of the cylinder which is 𝝅𝑫𝑳
In case of water
𝑞 In case of air
𝑞′ = = 28 𝑘𝑊/𝑚
𝐿
𝑞
𝑞′ = = 400 𝑊/𝑚
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒘 × (𝝅𝑫𝑳) × 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ 𝐿
𝒒 𝒒′ = 𝒉𝑨 × (𝝅𝑫) × 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞
= 𝒉𝒘 × (𝝅𝑫) × 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞
𝑳
𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝒉𝑨 × 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 × (𝟗𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓)
𝒒′ = 𝒉𝒘 × (𝝅𝑫) × 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞

𝟐𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝒉𝒘 × 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 × (𝟗𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓) 𝒉𝑨 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟑 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

𝒉𝒘 = 𝟒𝟓𝟕𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲 Asad Akhter Naqvi

1-25. A common procedure for measuring the velocity of an airstream involves the
insertion of an electrically heated wire (called a hot-wire anemometer) into the airflow,
with the axis of the wire oriented perpendicular to the flow direction. The electrical
energy dissipated in the wire is assumed to be transferred to the air by forced convection.
Hence, for a prescribed electrical power, the temperature of the wire depends on the
convection coefficient, which, in turn, depends on the velocity of the air. Consider a wire
of length 𝐿 = 20 𝑚𝑚 and diameter 𝐷 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚, for which a calibration of the form 𝑉 =
6.25 × 10−5 ℎ2 has been determined. The velocity 𝑉 and the convection coefficient ℎ
have units of 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾, respectively. In an application involving air at a
temperature of 𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶, the surface temperature of the anemometer is maintained at
𝑇𝑆 = 75𝑜 𝐶 with a voltage drop of 5 𝑉 and an electric current of 0.1 𝐴. What is the
velocity of the air?
𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎

𝑽 = 6.25 × 10−5 ℎ2
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑻∞ = 𝟐𝟓𝒐 𝑪

𝑇 = 75𝑜 𝐶
𝑆
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The anemometer is heated by resistance heating. It means that heat dissipated is equal to the
input electrical power
𝒒 = 𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑨 𝒉 = 𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲
𝑽=𝟓𝑽
𝑨 = 𝝅𝑫𝑳 = 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝒎𝟐

𝑻𝑺 = 𝟕𝟓𝒐 𝑪 The velocity of air is given by

𝑻∞ = 𝟐𝟓𝒐 𝑪 𝑉 = 6.25 × 10−5 ℎ2
Using Newton’s law of heat transfer 𝑉 = 6.25 × 10−5 (𝟑𝟏𝟖)2
𝒒 = 𝒉𝑨 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞
𝒒 = 𝑷 = 𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝐖 𝑽 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝒉 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟐 × (𝟕𝟓 − 𝟐𝟓)
Asad Akhter Naqvi
1-28. An overhead 25 𝑚 long, uninsulated industrial steam pipe of 100 − 𝑚𝑚 diameter
is routed through a building whose walls and air are at 25𝑜 𝐶. Pressurized steam
maintains a pipe surface temperature of 150𝑜 𝐶, and the coefficient associated with
natural convection is ℎ = 10𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The surface emissivity is ϵ = 0.8.
(a) What is the rate of heat loss from the steam line?
(b) If the steam is generated in a gas-fired boiler operating at an efficiency of 𝜂𝑓 = 0.90
and natural gas is priced at 𝐶𝑔 = $0.02 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝐽, what is the annual cost of heat loss from
the line?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝑇𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 25𝑜 𝐶

𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶

𝑇𝑆 = 150𝑜 𝐶

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The total heat lost from the pipe
𝒒 = 𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 + 𝒒𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝒉𝑨 𝑻𝑺 − 𝑻∞ 𝒒𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝝐𝝈𝑨(𝑻𝑺 𝟒 − 𝑻𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒓 𝟒 )

𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟓𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟕. 𝟒 𝐖

𝒒𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 × 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟐𝟑𝟒 − 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟒 = 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟔. 𝟐 𝑾

𝒒 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟕. 𝟒 + 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟔. 𝟐 𝒒 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟏𝟑 𝑾

Annual Energy lost from the pipe
𝒔
𝑬 = 𝒒 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒
𝒉𝒓
× 𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝑬𝒇 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑱/𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝒉 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝒔 𝒉𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟏𝟑 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝒉 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒅 = 𝑬𝒇 × 𝑪𝒈
𝑬 = 𝟓. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑱/𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝐌𝐉 $𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟓
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒅 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 ×
Energy consumed by furnace 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝑴𝑱
𝑬 𝟓. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
𝑬𝒇 = = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒅 = $𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟎𝟎Τ𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝜼𝒇 𝟎. 𝟗 Asad Akhter Naqvi
 Lecture 3
Introduction to Conduction

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Conduction Rate Equation

• Consider the steady-state conduction experiment of figure.

• A cylindrical rod of known material is insulated on its lateral surface, while its end faces are maintained at
different temperatures, with 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 .
• The temperature difference causes conduction heat transfer in the positive x-direction.
• To determine how 𝑞𝑥 depends on the following variables: ∆𝑇, the temperature difference; 𝑥, the rod length; and
𝐴, the cross-sectional area.
• First holding ∆𝑇 and ∆𝑥constant and varying 𝐴. If we do so, we find that 𝑞𝑥 is directly proportional to 𝐴.
• Similarly, holding ∆𝑇 and 𝐴 constant, we observe that 𝑞𝑥 varies inversely with ∆𝑥 .
• Finally, holding 𝐴 and ∆𝑥 constant, we find that 𝑞𝑥 is directly proportional to ∆𝑇 .
∆𝑻
𝒒Asad ∝ 𝑨Naqvi
𝒙 Akhter
∆𝒙
The Conduction Rate Equation (cont.)
• In changing the material (e.g., from a metal to a plastic), we would find that this proportionality remains valid.

• However, we would also find that, for equal values of 𝐴 , ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑇, the value of 𝑞𝑥 would be smaller for the
plastic than for the metal.
• This suggests that the proportionality may be converted to an equality by introducing a coefficient that is a
measure of the material behavior.
∆𝑻
𝒒𝒙 = 𝒌𝑨
∆𝒙
• where 𝑘, the thermal conductivity (𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) is an important property of the material.
• Evaluating this expression in the limit as ∆𝑥 → 0, we obtain for the heat rate
𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒙 = −𝒌𝑨
𝒅𝒙 Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Conduction Rate Equation (cont.)
• Heat flux can be given as
′′
𝒒𝒙 𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒙 = = −𝒌
𝑨 𝒅𝒙
• The minus sign is necessary because heat is always transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
• Above equation, implies that the heat flux is a directional quantity.
• In particular, the direction of 𝒒𝒙 ′′ is normal to the cross-sectional area 𝑨.
• More generally, the direction of heat flow will always be normal to a surface of
constant temperature, called an isothermal surface.
• Note that the isothermal surfaces are planes normal to the 𝑥-direction.
• Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can write a more general
statement of the conduction rate equation (Fourier's law ) as follows:

′′
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌𝜵𝑻 = −𝒌 𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒌
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
• where 𝜵 is the three-dimensional del operator and T(x, y, z) is the scalar temperature
field.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Conduction Rate Equation (cont.)
• The heat flux vector can be resolved into components such that, in Cartesian coordinates, the general expression
for 𝒒′′ is
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝒒 = 𝒊𝒒 𝒙
+ 𝒋𝒒 𝒚
+ 𝒌𝒒 𝒛
• Here

′′
𝝏𝑻
𝒒 𝒙 = −𝒌
𝝏𝒙
′′
𝝏𝑻
𝒒 𝒚 = −𝒌
𝝏𝒚
′′
𝝏𝑻
𝒒 𝒛 = −𝒌
𝝏𝒛
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Thermal Properties of Matter
Thermal Conductivity
• From Fourier’s law, the thermal conductivity associated with conduction in the 𝑥-direction is defined as:

𝒒′′ 𝒙
𝒌𝒙 = −
𝝏𝑻
𝝏𝒙
• Similar definitions are associated with thermal conductivities in the y- and z-directions (𝒌𝒚 , 𝒌𝒛 ),
• But for an isotropic material the thermal conductivity is independent of the direction of transfer,

𝒌𝒙 = 𝒌𝒚 = 𝒌𝒛 = 𝒌

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Thermal Properties of Matter
Thermal diffusivity
• The ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat capacity is an important property termed the thermal diffusivity ,
which has units of 𝑚2 /𝑠.
𝒌
𝜶=
𝝆𝑪𝒑
• It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy.
• Materials of large 𝜶 will respond quickly to changes in their thermal environment, whereas materials of small 𝜶
will respond more sluggishly, taking longer to reach a new equilibrium condition.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Heat Diffusion Equation

Differential control volume, 𝒅𝒙, 𝒅𝒚, 𝒅𝒛, for conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Heat Diffusion Equation (cont.)
• Consider a homogeneous medium within which there is no bulk motion (advection) and the temperature
distribution T(x, y, z) is expressed in Cartesian coordinates.
• In the absence of motion (or with uniform motion), there are no changes in mechanical energy and no work being
done on the system.
• If there are temperature gradients, conduction heat transfer will occur across each of the control surfaces.
• For an infinitesimally small (differential) control volume, 𝒅𝒙, 𝒅𝒚, 𝒅𝒛, the conduction heat rates perpendicular to
each of the control surfaces at the x-, y-, and z-coordinate locations are indicated by the terms 𝒒𝒙 , 𝒒𝒚 and 𝒒𝒛
respectively.
• The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series expansion where,
neglecting higher-order terms,

𝝏𝒒𝒙 𝝏𝒒𝒚 𝝏𝒒𝒛

𝒒𝒙+𝒅𝒙 = 𝒒𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙 𝒒𝒚+𝒅𝒚 = 𝒒𝒚 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒒𝒛+𝒅𝒛 = 𝒒𝒛 + 𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Heat Diffusion Equation (cont.)
• Within the medium there may also be an energy source term associated with the rate of thermal energy
generation. This term is represented as
𝑬𝒈 = 𝒒𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
• Where 𝒒 is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the medium (𝑊/𝑚3 ).
• In addition, changes may occur in the amount of the internal thermal energy stored by the material in the control
volume.
• In addition, changes may occur in the amount of the internal thermal energy stored by the material in the control
volume. 𝝏𝑻
𝑬𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝑻
𝝏𝒕
• Where 𝝆𝑪𝑷 is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal) energy of the medium per unit volume.
𝝏𝒕
• On a rate basis
𝑬𝒊𝒏 + 𝑬𝒈𝒆𝒏 − 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑬𝒔𝒕

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Heat Diffusion Equation (cont.)
𝝏𝑻
𝒒𝒙 + 𝒒𝒚 + 𝒒𝒛 + 𝒒𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 − 𝒒𝒙+𝒅𝒙 − 𝒒𝒚+𝒅𝒚 − 𝒒𝒛+𝒅𝒛 = 𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒕
• Substituting the values
𝝏𝒒𝒙 𝝏𝒒𝒚 𝝏𝒒𝒛 𝝏𝑻
− 𝒅𝒙 − 𝒅𝒚 − 𝒅𝒛 + 𝒒𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 = 𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
• The conduction heat rates in an isotropic material may be evaluated from Fourier’s law

𝝏𝑻
𝒒𝒙 = −𝒌𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝝏𝑻 𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝒒𝒚 = −𝒌𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒛 𝑑𝑥 𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝝏𝒚 𝑥
𝝏𝑻 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝒒𝒛 = −𝒌𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 𝒒𝒚 𝑑𝑥
𝝏𝒛
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Heat Diffusion Equation (cont.)
𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
− −𝒌𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 − −𝒌𝒅𝒛𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 − −𝒌𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 + 𝒒𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 = 𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕

Since 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 are common on both sides so we have,

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒌 + (𝒌 ) + 𝒒 = 𝝆𝑪𝑷
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕

This is the general form of the heat diffusion equation in Cartesian coordinates.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Heat Diffusion Equation (cont.)
• If the thermal conductivity is constant, the heat equation is
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝑞 𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
+ + + = 𝟐
+ 𝟐+ 𝟐+ =
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒌 𝒌 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝒌 𝜶 𝝏𝒕
• Where 𝜶 = 𝒌/𝝆𝑪𝑷 is the thermal diffusivity.
• Under steady-state conditions, there can be no change in the amount of energy storage.

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒌 + (𝒌 ) + 𝒒 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛
• Moreover, if the heat transfer is one-dimensional (e.g., in the x-direction) and there is no energy generation.

𝒅 𝒅𝑻
𝒌 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
• Under steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no energy generation, the heat flux is a constant in the
direction of transfer. ′′
𝒅𝒒 𝒙
=𝟎
𝒅𝒙 Naqvi
Asad Akhter
The Heat Diffusion Equation in cylinder coordinate

Differential control volume, 𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒛, for conduction analysis in

cylindrical coordinates (𝒓, ∅ , 𝒛).
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Heat Diffusion Equation in cylinder coordinate
• In cylindrical coordinates, the general form of the heat flux vector and hence of Fourier’s law is:

𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒒′′ = −𝒌𝜵𝑻 = −𝒌 𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒌
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛
• Where,

′′ 𝝏𝑻 ′′
𝟏 𝝏𝑻 ′′
𝝏𝑻
𝒒𝒓 = −𝒌 𝒒∅ = −𝒌 𝒒𝒛 = −𝒌
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛
• General form of the heat equation is:

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Heat Diffusion Equation in spherical coordinate

Differential control volume, 𝒅𝒓, 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅∅, 𝒓𝒅𝜽, for conduction analysis

in spherical coordinates (𝒓, ∅ , 𝜽).
Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Heat Diffusion Equation in spherical coordinate
• In spherical coordinates, the general form of the heat flux vector and Fourier’s law is:

𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
𝒒′′ = −𝒌𝜵𝑻 = −𝒌 𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒌
• Where, 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝏∅

′′ 𝝏𝑻 ′′
𝟏 𝝏𝑻 ′′
𝒌 𝝏𝑻
𝒒𝒓 = −𝒌 𝒒𝜽 = −𝒌 𝒒∅ =−
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝏∅
• General form of the heat equation is:

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 4
Problems related to
Introduction to Conduction
Chapter 2
2-5. Assume steady-state, one-dimensional heat conduction through the
symmetric shape shown. Assuming that there is no internal heat generation, derive
an expression for the thermal conductivity 𝑘(𝑥) for these conditions: 𝐴 𝑥 = (1 −
𝑥), 𝑇(𝑥) = 300 (1 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ), and 𝑞 = 6000 𝑊, where 𝐴 is in square meters, 𝑇
in kelvins, and 𝑥 in meters.
Using Fourier’s law of Heat transfer
𝒅𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌𝑨 (1)
𝒅𝒙
6000 = −𝑘 × (1 − 𝑥) × 300(−2 − 3𝑥 2 )
𝑞 = 6000 𝑊
𝑇(𝑥) = 300 (1 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ) By rearranging we have

𝐴 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑇 𝟐𝟎
= 300(−2 − 3𝑥 2 ) 𝒌=
𝑑𝑥 𝟏 − 𝒙 (𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 )
𝑑𝑇
Substituting the values of 𝑇 , 𝐴 and in eq. 1
𝑑𝑥
2-11. Consider steady-state conditions for one-dimensional conduction in a plane
wall having a thermal conductivity 𝑘 = 50𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 and a thickness 𝐿 = 0.25 𝑚,
with no internal heat generation. Determine the heat flux and the unknown
quantity for each case and sketch the temperature distribution, indicating the
direction of the heat flux.
Given data
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥 𝑞
1 50 −20
1 50 −20 −280 14000
2 −30 −10
2 −30 −10 80 −4000
3 70 160
4 40 −80 3 70 110 160 −8000
5 30 200 4 60 40 −80 4000
5 −20 30 200 −10000
𝐿 = 0.25 𝑚
Using Fourier’s law of heat transfer
′′
𝒅𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
=
𝒅𝒙 𝑳
2-26. At a given instant of time, the temperature distribution within an infinite
homogeneous body is given by the function:

Assuming constant properties and no internal heat generation, determine the

regions where the temperature changes with time.

Using Heat Diffusion Equation

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒌 + 𝒌 ሶ
+ 𝒒 = 𝝆𝑪𝑷
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕

It is given in question that there is no internal heat generation i.e. 𝒒 =ሶ 𝟎

Now we have

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇

𝑘 + + = 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡

Taking double partial derivative of 𝑻 with respect to 𝒙, 𝒚 and 𝒛

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇

2
=2 2
= −4 =2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝑇
𝑘 2 − 4 + 2 = 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝜕𝑡

𝝏𝑻
=𝟎 There is no region where Temperature changes with time
𝝏𝒕
2-30. The steady-state temperature distribution in a one dimensional wall of
thermal conductivity 50 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 and thickness 50 𝑚𝑚 is observed to be 𝑇 𝐶 =
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 , where 𝑎 = 200𝑜 𝐶, 𝑏 = −2000𝑜 𝐶/𝑚2 , and 𝑥 is in meters.
(a) What is the heat generation rate in the wall?
(b) Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. In what manner are these heat
fluxes related to the heat generation rate?
Using heat diffusion equation
𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
Face 1 Face 2 𝒌 + 𝒌 + 𝒌 + 𝒒ሶ = 𝝆𝑪𝑷
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕

Since there is only one dimensional flow and no energy storage so,
𝒅 𝒅𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

50 𝑚𝑚 𝒅𝟐 𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎
𝑥 𝒅𝒙𝟐
 Heat Flux will be given by using Fourier’s law of Heat transfer
𝑻=𝒂+ 𝒃𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝑻
𝒒′′ = −𝒌
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝒅 𝑻 𝒒′′ = −𝒌(−𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙)
= −𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐
At face 1 𝒙 = 𝟎
Now we have,
𝒒′′ = 𝟎
𝒅𝟐 𝑻
𝒒ሶ = −𝒌
𝒅𝒙𝟐 At face 2 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎

𝒒ሶ = −𝟓𝟎 × −𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒒′′ = −𝟓𝟎 × −𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓

𝒒ሶ = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟑 𝒒′′ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐

2-31. The temperature distribution across a wall 0.3 𝑚 thick at a certain instant of time is 𝑇 𝑥 =
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 , where 𝑇 is in degrees Celsius and 𝑥 is in meters,𝑎 = 200𝑜 𝐶, 𝑏 = −200𝑜 𝐶/𝑚, and
𝑐 = 30𝑜 𝐶/𝑚2 . The wall has a thermal conductivity of 1𝑊/𝑚 𝐾.
a. On a unit surface area basis, determine the rate of heat transfer into and out of the wall and
the rate of change of energy stored by the wall.
b. If the cold surface is exposed to a fluid at 100𝑜 𝐶, what is the convection coefficient?

Using Fourier’s law of heat transfer

𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒊𝒏 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒒 = −𝒌𝑨
𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝒔𝒕
𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒊𝒏 = −𝒌𝑨 (𝒙 = 𝟎)
𝒅𝒙
0.3 𝑚 𝒅𝑻
𝑥 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒌𝑨 (𝒙 = 𝑳)
𝒅𝒙
The temperature distribution is Now we are going to find the temperature at both sides

𝑻 𝒙 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 𝑻 𝒙 = 𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒐 𝑪

𝑇2 = 142.7𝑜 𝐶
𝑻 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒙 + 𝟑𝟎𝒙𝟐 𝑻 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟕𝒐 𝑪

𝑇1 = 200𝑜 𝐶
𝒅𝑻
= −𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎𝒙
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻
The heat gained by the fluid is 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒒𝒊𝒏 = −𝒌𝑨 (𝒙 = 𝟎) given by Newton’s law of cooling
𝒅𝒙
𝒒𝒊𝒏 = −𝟏 × 𝟏 × (−𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟎) 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )

𝒒𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑾 𝟏𝟖𝟐

𝒉=
𝒅𝑻 𝟏(𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟕 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒌𝑨 (𝒙 = 𝑳)
𝒅𝒙
𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝟏 × 𝟏 × (−𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟑)
𝒉 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟕 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲
𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖𝟐 𝑾
The difference between 𝒒𝒊𝒏 and 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕
will be the amount of energy stored.
𝑬𝒔𝒕 = 𝒒𝒊𝒏 − 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝑬𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟖𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖 𝐖

Introduction to Conduction
Problems (Cont.)
2-28. Uniform internal heat generation at 𝑞ሶ = 5 × 107 𝑊/𝑚3 is occurring in a cylindrical nuclear
reactor fuel rod of 50 𝑚𝑚 diameter, and under steady-state conditions the temperature
distribution is of the form 𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑟 2 , where 𝑇 is in degrees Celsius and r is in meters, while
𝑎 = 800𝑜 𝐶 and 𝑏 = −4.167 × 105 𝐶/𝑚2 . The fuel rod properties are 𝑘 = 30 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾,
ρ = 1100 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, and 𝐶𝑃 = 800 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾.
a. What is the rate of heat transfer per unit length of the rod at 𝑟 = 0 (the centerline) and at
𝑟 = 25 𝑚𝑚 (the surface)?
b. If the reactor power level is suddenly increased to 𝑞ሶ 2 = 108 𝑊/𝑚3, what is the initial time
rate of temperature change at 𝑟 = 0 and 𝑟 = 25 𝑚𝑚?
 𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑟 2

𝑇 𝑟=0 =𝑎
𝑇 𝑟 = 0.025 𝑚 = 𝑎 + 0.00625𝑏

The area perpendicular to the direction of

heat transfer is simply 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑳
𝒒
Part a Part b
The Heat transfer at 𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = Using Heat diffusion equation in cylindrical
0.025 𝑚 will be given by using Fourier law coordinate system
of Heat Transfer
𝝏𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌𝑨
𝝏𝒓
𝝏𝑻 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝝏𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌 × 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑳 × 𝑘𝑟 + 𝑞ሶ = 𝜌𝐶𝑃 = −𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒓
𝝏𝒓 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝝏𝒓
𝒒 𝝏𝑻 𝑘 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝒒′ = = −𝒌 × 𝟐𝝅𝒓 × 𝑟 × −8.33 × 105 𝑟 + 𝑞ሶ 2 ̇= 𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝜕𝑡
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑳 𝝏𝒓
𝑘 𝜕𝑇
𝑻 𝒓 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 + −𝟒. 𝟏𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒓𝟐 × 2 ×− −8.33 × 105 𝑟 + 𝑞ሶ 2 = 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝑟 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇 1
𝝏𝑻 = (−𝑘 × 16.66 × 105 +𝑞ሶ 2 )
= −𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒓 𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝝏𝒓

𝒒′ (𝒓 = 𝟎) = 𝟎 𝝏𝑻
= 𝟓𝟔. 𝟖𝟐 𝑲/𝒔
𝝏𝒕
𝒒′ 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 = −𝟑𝟎 × 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × −𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓

𝒒′ 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑾/𝒎

2-32. A plane wall of thickness 2𝐿 = 40 𝑚𝑚 and thermal conductivity 𝑘 = 5𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 experiences
uniform volumetric heat generation at a rate 𝑞ሶ , while convection heat transfer occurs at both of
its surfaces (𝑥 = −𝐿, +𝐿), each of which is exposed to a fluid of temperature 𝑇 = 20𝑜 𝐶. Under
steady state conditions, the temperature distribution in the wall is of the form 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐𝑥 2 where 𝑎 = 82.0𝑜 𝐶, 𝑏 = −210𝑜 𝐶/𝑚, 𝑐 = −2 × 104 𝐶/𝑚2 , and x is in meters. The origin of
the x-coordinate is at the mid-plane of the wall.
a. Sketch the temperature distribution and identify significant physical features.
b. What is the volumetric rate of heat generation 𝑞ሶ in the wall?
c. Determine the surface heat fluxes 𝒒′′ (−𝐿) and 𝒒′′ (𝐿), and How are these fluxes related to
the heat generation rate?
d. What are the convection coefficients for the surfaces at 𝑥 = −𝐿 and 𝑥 = 𝐿?
e. Obtain an expression for the heat flux distribution 𝒒′′ (𝒙) Is the heat flux zero at any
location? Explain any significant features of the distribution.
f. If the source of the heat generation is suddenly Deactivated (𝑞 = 0) , what is the rate of
change of energy stored in the wall at this instant?
 𝑻 𝒙 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐

𝑇∞ = 20𝑜 𝐶 (𝑥 = −𝐿) 𝑥 (𝑥 = 𝐿)
𝑇∞ = 20𝑜 𝐶
ℎ(𝑥=−𝐿) =? (𝑥 = 0) ℎ(𝑥=𝐿) =?
Part a

𝑻 𝒙 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐
𝑎 = 82.0𝑜 𝐶
𝑏 = −210𝑜 𝐶/𝑚
𝑐 = −2 × 104 𝐶/𝑚2
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒃 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒄
Using One Dimensional Heat Diffusion ′′
𝒅𝑻
𝒒 = −𝒌
in Rectangular Coordinate system 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅𝑻 𝒒ሶ
+ =𝟎 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −𝐿 = −0.02m
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒌

𝑻 𝒙 = 82.0 − 210𝒙 − 2 × 104 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝑻

= −210 − 4 × 104 −0.02 = 590 𝐾/𝑚
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻
= −210 − 4 × 104 𝑥
𝒅𝒙 𝒒′′ = −𝟓 × 𝟓𝟗𝟎 = −𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿 = 0.02m
𝒅𝟐 𝑻
𝟐
= −4 × 104
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝑻
= −210 − 4 × 104 0.02 = −1010 𝐾/𝑚
𝒒ሶ 𝒅𝒙
−4 × 104 + =𝟎
𝟓
𝒒′′ = −𝟓 × −𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝒒ሶ = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑾/𝒎𝟑
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒅 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒆

𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 ′′ 𝒙 = −𝑳 = 𝒒′′ (𝒙 = −𝑳) 𝒒′′ = −𝒌 = −210 − 4 × 104 𝑥
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒒′′ 𝒙 = −𝑳 = 𝐡(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
𝒒′′ = −𝒌(−𝟐𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒙)
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = −𝐿 = −0.02m
The location where heat flux is zero (𝒒′′ = 𝟎)
𝑻𝒔 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟐𝒐 𝑪

𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟎 = 𝐡(𝟕𝟖. 𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎)

𝟎 = −𝟓(−𝟐𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒙)
𝒉 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟔𝟖 𝐖/𝒎𝟐 𝑲 𝒙 = −5.23 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = +𝐿 = +0.02m
𝒙 = −5.23 𝑚𝒎
𝑻𝒔 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟖𝒐 𝑪

𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟎 = 𝐡(𝟔𝟗. 𝟖 − 𝟐𝟎)

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟒 𝐖/𝒎𝟐 𝑲
2-34 One-dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform internal energy generation occurs
in a plane wall with a thickness of 50 𝑚𝑚 and a constant thermal conductivity of 5 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾. For
these conditions, the temperature distribution has the form 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 . The surface
at 𝑥 = 0 has a temperature of 𝑇 0 = 𝑇𝑜 = 120𝐶 and experiences convection with a fluid for
which 𝑇 = 20𝑜 𝐶 and ℎ = 500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The surface at 𝑥 = 𝐿 is well insulated.
a. Applying an overall energy balance to the wall, calculate the volumetric energy generation
rate .
b. Determine the coefficients a, b, and c by applying the boundary conditions to the prescribed
temperature distribution. Use the results to calculate and plot the temperature distribution.
c. Consider conditions for which the convection coefficient is halved, but the volumetric energy
generation rate remains unchanged. Determine the new values of a, b, and c, and use the
results to plot the temperature distribution. Hint: recognize that 𝑇(0) is no longer 120𝐶.
d. Under conditions for which the volumetric energy generation rate is doubled, and the
convection coefficient remains unchanged (ℎ = 500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾), determine the new values of
a, b, and c and plot the corresponding temperature distribution.
𝑻∞ = 𝟐𝟎𝒐 𝑪
𝒒𝒊𝒏 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝒙
Part a
500 20 − 120
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 𝑞ሶ = −
0.05
Apply Energy Balance Equation
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝒒ሶ = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑾/𝒎𝟑
Steady State conditions are mentioned Part b
and at 𝑥 = 𝐿 wall is perfectly insulated so
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝑇 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑎 + 𝑏(0) + 𝑐(0)
𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 0
𝒅𝑻
𝐸𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐨 𝐂 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒌𝑨 𝒙=𝑳 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = −𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
𝒒𝒊𝒏 = 𝒉𝑨 𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺 = −𝒌𝑨 (𝒙 = 𝟎) = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄𝑳 = 𝟎
At 𝑥 = 0, heat transfer takes place 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
between fluid and the heated surface
𝒅𝑻 𝒃 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑛 =
= 𝑞𝐴𝐿
ሶ
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 ) 𝒅𝒙
= 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄𝒙 𝒄=− =
𝟐𝑳 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑞𝐴𝐿
ሶ = −ℎ𝐴(𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 ) 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = −𝟓(𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄 × 𝟎)
ℎ 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 𝟓𝒐
𝑞ሶ = − 𝒃 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪/𝒎 𝟒𝒐 𝒄 = −𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪/𝒎𝟐
𝐿
Part c
Now convection coefficient is halved but
volumetric heat generation remains same.

𝐸𝑖𝑛 = −𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛
ℎ 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 = −𝑞𝐿
ሶ
250 × 20 − 𝑇𝑠 = −1 × 106 × 0.05
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑜 = 220𝑜 𝐶 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑥=𝐿 =0
𝑇 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑎 + 𝑏(0) + 𝑐(0) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝒂 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝒐 𝑪 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑆 = −𝑘𝐴 (𝑥 = 0) 𝑏 1 × 104
𝑑𝑥 𝑐=− =
𝑑𝑇 2𝐿 2 × 0.05
= 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥
𝑑𝑥
250 × 20 − 220 = −5(𝑏 + 2𝑐 × 0) 𝟓𝒐
𝒄 = −𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪/𝒎𝟐
𝟒𝒐
𝒃 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪/𝒎
Part d 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑥=𝐿 =0
Now convection coefficient remains same 𝑑𝑥
but volumetric heat generation gets
𝑑𝑇
doubled. = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = −𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛
ℎ 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 = −𝑞𝐿
ሶ 𝑏 1 × 104
𝑐=− =
2𝐿 2 × 0.05
500 × 20 − 𝑇𝑠 = −2 × 106 × 0.05
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑜 = 220𝑜 𝐶
𝟓𝒐
𝑇 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑎 + 𝑏(0) + 𝑐(0) 𝒄 = −𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪/𝒎𝟐
𝒂 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝒐 𝑪
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑆 = −𝑘𝐴 (𝑥 = 0)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥
𝑑𝑥
250 × 20 − 220 = −5(𝑏 + 2𝑐 × 0)

𝟒𝒐
𝒃 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪/𝒎
2-46. A steam pipe is wrapped with insulation of inner and outer radii 𝑟𝑖 and 𝑟𝑜 ,
respectively. At a particular instant the temperature distribution in the insulation is
known to be of the form
𝒓
𝑻 𝒓 = 𝑪𝟏 𝐥𝐧 + 𝑪𝟐
𝒓𝒐

Are conditions steady-state or transient? How do the heat flux and heat rate vary
with radius?
Using Heat diffusion equation in cylindrical
coordinate system

𝝏𝑻
=𝟎
𝝏𝒕
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 Eq. 1
𝑘𝑟 = 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡
There is no change in temperature with
respect to time so the conditions are steady.
Since there is no internal heat generation
and temperature distribution is only in
radial direction.

𝑇 𝑟 = 𝐶1 ln 𝑟 − 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟𝑜 + 𝐶2
𝜕𝑇 𝐶1
=
𝜕𝑟 𝑟
𝑘 𝜕 𝐶1 𝜕𝑇
𝑟× = 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑡

𝑘 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝐶1 = 𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡
2-49. Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction occurs in a hollow cylindrical solid
of thermal conductivity 𝑘 = 16 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾, outer radius 𝑟0 = 1𝑚 and overall length
2𝑧𝑜 = 5𝑚, where the origin of the coordinate system is located at the midpoint of
the center line. The inner surface of the cylinder is insulated, and the temperature
distribution within the cylinder has the form 𝑇 𝑟, 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑟2 + 𝑐𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝑑𝑧 2 ,
where 𝑎 = 20𝑜 𝐶, 𝑏 = 150𝑜 𝐶/𝑚2 , 𝑐 = 12𝑜 𝐶, 𝑑 = 300𝑜 𝐶/𝑚2 and r and z are in
meters.
a. Determine the inner radius 𝑟𝑖 of the cylinder.
b. Obtain an expression for the volumetric rate of heat generation (𝑞ሶ 𝑊/𝑚 ሶ 3 ),
c. Determine the axial distribution of the heat flux at the outer surface 𝑞𝑟 ′′ (𝑟𝑜 , 𝑧).
What is the heat rate at the outer surface? Is it into or out of the cylinder?
d. Determine the radial distribution of the heat flux at the end faces of the
cylinder 𝑞𝑧 ′′ (𝑟, +𝑧𝑜 ) and 𝑞𝑧 ′′ 𝑟, −𝑧𝑜 . What are the corresponding heat rates?
Are they into or out of the cylinder?
e. Verify that your results are consistent with an overall energy balance on the
cylinder.
𝒓𝒊
𝒓𝒐

𝑻 𝒓, 𝒛 = −𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒓𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝒍𝒏𝒓 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒛𝟐

Part a Part b
Using Heat diffusion equation in cylindrical coordinate system
The radial flux is given by

𝝏𝑻
𝒒𝒓 ′′ = −𝒌
𝝏𝒓

𝑻 𝒓, 𝒛 = −𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒓𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝒍𝒏𝒓 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒛𝟐 Steady State conditions are given and temperature gradient is only
in radial and axial direction so
𝝏𝑻 𝟏𝟐
= 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒓 − 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝒌𝒓 + 𝒌 + 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛
𝑨𝒕 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒊 𝒒𝒓 ′′ = 𝟎 𝝏𝑻 𝟏𝟐 𝝏𝑻
= 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒓 − = −𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒛
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑻
𝟎 = −𝒌 (𝒓 = 𝒓𝒊 )
𝝏𝒓 𝒌 𝝏 𝟏𝟐 𝝏
𝒓 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒓 − +𝒌 −𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒛 + 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎
𝟏𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒛
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒓𝒊 − =𝟎
𝒓𝒊
𝒌 𝝏 𝟐
𝝏
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒓 − 𝟏𝟐 + 𝒌 −𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒛 + 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎
𝒓𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒛
𝒌
𝒓
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒓 − 𝒌(𝟔𝟎𝟎) + 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎 𝒒ሶ = 𝟎
Part c

The radial heat flux is given by

𝝏𝑻
𝒒𝒓 ′′ = −𝒌 (𝒓 = 𝒓𝒐 )
𝝏𝒓

𝝏𝑻 𝟏𝟐
= 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒓 −
𝝏𝒓 𝒓
𝑨𝒕 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒐 = 𝟏𝒎

𝝏𝑻
= 𝟐𝟖𝟖
𝝏𝒓

𝒒𝒓 ′′ (𝒓𝒐 , 𝒛) = −𝟏𝟔 × 𝟐𝟖𝟖 = −𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐

Area perpendicular to the 𝒒𝒓 ′′ is 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒐 𝟐𝒛𝒐 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝒎𝟐

𝒒𝒓 = −𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟖 × 𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟏 = −𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝑾

Part d

The axial heat flux is given by

𝝏𝑻
𝒒′′ (𝒓, +𝒛𝒐 ) = −𝒌 𝝏𝒛 (𝒛 = +𝒛𝒐 ) 𝒓𝒊

𝝏𝑻 𝒓𝒐
= −𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒛
𝝏𝒛

𝑨𝒕 𝒛 = +𝒛𝒐 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎

𝒒′′ (𝒓, +𝒛𝒐 ) = −𝟏𝟔(−𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟓) = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐖/𝒎𝟐

𝑨𝒕 𝒛 = −𝒛𝒐 = −𝟐. 𝟓𝒎
𝒒′′ (𝒓, −𝒛𝒐 ) = −𝟏𝟔(−𝟔𝟎𝟎 × −𝟐. 𝟓) = −𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐖/𝒎𝟐

The area perpendicular to the axial heat transfer = 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒐 − 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒊 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝟐

𝒒(𝒓, +𝒛𝒐 ) = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 = 𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟐 𝑾

𝒒 𝒓, −𝒛𝒐 = −𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 = −𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟐 𝑾
 Lecture 7
Thermal Network
The Plane Wall 𝑻∞,𝟏 > 𝑻∞,𝟐

𝑻∞,𝟏 𝑻∞,𝟐

𝑻𝑺,𝟐
𝑻𝑺,𝟏
𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐

𝒙
The Plane Wall
• A plane wall separates two fluids of different temperatures.
• The temperature distribution in the wall can be determined by solving the
heat equation with the proper boundary conditions.
• For steady state with no internal heat generation and for one dimensional
system: 𝒅 𝒅𝑻
𝒌 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
• If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is assumed to be constant,
the equation may be integrated twice to obtain the general solution.
𝑻 𝒙 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐
• To obtain the constants of integration, 𝑪𝟏 and 𝑪𝟐 , boundary conditions must
be introduced.
• We choose to apply conditions of the first kind at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿, in which
case.
• Applying the condition at 𝑥 = 0 to the general solution, it follows that

𝑻𝒔,𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐
The Plane Wall (Cont.)
• Similarly, at 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑻𝒔,𝟐 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑪𝟏 =
𝑳
• Substituting into the general solution, the temperature distribution is then
𝑻𝒔,𝟐 −𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑻 𝒙 = 𝒙+ 𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑳
• Now that we have the temperature distribution, we may use Fourier’s law, to determine the conduction heat
transfer rate.
𝒅𝑻 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 −𝑻𝒔,𝟐
𝒒𝒙 = −𝒌𝑨 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌𝑨 𝑳

• Note that 𝑨 is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer and, for the plane wall, it is a constant
independent of 𝑥.
• The heat flux is then 𝒒𝒙 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟐
𝒒𝒙 ′′ = =𝒌
𝑨 𝑳
• The above equations show that both heat transfer and heat flux are independent of 𝑥.
Thermal Resistance
• An analogy exists between the diffusion of heat and electrical charge.
• Just as an electrical resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal resistance may be associated with the
conduction of heat.
• Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate.
• It follows from that the thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is

𝑻𝒔,𝟏 −𝑻𝒔,𝟐
𝒒𝒙 = 𝒌𝑨
𝑳
• For electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides an electrical resistance of the form

𝑬𝒔,𝟏 − 𝑬𝒔,𝟐 𝑳 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 𝑳

𝑹𝒆 = = 𝑹𝒕,𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = =
𝑰 𝝈𝑨 𝒒𝒙 𝒌𝑨

• A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by convection at a surface.
• From Newton’s law of cooling,
𝒒 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )

• The thermal resistance for convection is then

𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ 𝟏
𝑹𝒕,𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = =
𝒒 𝒉𝑨
Thermal Resistance
𝒒
𝑻∞,𝟏 𝟏 𝑻𝑺,𝟏 𝑳 𝑻𝑺,𝟐 𝟏 𝑻∞,𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝐀 𝒌𝑨 𝒉𝟐 𝐀

𝑻∞,𝟏 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 − 𝑻∞,𝟐

𝒒𝒙 = = =
𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝒉𝟏 𝑨 𝒌𝑨 𝒉𝟐 𝑨

In terms of the overall temperature difference, 𝑻∞,𝟏 −𝑻∞,𝟐 , and the total thermal resistance, 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 , the heat transfer rate may also
be expressed as
𝑻∞,𝟏 − 𝑻∞,𝟐 𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝒒𝒙 = 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 = + +
𝑹 𝒉𝟏 𝑨 𝒌𝑨 𝒉𝟐 𝑨
𝒕𝒐𝒕
The Composite Wall 𝑻∞,𝟏 > 𝑻∞,𝟐

𝑻∞,𝟏

𝑻𝑺,𝟏
𝒉𝟏

𝑻𝟐

𝑻𝟑

𝑻𝑺,𝟒
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 𝑻∞,𝟒
𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶
𝒉𝟒

𝒙
The Composite Wall
➢ The one dimensional heat transfer rate for this system may be expressed as
𝑻∞,𝟏 − 𝑻∞,𝟒
𝒒𝒙 =
σ 𝑹𝒕
➢ where 𝑻∞,𝟏 − 𝑻∞,𝟒 is the overall temperature difference, and the summation
includes all thermal resistances. Hence

➢ Alternatively, the heat transfer rate can be related to the temperature difference
and resistance associated with each element. For example,
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇𝑠,3 𝑇𝑠,3 − 𝑇𝑠,4 𝑇𝑠,2 − 𝑇∞,2
𝑞𝑥 = = = = =
1 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝑐 1
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ4 𝐴
➢ With composite systems, it is often convenient to work with an overall heat
transfer coefficient U, which is defined by an expression analogous to Newton’s
law of cooling. Accordingly,
𝒒𝒙 = 𝑼𝑨∆𝑻
➢ ∆𝑻 is the overall temperature difference. The overall heat transfer coefficient U
is related to the total thermal resistance,
The Composite Wall
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4 𝟏
𝑞𝑥 =
σ 𝑅𝑡 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 𝑼𝑨 =
σ 𝑹𝒕

Hence, for the composite wall of Figure 3.2

In general, we may write

The Composite Wall
Contact Resistance

How to reduce thermal contact resistance?

 Lecture 8
Thermal Network (Cont.)
The Cylinder 𝑻∞,𝟐
𝒉𝟐

𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑻∞,𝟐
𝑻∞,𝟏
𝒒 𝑟2
𝑻𝒔,𝟐

𝑟1

𝑳
𝑻∞,𝟏
𝒉𝟏
The Cylinder (Cont.)
➢ For steady-state conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation.

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝑟 =0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
➢ Integrating twice to get the general distribution of temperature.
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝐶1
𝑘𝑟
𝑑𝑟
=C = 𝑇 𝑟 = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝐶2
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
➢ Applying boundary conditions.
𝐴𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑟1 , 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝐴𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑟2 , 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠,2

𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟1 + 𝐶2 1
𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟2 + 𝐶2 2
Solving for 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain
The Cylinder (Cont.)
➢ The temperature distribution is known and we can use Fourier’s law to determine the heat
transfer rate

➢ Alternatively, Consider a long cylindrical layer (such as a circular pipe) of inner radius 𝑟1 and
outer radius 𝑟2 , length 𝐿, and average thermal conductivity 𝑘
➢ The two surfaces of the cylindrical layer are maintained at constant temperatures 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝑇𝑠,2 .
➢ There is no heat generation in the layer and the thermal conductivity is constant.
➢ For one-dimensional heat conduction through the cylindrical layer, we have T(r). 𝒒
➢ Then Fourier’s law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the cylindrical layer can be
expressed as
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
➢ The area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer will be 𝐀 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑳

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘 × 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 ×
𝑑𝑟
The Cylinder (Cont.)
𝑟2 𝑇2
𝑞 𝑞
𝑑𝑟 = −𝑘 × 𝑑𝑇 න 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑘 න 𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝑟1 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝑇1

𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞= 𝑟2
ln ൗ𝑟1 ൘
2𝜋𝐿𝑘
➢ From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of the form.

𝑟2
ln ൗ𝑟1
𝑅𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =
2𝜋𝐿𝑘

➢ Note that since the value of 𝑞𝑟 is independent of 𝑟.

Composite Cylinder
Composite Cylinder
➢ The heat transfer from hot fluid to the colder fluid will be
𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇∞,4
𝑞𝑟 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

➢ The foregoing result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat

transfer coefficient. That is,
𝑻∞,𝟏 − 𝑻∞,𝟒
𝒒𝒓 = = 𝑼𝑨(𝑻∞,𝟏 − 𝑻∞,𝟒 )
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
➢ If U is defined in terms of the inside area, 𝐴1 = 2𝜋𝑟1𝐿 then,

➢ This definition is arbitrary, and the overall coefficient may also be defined in terms of A4 or
any of the intermediate areas. Note that
Critical Radius of Insulation
➢ Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius 𝑟1 whose outer surface temperature 𝑇1 is
maintained constant
➢ The pipe is now insulated with a material whose thermal conductivity is 𝑘 and outer
radius is 𝑟2 .
➢ Heat is lost from the pipe to the surrounding medium at temperature 𝑇∞ , with a
convection heat transfer coefficient h.
➢ The total thermal resistance per unit length of tube is then
𝑟
ln 𝑟 1
′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑖
+ 𝑇1 > 𝑇∞
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
➢ The rate of heat transfer per unit length of tube is
𝑇1 − 𝑇∞
𝑟 𝑟𝑖 𝑇∞
𝑞′ = ′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
➢ An optimum insulation thickness would be associated with the value of r that 𝑇1
minimized 𝑞 ′ or maximized 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡′ 𝒒

Apply insulation to reduce heat transfer

Critical Radius of Insulation
′
𝑑𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1 𝑘
=0 − =0 𝑟=
𝑑𝑟 2
2𝜋𝑘𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 ℎ ℎ
➢ To determine whether the foregoing result maximizes or minimizes the total resistance, the second
derivative must be evaluated. Hence
′
𝑑 2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1
2
=− 2
+ 3
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘𝑟 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
′
𝑘 𝑑 2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 1 1 1
𝐴𝑡 𝑟 =
ℎ = − = >0
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑘
𝜋( ൗℎ) 𝑘 2𝑘
2 3
2𝜋𝑘 /ℎ 2

➢ Since this result is always positive, it follows that 𝑟 = 𝑘/ℎ is the insulation radius for which the
total resistance is a minimum, not a maximum
➢ From the above result it makes more sense to think in terms of a critical insulation radius

𝑘
𝑟𝑐𝑟,𝑐𝑦𝑙 =
ℎ
Critical Radius of Insulation
𝑘
𝑟𝑐𝑟,𝑐𝑦𝑙 =
ℎ
➢ Note that the critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulation k
and the external convection heat transfer coefficient h.
➢ The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition of insulation for 𝑟 < 𝑟𝑐𝑟 ,
reaches a maximum when 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑐𝑟 , and starts to decrease for 𝑟 > 𝑟𝑐𝑟 .
➢ Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate of heat transfer from the pipe instead of
decreasing it when 𝑟 < 𝑟𝑐𝑟 .
The Sphere
➢ For steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no heat generation. The appropriate form of
Fourier’s law is

where 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer.

𝑟2 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞𝑟
න 2
𝑑𝑟 = −𝑘 න 𝑑𝑇
𝑟1 4𝜋𝑟 𝑇𝑠,1

4𝜋𝑘(𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑇𝑠,2 )
𝑞𝑟 =
1ൗ − (1ൗ )
𝑟1 𝑟2
➢ Remembering that the thermal resistance is defined as the temperature difference divided by the
heat transfer rate
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2
➢ Critical radius of insulation for a spherical shell
𝑘
𝑟𝑐𝑟,𝑠𝑝ℎ =
2ℎ
 Lecture 9
Problems Related to Thermal Network
3-3. The rear window of an automobile is defogged by passing warm air over its inner surface.
If the warm air is at 𝑇∞,𝑖 = 40𝑜 𝐶 and the corresponding convection coefficient is ℎ𝑖 =
30 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾, what are the inner and outer surface temperatures of 4 𝑚𝑚 thick window glass, if
the outside ambient air temperature is 𝑇∞,2 = −10𝑜 𝐶 and the associated convection coefficient
is ℎ𝑜 = 65 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾?
𝑇𝑠,2
𝑇𝑠,1

𝑇∞,𝑖 = 40𝑜 𝐶 𝑇∞,2 = −10𝑜 𝐶

ℎ𝑖 = 30 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 ℎ𝑜 = 65 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾

4 𝑚𝑚
 𝑇∞,𝑖 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,2 𝑇∞,𝑜

1 𝐿 1
ℎ𝑖 𝑘 ℎ𝑜
Heat flux will be Same heat flux will flow through each resistances so,
𝑇∞,𝑖− 𝑇∞,𝑜 𝑇∞,𝑖− 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1− 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞 ′′ = ′′ 𝑞 ′′ = 𝑞 ′′ =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 𝐿
′′
1 𝐿 1 ℎ𝑖 𝑘
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + +
ℎ𝑖 𝑘 ℎ𝑜
1 0.004 1
𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝑇∞,𝑖 − 𝑞 ′′ /ℎ𝑖 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑞′′ × 𝐿/𝑘
′′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + +
30 1.4 65
𝑇𝑠,1 = 40 − 970.8/30 𝑇𝑠,2 = 7.64 − 970.8 × 0.004/1.4
′′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.0515 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊

40 − (−10) 𝑇𝑠,1 = 7.64 𝐶 𝑜 𝑇𝑠,2 = 4.93𝑜 𝐶

𝑞 ′′ =
0.0515
𝑞 ′′ = 970.8 𝑊/𝑚2
3-6. In a manufacturing process, a transparent film is being bonded to a substrate as shown in
the sketch. To cure the bond at a temperature 𝑇𝑜 , a radiant source is used to provide a heat flux
𝑞′′𝑜 (𝑊/𝑚2 ), all of which is absorbed at the bonded surface. The back of the substrate is
maintained at 𝑇1 while the free surface of the film is exposed to air at𝑇∞ and a convection heat
transfer coefficient ℎ.
a. Show the thermal circuit representing the steady-state heat transfer situation. Be sure to
label all elements, nodes, and heat rates. Leave in symbolic form.
b. Assume the following conditions: 𝑇∞ = 20𝑜 𝐶, ℎ = 50 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 , and 𝑇1 = 30𝑜 𝐶. Calculate
the heat flux 𝑞′′𝑜 that is required to maintain the bonded surface at 𝑇0 = 60𝑜 𝐶.
Part a
𝐿𝑠 /𝑘𝑠 𝐿𝑓 /𝑘𝑓 1/ℎ
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝒐 𝑻∞

𝒒′′𝟏 𝒒′′𝟐

𝒒′′𝒐
Amount of heat flux through substrate will be Amount of heat flux through film will be Total heat flux will be the sum of heat flux through
film and substrate
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇1 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞
𝑞′′1 = 𝑞′′2 =
𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑓 1 𝑞′′𝑜 = 𝑞′′1 + 𝑞′′2
𝑘𝑠 +
𝑘𝑓 ℎ
60 − 30 60 − 20 𝑞′′𝑜 = 1500 + 1333.33
𝑞′′1 = 𝑞′′2 =
0.001/0.05 0.00025 1
+
0.025 50 𝑞′′𝑜 = 2833.33 𝑊/𝑚2
𝑞′′1 = 1500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝑞′′2 = 1333.33 𝑊/𝑚2
3-7. The walls of a refrigerator are typically constructed by sandwiching a layer of insulation
between sheet metal panels. Consider a wall made from fiberglass insulation of thermal
conductivity 𝑘𝑖 = 0.046 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 and thickness 𝐿𝑖 = 50 𝑚𝑚 and steel panels, each of thermal
conductivity 𝑘𝑝 = 60 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 and thickness 𝐿𝑃 = 3 𝑚𝑚. If the wall separates refrigerated air at
𝑇∞,𝑖 = 4𝑜 𝐶 from ambient air at 𝑇∞,𝑜 = 25𝑜 𝐶, what is the heat gain per unit surface area?
Coefficients associated with natural convection at the inner and outer surfaces may be
approximated as ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑜 = 5 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.

𝑇∞,𝑖 = 4𝑜 𝐶
𝑇∞,𝑜 = 25𝑜 𝐶

50 𝑚𝑚
3 𝑚𝑚 3 𝑚𝑚
 𝑇∞,𝑖 𝑇∞,𝑜

1/ℎ𝑖 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑃 𝐿𝑠 1/ℎ𝑜
ൗ𝑘 ൗ𝑘 ൗ𝑘
𝑠 𝑃 𝑠

Amount of heat flux will be given by

′′
𝑇∞,𝑖− 𝑇∞,𝑜
𝑞 = ′′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
′′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
1 𝐿𝑠
ℎ𝑖 𝑠
𝐿
𝑃
𝐿
+ ൗ𝑘 + 𝑃ൗ𝑘 + 𝑠ൗ𝑘 +
𝑠
1
ℎ𝑜
𝑞 ′′ = 14.12 𝑊/𝑚2
1 0.003 1
′′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = + ൗ60 + 0.05ൗ0.046 + 0.003ൗ0.046 +
5 5
′′
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 1.48 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊

25 − 4
𝑞 ′′ =
1.552
3-26. A composite wall separates combustion gases at 2600𝑜 𝐶 from a liquid coolant at 100𝑜 𝐶,
with gas- and liquid-side convection coefficients of 50 and 1000𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 . The wall is composed
of a 10 𝑚𝑚 thick layer of beryllium oxide on the gas side and a 20 𝑚𝑚 thick slab of stainless
steel (𝐴𝐼𝑆𝐼 304) on the liquid side. The contact resistance between the oxide and the steel is
0.05 𝑚2 𝑊/𝐾. What is the heat loss per unit surface area of the composite? Sketch the
temperature distribution from the gas to the liquid.

𝑇∞,𝑖 = 2600𝑜 𝐶 𝑇∞,0 = 100𝑜 𝐶

10 𝑚𝑚 20 𝑚𝑚
 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝑠
ൗ𝑘 𝑅′′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 ൗ𝑘
𝑇∞,𝑖 𝐵 𝑠
𝑇∞,𝑜

1/ℎ𝑖 𝑇 𝑇𝑐,1 𝑇𝑐,2 𝑇𝑠,2 1/ℎ𝑜

𝑠,1

Total amount of heat flux will be

𝑇∞,𝑖 − 𝑇∞,𝑜 2600 − 100
𝑞 ′′ = 𝑞 ′′ =
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 0.0721
1 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝑆 1
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + 𝑅′′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 + +
ℎ𝑖 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝑆 ℎ𝑜 𝑞′′ = 34672 𝑊/𝑚2
From table A-1
𝑘𝐵 = 21.5 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 @ 𝑇 = 1500 𝐾

𝑘𝑆 = 31.7 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 @ 𝑇 = 1500 𝐾

1 0.01 0.02 1
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + 0.05 + +
50 21.5 31.7 1000
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.0721 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊
Same amount of heat will transfer through each resistance so
𝑇∞,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑠,1
𝑞 ′′ =
1/ℎ𝑖
By rearranging Similarly
𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝑇∞,𝑖 − 𝑞′′ /ℎ𝑖 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝑇𝑐,2 − 𝑞′′ × 𝐿𝑆 /𝑘𝑠
𝑇𝑠,1 = 2600 − 34672/50 𝑇𝑠,2 = 155.4 − 34672 × 0.02/31.7
𝑇𝑠,1 = 1906𝑜 𝐶 𝑇𝑠,2 = 134𝑜 𝐶

𝑇∞,𝑖 = 2600𝑜 𝐶

𝑇𝑠,1 = 1906𝑜 𝐶
Similarly

𝑇𝑐,1 = 1889𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇𝑠,1 − 𝑞′′ × 𝐿𝐵 /𝑘𝐵
𝑇𝑐,1 = 1906 − 34672 × 0.01/21.5
𝑇𝑐,1 = 1889𝑜 𝐶

𝑇∞,0 = 100𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑐,1 = 155.4𝑜 𝐶
Similarly

𝑇𝑠,2 = 134𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇𝑐,1 − 𝑞′′ × 𝑅′′𝑐𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑐,2 = 1889 − 34672 × 0.05
𝑇𝑐,2 = 155.4𝑜 𝐶
 Lecture 10
Problem Related to Thermal Network (Cont.)

Asad Akhter Naqvi

3-30. The performance of gas turbine engines may be improved by increasing the
tolerance of the turbine blades to hot gases emerging from the combustor. One approach
to achieving high operating temperatures involves application of a thermal barrier
coating (TBC) to the exterior surface of a blade, while passing cooling air through the
blade. Typically, the blade is made from a high-temperature superalloy, such as Inconel
(𝑘 = 25 𝑊/𝑚𝐾), while a ceramic, such as zirconia (𝑘 = 1.3 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾), is used as a TBC.
Consider conditions for which hot gases at 𝑇∞,𝑜 = 1700 𝐾 and cooling air at 𝑇∞,𝑖2=
400 𝐾 provide outer2 and inner surface convection coefficients of ℎ𝑜 = 1000 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾
and ℎ𝑖 = 500 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾, respectively. If a 0.5 𝑚𝑚 thick zirconia TBC is attached to a 5 𝑚𝑚
thick Inconel blade wall by means of a metallic bonding agent, which provides an
interfacial thermal resistance of 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 = 10−4 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊, can the Inconel be maintained at a
temperature that is below its maximum allowable value of 1250 𝐾? Radiation effects
may be neglected, and the turbine blade may be approximated as a plane wall. Plot the
temperature distribution with and without the TBC.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Part a

In first case zirconia (TBC) is attached. 𝑇∞,𝑜 = 1700 𝐾

ℎ𝑜 = 1000 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑇3
𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇𝑠,4
𝑇𝑠,4
𝑇∞,𝑜 1 𝐿𝑧𝑟
𝑅′′𝑡,𝑐
𝐿𝑖𝑛 1 𝑇∞,𝑖
𝑞
ℎ𝑜 𝑘𝑧𝑟 𝑘𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖 𝑇∞,𝑖 = 400 𝐾
′′
𝑇∞,𝑜 − 𝑇∞,𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑞 = 5 𝑚𝑚
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
0.5 𝑚𝑚
1 𝐿𝑧𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑛 1 𝑞 ′′ 𝐿𝑖𝑛
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + 𝑅′′𝑡,𝑐 + + 𝑇𝑠,4 = 𝑇∞,𝑖 + ൘ℎ 𝑇3 = 𝑇𝑠,4 + 𝑞 ′′
ℎ𝑜 𝑘𝑧𝑟 𝑘𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖 𝑖 𝑘𝑖𝑛

1 0.0005 0.005 1 0.005

𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + 10−4 + + 𝑇𝑠,4 = 400 + 3.52 × 105
ൗ500 𝑇3 = 1104 + 3.52 × 105
1000 1.3 25 500 25

𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.00368 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊

𝑇𝑠,4 = 1104 𝐾 𝑇3 = 1174 𝐾
1700 − 400
𝑞 ′′ =
0.00368

𝑞 ′′ = 3.52 × 105 𝑊/𝑚2 Asad Akhter Naqvi

Part a

In second case zirconia (TBC) is not attached. 𝑇∞,𝑜 = 1700 𝐾

ℎ𝑜 = 1000 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,2
𝑇𝑠,1
1 𝐿𝑖𝑛 1 𝑇∞,𝑖
𝑇∞,𝑜 𝑇𝑠,2
ℎ𝑜 𝑘𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖

𝑞 ′′
𝑞 𝑇∞,𝑖 = 400 𝐾
′′
𝑇∞,𝑜 − 𝑇∞,𝑖 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝑇∞,𝑖 + ൘ℎ
𝑞 = 𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
1 𝐿𝑖𝑛 1 𝑇𝑠,2 = 400 + 406250ൗ500 5 𝑚𝑚
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + +
ℎ𝑜 𝑘𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖
𝑇𝑠,2 = 1212 𝐾
1 0.005 1
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + +
1000 25 500
′′
𝐿𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝑇𝑠,𝑖 + 𝑞
𝑅′′𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.0032 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊 𝑘𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑠,2 = 1212 + 406250 0.005ൗ25
1700 − 400
𝑞 ′′ = 𝑇𝑠,2 = 1293 𝐾
0.0032

𝑞 ′′ = 406250 𝑊/𝑚2 Asad Akhter Naqvi

3-48. A thin electrical heater is wrapped around the outer surface of a long cylindrical tube
whose inner surface is maintained at a temperature of 5𝑜 𝐶. The tube wall has inner and outer
radii of 25 and 75 𝑚𝑚, respectively, and a thermal conductivity of 10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾. The thermal
contact resistance between the heater and the outer surface of the tube (per unit length of the
tube) is 𝑅′𝑡,𝑐 = 0.01𝑚𝐾/𝑊. The outer surface of the heater is exposed to a fluid with 𝑇∞ =
− 10𝑜 𝐶 and a convection coefficient of ℎ = 100 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. Determine the heater power per unit
length of tube required to maintain the heater at 𝑇𝑜 = 25𝑜 𝐶.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏
𝑻∞ 𝑻𝒐 𝑻𝒊

𝑟 𝑇∞ = −10𝑜 𝐶
1/ℎ × 2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝑅′𝑡,𝑐 ln( 𝑜ൗ𝑟 )
𝑖 ℎ = 100 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
2𝜋𝑘
𝒒𝒐 𝑟𝑖 = 25 𝑚𝑚
Heat transfer from the heater to the Heat transfer from the heater to the
inside wall of the cylinder will be fluid will be

𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑞′2 =
𝑞′1 = 𝑟 1
ln( 𝑜ൗ𝑟 ) ℎ × 2𝜋 × 𝑟𝑜
𝑖 Total heat transfer will be
𝑅′𝑡,𝑐 +
2𝜋𝑘
25 − (−10)
25 − 5 𝑞′2 = 𝒒′𝒐 = 𝒒′𝟏 + 𝒒′𝟐
1
𝑞′1 =
ln(0.075ൗ0.025) 1 × 2𝜋 × 0.075
𝒒′𝒐 = 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + 1649
0.01 + 2𝜋 × 10
𝒒′𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟗 𝑾/𝒎 𝒒′𝒐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟑 𝑾/𝒎
𝒒′𝟏 = 𝟕𝟐𝟕 𝑾/𝒎
Asad Akhter Naqvi
3-51. Superheated steam at 575𝑜 𝐶 is routed from a boiler to the turbine of an electric power
plant through steel tubes (𝑘 = 35 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) of 300 𝑚𝑚 inner diameter and 30 𝑚𝑚 wall
thickness. To reduce heat loss to the surroundings and to maintain a safe-to-touch outer surface
temperature, a layer of calcium silicate insulation (𝑘 = 0.10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) is applied to the tubes,
while degradation of the insulation is reduced by wrapping it in a thin sheet of aluminum having
an emissivity of ε = 0.20. The air and wall temperatures of the power plant are 27𝑜 𝐶.
a. Assuming that the inner surface temperature of a steel tube corresponds to that of the steam
and the convection coefficient outside the aluminum sheet is 6 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾, what is the
minimum insulation thickness needed to ensure that the temperature of the aluminum does
not exceed 50𝑜 𝐶? What is the corresponding heat loss per meter of tube length?
b. Explore the effect of the insulation thickness on the temperature of the aluminum and the
heat loss per unit tube length.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 27𝑜 𝐶
𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝟐𝒕
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐(𝟑𝟎)
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝑇𝑜 = 50𝑜 𝐶

𝑟2 = 0.18𝑚
𝑇∞ = 27𝑜 𝐶
ℎ = 6 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑇𝑖 = 575𝑜 𝐶

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The heat conducted from the steam pipe to aluminum will
be transfer to the air and surroundings at 27𝑜 𝐶

𝑞′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞′𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑟2 = 2𝜋𝑟3 (ℎ 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑜4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4
)
ൗ𝑟 ) 𝑟
1
ln( + ln( 3ൗ𝑟2 )/2𝜋𝑘𝑖𝑛
2𝜋𝑘𝑠𝑡

575 − 50
= 2𝜋𝑟3 (6 50 − 27 + 0.2 × 5.67 × 10−8 (3234 − 3004 )
0.18ൗ
0.15) 𝑟
ln( + ln( 3ൗ0.18)/2𝜋(0.10)
2𝜋 30

Solving this equation will give you

𝒓𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟒 𝐦 = 𝟑𝟗𝟒 𝐦𝐦
𝑡𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟3 − 𝑟2

𝒕𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝒎 Asad Akhter Naqvi

Total amount of heat loss will be

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑞′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑟2
ൗ𝑟 ) 𝑟
1
ln( + ln( 3ൗ𝑟2 )/2𝜋𝑘𝑖𝑛
2𝜋𝑘𝑠𝑡

575 − 50
𝑞′𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =
(0.18ൗ0.15)
ln + ln(0.394ൗ0.18)/2𝜋(0.10)
2𝜋 30

𝒒′𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝑾/𝒎

Asad Akhter Naqvi

3-61. Steam flowing through a long, thin-walled pipe maintains the pipe wall at a
uniform temperature of 500 𝐾. The pipe is covered with an insulation blanket
comprised of two different materials, A and B. The interface between the two
materials may be assumed to have an infinite contact resistance, and the entire
outer surface is exposed to air for which 𝑇 = 300 𝐾 and ℎ = 25 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.
a. Sketch the thermal circuit of the system. Label (using the preceding symbols) all
pertinent nodes and resistances.
b. For the prescribed conditions, what is the total heat loss from the pipe? What
are the outer surface temperatures 𝑇𝑠,2(𝐴) and𝑇𝑠,2(𝐵) ?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑟 1
ln( 2ൗ𝑟1 )
𝒒𝑨
𝜋𝑘𝐴 ℎ × 𝜋𝑟2
𝒌𝑨 = 𝟐 𝑾/𝒎𝑲
𝑻𝒔,𝒐(𝑨)
𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐴)
𝒒𝑨
𝑇𝑠,𝑖 𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐵) 𝑇∞

𝒒𝑩 ln(𝑟2ൗ𝑟 ) 1
1

𝑟2 = 100 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝑘𝐵 ℎ × 𝜋𝑟2
𝑇𝑠,𝑖 = 500 𝐾

𝒒𝑩
𝑻𝒔,𝒐(𝑩)
𝒌𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝑾/𝒎𝑲

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Amount of heat flow through the material A Amount of heat flow through the material B
𝑇1 − 𝑇∞
𝑇1 − 𝑇∞ 𝑞′𝐵 =
𝑞′𝐴 = 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐵
𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐴
𝑟2
𝑟 ln ൗ𝑟1 1
ln 2ൗ𝑟1 1 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐵 = +
𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐴 = + 𝜋𝑘𝐵 ℎ(𝜋𝑟2 )
𝜋𝑘𝐴 ℎ(𝜋𝑟2 )
Total heat flow will be
ln 0.1ൗ0.05 1
ln 0.1ൗ0.05 1 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐵 = +
𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐴 = + 𝜋(0.25) 25(0.1𝜋)
𝜋(2) 25(0.1𝜋)
𝒒′ = 𝒒′𝑨 + 𝒒′𝑩
𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐴 = 0.237 𝑚𝐾/𝑊 𝑅′𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝐵 = 1.009 𝑚𝐾/𝑊

500 − 300 𝑞′𝐵 =

500 − 300 𝒒′ = 𝟖𝟒𝟐 + 𝟏𝟗𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 𝑾/𝒎
𝑞′𝐴 = 1.009
0.237

𝒒′𝑨 = 𝟖𝟒𝟐 𝑾/𝒎 𝒒′𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝑾/𝒎

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Amount of heat transfer through A Amount of heat transfer through B
𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐴) 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐵)
𝑞′𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑞′𝐵 = 𝑟
ln 2ൗ𝑟1 ln 2ൗ𝑟1
𝜋𝑘𝐴 𝜋𝑘𝐵
Rearranging Rearranging
𝑟2
𝑟 ln ൗ𝑟1
ln 2ൗ𝑟1 𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐵) = 𝑇𝑠,𝑖 − 𝑞 ′ 𝐵
𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐴) = 𝑇𝑠,𝑖 − 𝑞 ′ 𝐴 𝜋𝑘𝐵
𝜋𝑘𝐴

ln 0.1ൗ0.05 ln 0.1ൗ0.05
𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐴) = 500 − 842 𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐵) = 500 − 198
𝜋(2) 𝜋(0.25)

𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐴) = 407 𝐾 𝑇𝑠,𝑜(𝐵) = 325 𝐾

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 11
Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

Asad Akhter Naqvi

How heat transfer can be enhanced?
The rate of heat transfer from a surface at a temperature 𝑇𝑆 to the surrounding medium Increase 𝒉
at 𝑇∞ is given by Newton’s law of cooling as Increase 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞
Increase 𝑨
𝒒 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
𝑻∞ cant be decrease practically

𝑻∞ 𝑻∞

𝑻𝒔 𝑻𝒔

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Fin Equation
➢ Consider the extended surface of as shown in fig.
➢ Assume one-dimensional conditions in the longitudinal (x-) direction
➢ Consider steady-state conditions the thermal conductivity is constant, radiation
from the surface is negligible, no heat generation, and the convection heat transfer
coefficient h is uniform over the surface.
➢ Applying the conservation of energy requirement

𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 1
➢ From Fourier’s law we know that
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐
𝑑𝑥
➢ where 𝐴𝑐 is the cross-sectional area, which may vary with x.
Since the conduction heat rate at 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 may be expressed as
𝑑𝑞𝑥
𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 −𝑘 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Fin Equation
➢ The convection heat transfer rate may be expressed as
𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝑑𝐴𝑠 (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ )
➢ where 𝑑𝐴𝑠 is the surface area of the differential element.
➢ Eq. 1 can be written as
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘𝐴𝑐 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 −𝑘 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑥 + ℎ𝑑𝐴𝑠 (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑇 ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑐 − 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑇 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑇 ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑐 2 + − 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥

➢ Dividing whole equation by 𝐴𝑐

𝑑2𝑇 1 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑇 1 ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑠

+ − 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑐 𝑘 𝑑𝑥

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
𝑑2𝑇 1 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑇 1 ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑠
+ − 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑐 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
➢ With the simplest case of straight rectangular and pin fins of uniform cross section
➢ Each fin is attached to a base surface of temperature 𝑇 0 = 𝑇𝑏 and extends into a
fluid of temperature 𝑇∞
➢ 𝐴𝑐 is a constant and 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝐴𝑠
➢ Accordingly, with = 0 and =𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑇 ℎ𝑃
− 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝐴𝑐
Defining
𝜽 𝒙 = 𝑻 𝒙 − 𝑻∞
𝑑𝜽 𝑑𝑇
➢ since 𝑻∞ is a constant, = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑇 ℎ𝑃
− 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝐴𝑐
𝑑2𝜃 ℎ𝑃
− 𝑚2 𝜃 = 0 𝑚2 =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝐴𝑐

➢ Its general solution is of the form

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑃)
𝜃 𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 2 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
𝜃 𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥
When 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑏

𝜃 0 = 𝜃𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞
➢ Consider case A, where at the tip the amount of conduction
is equal to the convection to the air
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑑𝑇
ℎ𝐴𝑐 𝑇 𝐿 − 𝑇∞ = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 ቤ𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃
ℎ𝜃 𝐿 = −𝑘 ቤ𝑥 = 𝐿 3
𝑑𝑥
➢ Now applying boundary conditions
𝜃𝑏 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐴 𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗
𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝜃 𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝜃
ቤ 𝑥 = 𝐿 = 𝑚(𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝐿 − 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝐿 )
𝑑𝑥

ℎ 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝐿 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝐿 = 𝑘 𝑚(𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝐿 + 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝐿 ) 𝐵

Asad Akhter Naqvi
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
➢ Solving equations A and B we will get
𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒎 𝑳 − 𝒙 + ( 𝒉Τ𝒎𝒌) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒎(𝑳 − 𝒙)
=
𝜽𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒎𝑳 + ( 𝒉Τ𝒎𝒌) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒎𝑳
➢ Using Fourier’s law to determine the heat transfer through the fin
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝜃
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑞𝑏 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 ቤ (𝑥 = 0) = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 ቤ (𝑥 = 0)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
➢ Hence, knowing the temperature distribution, 𝜃(𝑥), 𝑞𝑓 may be evaluated, giving

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒎𝑳 + (𝒉Τ𝒎𝒌) 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎𝑳

𝒒𝒇 = 𝒉𝑷𝒌𝑨𝒄 𝜽𝒃
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎𝑳 + (𝒉Τ𝒎𝒌) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒎𝑳

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
➢ Assume Case B, in which convective heat loss from the fin tip is negligible, in
which case the tip may be treated as adiabatic and
𝑑𝜃
ቤ 𝑥=𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝜃 𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝜃
ቤ 𝑥 = 𝐿 = 𝑚 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝐿 − 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝐿 − 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑚𝐿 = 0
➢ While at base
𝜃 0 = 𝜃𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞
➢ Using these boundary condition,
𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎(𝑳 − 𝒙)
=
𝜽𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎𝑳
➢ Using Fourier’s law of heat transfer
𝑞𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝜃
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑞𝑏 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 ቤ (𝑥 = 0) = −𝑘𝐴𝑐 ቤ (𝑥 = 0)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝒒𝒇 = 𝒉𝑷𝒌𝑨𝒄 𝜽𝒃 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒎𝑳
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
➢ Assume Case C, where fin is very long it means
𝑳 → ∞ 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝜽𝑳 → 𝟎

𝜽
= 𝒆−𝒎𝒙
𝜽𝒃

𝒒𝒇 = 𝒉𝑷𝒌𝑨𝒄 𝜽𝒃

𝑻∞

𝑻∞

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Asad Akhter Naqvi
Fin Performance
Fin Effectiveness
➢ Fins are used to enhance heat transfer, and the use of fins on a surface
cannot be recommended unless the enhancement in heat transfer
justifies the added cost and complexity associated with the fins.
➢ In fact, there is no assurance that adding fins on a surface will enhance
heat transfer.
➢ The performance of the fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement
in heat transfer relative to the no-fin case.
➢ The performance of fins expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness 𝜀𝑓𝑖𝑛
is defined as 𝒒𝒇𝒊𝒏 𝒒𝒇𝒊𝒏
𝜺𝒇𝒊𝒏 = =
𝒒𝒏𝒐,𝒇𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝑨𝒄,𝒃 𝜽𝒃
➢ An effectiveness of 𝜺𝒇𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏 indicates that the addition of fins to the
surface does not affect heat transfer at all
➢ An effectiveness of 𝜺𝒇𝒊𝒏 < 𝟏 indicates that the fin actually acts as
insulation, slowing down the heat transfer from the surface.
➢ An effectiveness of 𝜺𝒇𝒊𝒏 > 𝟏 indicates that fins are enhancing heat
transfer from the surface, as they should.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Fin Performance
Fin Efficiency 𝒒
➢ The maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy is the rate that
would exist if the entire fin surface were at the base temperature.
𝑇𝑏
𝑞𝑓𝑖𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ )

𝑞𝑓𝑖𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃𝑏 𝒙
𝑇(𝑥)

𝑞𝑓 𝑞𝑓
𝜂𝑓 = =
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃𝑏

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Lecture 12
Problems

Asad Akhter Naqvi

3-63. A storage tank consists of a cylindrical section that has a length and inner
diameter of 𝐿 = 2 𝑚 and 𝐷𝑖 = 1𝑚, respectively, and two hemispherical end
sections. The tank is constructed from 20 𝑚𝑚 thick glass (Pyrex) and is exposed to
ambient air for which the temperature is 300 𝐾 and the convection coefficient is
10 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. The tank is used to store heated oil, which maintains the inner surface
at a temperature of 400 𝐾. Determine the electrical power that must be supplied
to a heater submerged in the oil if the prescribed conditions are to be maintained.
Radiation effects may be neglected, and the Pyrex may be assumed to have a
thermal conductivity of 1.4 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝐿 = 2𝑚

𝐷𝑖 = 1 𝑚

𝒒𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊 𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑲
𝒒𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊

𝑇∞ = 300 𝐾
ℎ = 10𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝒒𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊
𝑫𝒐 = 𝑫𝒊 + 𝟐𝒕
𝑫𝒐 = 𝟏 + 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐)
𝑫𝒐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 𝒎

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 1
𝑅𝑐𝑦𝑙 ℎ × 2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝐿

1
𝑅ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖
𝑇𝑖 ℎ × 2𝜋𝑟𝑜2
𝒒 𝑇𝑜
1
𝑅ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖 ℎ × 2𝜋𝑟𝑜2

Total amount of heat transfer will be 𝑞 = 5703 + 2958

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑦𝑙 + 2𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝒒 = 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟏 𝑾
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑦𝑙 + 𝑞𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑞= 𝑟 +
ln 𝑜ൗ𝑟𝑖 1 1 1 1
1 − +
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
+
ℎ × 2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝐿
2𝜋𝑘 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑜 ℎ × 4𝜋𝑟𝑜2

400 − 300 400 − 300

𝑞= +
ln 0.52ൗ0.5 1 1 1 1
1 − +
+ 2𝜋 × 1.4 1 1.04 10 × 4𝜋1.042
2𝜋 × 1.4 × 2 10 × 2𝜋 × 2 × 1.04 Asad Akhter Naqvi
3-76. A spherical tank of 3 𝑚 diameter contains a liquified petroleum gas at −60𝑜 𝐶. Insulation
with a thermal conductivity of 0.06 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 and thickness 250 𝑚𝑚 is applied to the tank to
reduce the heat gain.
a. Determine the radial position in the insulation layer at which the temperature is 0𝑜 𝐶 when
the ambient air temperature is 20𝑜 𝐶 and the convection coefficient on the outer surface is
6 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.
b. If the insulation is pervious to moisture from the atmospheric air, what conclusions can you
reach about the formation of ice in the insulation? What effect will ice formation have on
heat gain to the LP gas? How could this situation be avoided?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑡 = 250 𝑚𝑚

𝑻𝒐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒐 𝑪
𝒉 = 𝟔 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲
𝒅𝒊 = 𝟑𝒎

𝑻𝒊 = −𝟔𝟎𝒐 𝑪

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝑻𝒐 𝑻𝒊

1 1 1 1
−
2𝜋𝑘 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑜 ℎ × 4𝜋𝑟𝑜2 𝑘

𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑖
𝑞=
1 1 1 1
− +
2𝜋𝑘 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑜 ℎ × 4𝜋𝑟02 0 − (−60)
612.4 =
1 1 1
20 − (−60) 2𝜋 × 0.06 3 − 𝑑𝑥
𝑞=
1 1 1 1
− +
2𝜋 × 0.06 3 3.5 6 × 4𝜋 × 1.752

𝑑𝑥 = 3.37 m
𝒒 = 𝟔𝟏𝟐. 𝟒 𝑾
𝑟𝑥 = 1.685 m
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑞=
1 1 1
−
2𝜋𝑘 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑥
Asad Akhter Naqvi
3-129. A long, circular aluminum rod is attached at one end to a heated wall and
transfers heat by convection to a cold fluid.
a. If the diameter of the rod is tripled, by how much would the rate of heat
removal change?
b. If a copper rod of the same diameter is used in place of the aluminum, by how
much would the rate of heat removal change?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝐷

3𝐷

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Part A Part B

For a long fin heat transfer will be Aluminum is replaced by copper

𝑘𝐴𝐿 = 237 𝑊/𝑚𝐾

𝑞= ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏
𝑘𝐶𝑢 = 401 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
𝑃𝐷 = 𝜋𝐷
𝑞𝐶𝑢 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐶𝑢 𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏
𝜋 =
𝐴𝑐,𝐷 = 𝐷2 𝑞𝐴𝑙 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝑐, 𝜃𝑏
4
When a diameter is tripled 𝑞𝐶𝑢 401
=
𝑃3𝐷 = 𝜋 3𝐷 = 3𝜋𝐷 = 3𝑃𝐷 𝑞𝐴𝑙 237
𝜋 𝜋 𝒒𝑪𝒖
𝐴𝑐,3𝐷 = (3𝐷)2 = 9 𝐷2 = 9𝐴𝑐,𝐷 = 𝟏. 𝟑
4 4 𝒒𝑨𝒍
𝑞3𝐷 ℎ 3𝑃𝐷 𝑘(9𝐴𝑐,𝐷 )𝜃𝑏
=
𝑞𝐷 ℎ𝑃𝐷 𝑘𝐴𝑐,𝐷 𝜃𝑏

𝒒𝟑𝑫
= 𝟓. 𝟐
𝒒𝑫
Asad Akhter Naqvi
3-130. A brass rod 100 𝑚𝑚 long and 5 𝑚𝑚 in diameter extends horizontally from a
casting at 200𝑜 𝐶. The rod is in an air environment with 𝑇∞ = 20𝑜 𝐶 and ℎ = 30 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.
What is the temperature of the rod 25, 50, and 100 𝑚𝑚 from the casting?

𝐿 = 100 𝑚𝑚

𝑇∞ = 20𝑜 𝐶 ℎ = 30 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾

𝐷 = 5 𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑏 = 200𝑜 𝐶

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The temperature distribution will be

𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑚 𝐿 − 𝑥 + ( ℎΤ𝑚𝑘) sinh 𝑚(𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝜃(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 13.43 0.1 − 𝑥 + ( 30Τ13.43 × 133) sinh 13.43(0.1 − 𝑥)
= =
𝜃𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑚𝐿 + ( ℎΤ𝑚𝑘) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑚𝐿 180 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(13.43 × 0.1) + ( 30Τ13.43 × 133) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(13.43 × 0.1)

ℎ𝑃
𝑚= 𝜃(𝑥) = 𝑇(𝑥) − 𝑇∞
𝑘𝐴𝑐

𝑃 = 𝜋𝐷 = 0.005𝜋
200 + 20
𝑇ത = = 110𝑜 𝐶 𝑥 cosh 𝑚(𝐿 − 𝑥) sinh 𝑚(𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝜃 𝑇 (𝑜 𝐶)
2
At 𝑇ത = 110𝑜 𝐶
0.025 1.55 1.19 136.5 156.5
𝑘𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 133 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
0.05 1.24 0.725 108.9 128.9
30 × 0.005𝜋 0.1 1 0 87 107
𝑚= 𝜋
133 × ( 4 × 0.0052 )

𝑚 = 13.43 𝑚−1

𝜃𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ = 200 − 20 = 180𝑜 𝐶

Asad Akhter Naqvi

3-133. The extent to which the tip condition affects the thermal performance of a fin depends on
the fin geometry and thermal conductivity, as well as the convection coefficient. Consider an
alloyed aluminum (𝑘 = 180 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾) rectangular fin whose base temperature is 𝑇𝑏 = 100𝑜 𝐶.
The fin is exposed to a fluid of temperature 𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶, and a uniform convection coefficient of
ℎ = 100 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 may be assumed for the fin surface.
• For a fin of length 𝐿 = 10 𝑚𝑚, thickness 𝑡 = 1 𝑚𝑚, and width 𝑤 ≫ 𝑡, determine the fin heat
transfer rate per unit width 𝑞′𝑓 , efficiency 𝜂𝑓 , effectiveness 𝜀𝑓 , thermal resistance per unit
width 𝑅′𝑡,𝑓 , and tip temperature 𝑇(𝐿) for Cases A and B of Table 3.4. Contrast your results with
those based on an infinité fin approximation

𝐿 = 10 𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 1 𝑚𝑚

𝑤≫𝑡
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Case A
sinh 𝑚𝐿 + (ℎΤ𝑚𝑘) cosh 𝑚𝐿
𝑞𝑓 = ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏
cosh 𝑚𝐿 + (ℎΤ𝑚𝑘) sinh 𝑚𝐿

𝑃 = 2 𝑤 + 𝑡 = 2𝑤 𝑤
𝑀= ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏 = ℎ × 2𝑤 × 𝑘(𝑤𝑡)𝜃𝑏 = 𝑤 2ℎ𝑘𝑡𝜃𝑏 𝑡

𝑀 = 𝑤 2 × 100 × 0.001 × 180 × 75 𝑞𝑓 𝑞𝑓 𝑞′𝑓

𝜀𝑓 = 𝜀𝑓 = 𝜀𝑓 =
𝑀′ = 450𝑊/𝑚 ℎ𝐴𝑏 𝜃𝑏 ℎ × 𝑤 × 𝑡 × 𝜃𝑏 ℎ × 𝑡 × 𝜃𝑏
𝟏𝟓𝟏
ℎ𝑃 100 × 2𝑤 𝜺𝒇 = = 𝟐𝟎
𝑚= = = 33.33𝑚−1 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 × 𝟕𝟓
𝑘𝐴𝑐 180 × 𝑤 × 0.001
𝜃 75 𝑹′𝒕,𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎𝑲/𝑾
sinh(33.33 × 0.01) + (100Τ33.33 × 180) cosh(33.33 × 0.01) 𝑅′𝑡,𝑓 = 𝑞′𝑏 = 151C
𝑞′𝑓 = 450 𝑓
cosh(33.33 × 0.01) + (100Τ33.33 × 180) sinh(33.33 × 0.01)
𝒒′𝒇 = 𝟏𝟓𝟏 𝑾/𝒎
𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑚 𝐿 − 𝑥 + ( ℎΤ𝑚𝑘) sinh 𝑚(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑞𝑓 𝑞𝑓 =
𝜂𝑓 = 𝜂𝑓 = 𝜃𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑚𝐿 + ( ℎΤ𝑚𝑘) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑚𝐿
𝑞𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ × 𝑤(2𝐿 + 𝑡) + 𝜃𝑏
𝑞𝑓 𝑇 − 25 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 0 + ( 100Τ33.33 × 180) sinh 0
𝑞′𝑓 =
𝜂𝑓 = 𝜂𝑓 = 75 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 33.33 × 0.01 + ( 100Τ33.33 × 0.01) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 33.33 × 0.01
ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃𝑏 ℎ × (2𝐿 + 𝑡) + 𝜃𝑏
𝟏𝟓𝟏 𝒐𝑪
𝜼𝒇 = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝑻 =
Asad Akhter Naqvi
𝟗𝟓. 𝟔
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × (𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏) × 𝟕𝟓
Case B 𝜃 75
𝑅′𝑡,𝑓 = 𝑞′𝑏 = 144.6C
𝑓
𝑞𝑓 = ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐 𝜃𝑏 tanh 𝑚𝐿
𝑹′𝒕,𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝑲/𝑾
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑤 2ℎ𝑘𝑡𝜃𝑏 tanh 𝑚𝐿

𝑞′𝑓 = 2 × 100 × 0.001 × 180 × 75 tanh(33.33 × 0.01) 𝜃 cosh 𝑚(𝐿 − 𝑥)

=
𝜃𝑏 cosh 𝑚𝐿
𝒒′𝒇 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟔 𝑾/𝒎
𝑞𝑓 𝑇 − 25 cosh 0
𝜂𝑓 = =
𝑞𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 75 cosh 33.33 × 0.01
𝑞′𝑓
𝜂𝑓 =
ℎ × (2𝐿 + 𝑡) × 𝜃𝑏 𝑻 = 𝟗𝟔𝒐 𝑪
𝜼𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐
𝑞𝑓
𝜀𝑓 =
ℎ𝐴𝑏 𝜃𝑏
𝑞′𝑓
𝜀𝑓 =
ℎ × 𝑡 × 𝜃𝑏

𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟔
𝜺𝒇 = = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟑
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 × 𝟕𝟓 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Lecture 13
Transient Conduction

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Lump
➢Lump is a body whose interior temperature remains essentially uniform at all positions during
a heat transfer process. Temperature of such bodies can be taken as a function of time only.

a. Copper ball b. Beef roast

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Lump Capacitance
𝑬𝒔𝒕 𝑇𝑖

𝑇∞ < 𝑇𝑖
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑇∞

𝑇(𝑡)

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Lump Capacitance
➢ The rate of heat loss at the surface to the rate of change of the
internal energy.
𝑬𝒊𝒏 + 𝑬𝒈𝒆𝒏 − 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑬𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅
−𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑑𝑇
−ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 𝜌𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡
➢ Introducing the temperature difference
𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇∞
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑇
= 𝑖𝑓 𝑇∞ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑑𝜃
= −𝜃
ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝑡
➢ Separating variables and integrating from the initial condition,
for which 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑇 0 = 𝑇𝑖 , we then obtain

𝜃𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ Asad Akhter Naqvi

Lump Capacitance
➢ Evaluating the integrals, it follows that
𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝜃𝑖
ln = 𝑡 𝐴
ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃
𝜃 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= = exp − 𝑡 𝐵
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝑐

➢ Equation A may be used to determine the time required for the

solid to reach some temperature 𝑇
➢ Equation B may be used to compute the temperature reached
by the solid at some time t.
➢ The foregoing results indicate that the difference between the
solid and fluid temperatures must decay exponentially to zero
as t approaches infinity.
1
𝜏𝑡 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 = 𝑅𝑡 𝐶𝑡
ℎ𝐴𝑠
➢ 𝑅𝑡 is the resistance to convection heat transfer and 𝐶𝑡 is the
lumped thermal capacitance of the solid. Asad Akhter Naqvi
Lump Capacitance
➢ To determine the total energy transfer Q occurring up to some time t, we simply
write

➢ Substituting for from Equation B and integrating

𝑡
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝜃𝑖 1 − exp −
𝜏𝑡

𝑄 = −𝐸𝑠𝑡

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Validity of the Lumped Capacitance Method
➢ Although we are assuming steady-state conditions, the following criterion is
readily extended to transient processes.
➢ One surface is maintained at a temperature 𝑇𝑠,1 and the other surface is
exposed to a fluid of temperature 𝑇∞ < 𝑇𝑠,1 𝑇𝑠,1

➢ Hence under steady-state conditions the surface energy balance 𝑇𝑠,2

𝑇∞
➢ Rearranging, we then obtain

𝑻𝒔,𝟏 − 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 (𝑳Τ𝒌𝑨) 𝑹𝒕,𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝑳

= = = = 𝑩𝒊
𝑻𝒔,𝟐 − 𝑻∞ (𝟏Τ𝒉𝑨) 𝑹𝒕,𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 𝒌
𝐡𝐋
➢ The quantity ( 𝐤 ) is a dimensionless parameter. It is termed the Biot number.
➢ In particular, if Bi ≪ 1, the resistance to conduction within the solid is much
less than the resistance to convection across the fluid boundary layer.
➢ Hence, the assumption of a uniform temperature distribution within the solid
is reasonable if the Biot number is small.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Validity of the Lumped Capacitance Method
Define the characteristic length
𝑉
𝐿𝐶 =
𝐴𝑠
𝜃 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= = exp − 𝑡
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝑐

ℎ𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑡 𝑘 ℎ𝐿𝑐 𝑘 𝑡 ℎ𝐿𝑐 𝛼𝑡

t= = × = × =
𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝜌𝑐𝐿𝑐 𝜌𝑐𝐿𝑐 𝑘 𝑘 𝜌𝑐 𝐿2𝑐 𝑘 𝐿2𝑐

ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑡
= 𝐵𝑖. 𝐹𝑜
𝜌𝑉𝑐
𝛼𝑡
𝐹𝑜 = 2
𝐿𝑐

➢ It is termed the Fourier number. It is a dimensionless time, which, with

the Biot number, characterizes transient conduction problems.

𝜃 𝑇 − 𝑇∞
= = exp −𝐵𝑖. 𝐹𝑜
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
Asad Akhter Naqvi
5-6. Steel balls 12 𝑚𝑚 in diameter are annealed by heating to 1150 𝐾 and then slowly cooling
to 400 𝐾 in an air environment for which 𝑇∞ = 325 𝐾 and ℎ = 20 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. Assuming the
properties of the steel to be 𝑘 = 40 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾, ρ = 7800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and 𝑐 = 600 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾, estimate
the time required for the cooling process.

𝑻
𝑇∞ = 325 𝐾 1150 𝐾

𝐷 = 12 𝑚𝑚
400 𝐾
𝑇𝑖 = 1150 𝐾

𝒕
𝑡

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Characteristic length 400 − 325 20
= exp − 𝑡
1150 − 325 7800 × 600 × 0.002
4 3
𝑉 3 𝜋𝑅 𝑅 0.0909 = exp − 0.0021 𝑡
𝐿𝑐 = = =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑅2 3
𝐿𝑐 = 2 𝑚𝑚
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝒔
Biot number will be given by

𝐵𝑖 =
ℎ𝐿𝑐 20 × 0.002
= 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑘 40
𝐵𝑖 = 0.001 ≪ 1
Lumped system

𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= exp − 𝑡
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝑐

𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ
= exp − 𝑡
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝐿𝑐 𝑐

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Example-4-1. The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by a thermocouple whose
junction can be approximated as a 1-mm-diameter sphere, as shown in Fig. 4–9. The properties
of the junction are 𝑘 = 35 𝑊/𝑚𝐾, ρ = 8500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and 𝐶𝑝 = 320 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 · °𝐶, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient between the junction and the gas is ℎ = 210 𝑊/𝑚2 K.
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to read 99 percent of the initial
temperature difference.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Characteristic length In order to read 99 percent of the initial temperature difference 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
between the junction and the gas, we must have
4 3 210
𝑉 3 𝜋𝑅 𝑅 0.01 = exp − 𝑡
𝐿𝑐 = = = 8500 × 320 × 0.000166
𝐴 4𝜋𝑅2 3
𝐿𝑐 = 0.000166 𝑚
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐬
Biot number will be given by
ℎ𝐿𝑐 210 × 0.000166
𝐵𝑖 = =
𝑘 35
𝐵𝑖 = 0.001 < 0.1
Lumped system

𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= exp − 𝑡
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝑐

𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ
= exp − 𝑡
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝐿𝑐 𝑐

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 14
Radiation: Processes and Properties

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓

𝑻𝒔 > 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓

𝑻𝒔

Vacuum
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Introduction
➢ Consider a hot object that is suspended in an evacuated chamber whose walls
are at room temperature.
➢ The hot object will eventually cool down and reach thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings.
➢ That is, it will lose heat until its temperature reaches the temperature of the
walls of the chamber.
➢ Heat transfer between the object and the chamber could not have taken place by
conduction or convection, because these two mechanisms cannot occur in a
vacuum.
➢ Therefore, heat transfer must have occurred through another mechanism that
involves the emission of the internal energy of the object. This mechanism is
radiation.
➢ We associate thermal radiation with the rate at which energy is emitted by
matter as a result of its finite temperature.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

What is Radiation?
➢ Radiation is the propagation of a collection of particles termed photons or quanta.
➢ Alternatively, radiation may be viewed as the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
𝒄
𝝀=
𝝂
➢ the intermediate portion of the spectrum, which extends from approximately 0.1 to 100 m and
includes a portion of the UV and all of the visible and infrared (IR), that is termed thermal
radiation

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Radiation Heat Fluxes
Emissive Power
➢ The emissive power, E (𝑊/𝑚2 ), is the rate at which radiation is emitted
from a surface per unit surface area, over all wavelengths and in all
directions.
𝑬 = 𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔
Irradiation G
➢ The rate at which radiation is incident upon the surface per unit surface area,
over all wavelengths and from all directions.

Incident radiation

Reflected

Absorbed Semi transparent material

Transmitted
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Heat Fluxes
Irradiation
We define,
➢ Reflectivity (𝝆) as the fraction of the irradiation that is reflected.
➢ Absorptivity (𝜶) as the fraction of the irradiation that is absorbed.
➢ Transmissivity (𝝉) as the fraction of the irradiation that is transmitted.

𝝆+𝜶+𝝉=𝟏
A medium that experiences no transmission (𝝉 = 𝟎) is opaque, in which
case
𝝆+𝜶=𝟏
Radiosity
➢ It accounts for all the radiant energy leaving the surface.
➢ For an opaque surface, it includes emission and the reflected portion of
the irradiation.
➢ It is therefore expressed as
𝑱 = 𝑬 + 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒇 = 𝑬 + 𝝆𝑮

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Radiation Heat Fluxes
Net radiative flux
➢ The net radiative flux from a surface, ( 𝑊/𝑚2 ), is the
difference between the outgoing and incoming radiation

𝒒′′𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑱 − 𝑮 𝒒′′𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑬 + 𝝆𝑮 − 𝑮

𝒒′′𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑬 − 𝑮(𝟏 − 𝝆) 𝒒′′𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔 − 𝜶𝑮

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Radiation Heat Fluxes

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Solid angle

𝑟
𝑠
𝜃

𝒔 = 𝒓𝜽
𝐬
𝜽=
𝐫

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Solid angle
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑆
𝑑∅
𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

𝑑∅
∅

𝒅𝑺 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅∅ × 𝒓𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝑺 = 𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅∅𝒅𝜽 𝑑𝜔 =
𝑑𝑆
Asad Akhter Naqvi 𝑟2
Solid angle
𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝜔 = 2
𝑟

𝑑𝑆 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑∅𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜔 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑∅𝑑𝜃

2π π/2
ω = න dω = න න sin θ d∅dθ
0 0

ω = 2π steradians

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Radiation Intensity
➢ The rate at which radiant energy is emitted at the wavelength in the (θ,ϕ)
direction, per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction, per unit
solid angle about this direction, and per unit wavelength interval dλ about λ
𝑑𝑞
𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 =
𝑑𝐴1 cos 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜔. 𝑑𝜆
➢ where (𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝜆)= 𝑑𝑞𝜆 is the rate at which radiation of wavelength leaves dA1 and
passes through 𝑑𝐴𝑛
𝑑𝑞𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙 . 𝑑𝐴1 cos 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜔.
➢ The radiation flux for emitted radiation is the emissive power E (the rate at which
radiation energy is emitted per unit area of the emitting surface.

➢ For a diffusely emitting surface, the intensity of the emitted radiation is

independent of direction and thus 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 constant.

=𝜋

➢ And we have total Emissive power as

𝐸 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Lecture 15

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Blackbody Radiation
➢ A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and
direction.
➢ For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy
than a blackbody.
➢ Although the radiation emitted by a blackbody is a function of wavelength and
temperature, it is independent of direction. That is, the blackbody is a diffuse
emitter.
The Planck Distribution
➢ The blackbody spectral intensity is well known, having first been determined by Planck

ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠
𝑘𝐵 = 1.381 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾
𝑐𝑜 = 2.99 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
➢ Its spectral emissive power is

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Blackbody Radiation

1. The emitted radiation varies continuously with wavelength.

2. At any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted radiation
increases with increasing temperature.
3. The spectral region in which the radiation is concentrated
depends on temperature, with comparatively more radiation
appearing at shorter wavelengths as the temperature
increases.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Blackbody Radiation
Wien’s Displacement Law
𝑪𝟏
𝑬𝝀,𝒃 𝝀, 𝑻 = 𝝅𝑰𝝀,𝒃 𝝀, 𝑻 = 𝟓
𝝀 𝐞𝐱𝐩(𝑪𝟐 Τ𝝀𝑻) − 𝟏
➢ Differentiate the above equation with respect to 𝝀 and then equate to
zero 𝒅𝑬𝝀,𝒃
=𝟎
𝒅𝝀
➢ In so doing, we obtain
𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻 = 𝑪𝟑
where the third radiation constant is 𝑪𝟑 = 2898 m K.
➢ Above equation is known as Wien's displacement law.
➢ According to this result, the maximum spectral emissive power is
displaced to shorter wavelengths with increasing temperature.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Blackbody Radiation
The Stefan–Boltzmann Law
➢ The total, hemispherical emissive power, is the rate at which radiation is
emitted per unit area at all possible wavelengths and in all possible directions.

∞
𝑪𝟏
𝑬𝒃 = න 𝒅𝝀
𝟎 𝝀𝟓 𝐞𝐱𝐩(𝑪𝟐 Τ𝝀𝑻) − 𝟏
➢ Performing the integration, it may be shown that

𝑬𝒃 = 𝛔𝑻𝟒𝒔

➢ where 𝛔 is the Stefan. Boltzmann constant,

➢ The total intensity associated with blackbody emission is

𝑬𝒃
𝑰𝒃 =
𝝅

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Band Emission
➢ To account for spectral effects, it is often necessary to know the fraction of
the total emission from a blackbody that is in a certain wavelength interval
or band.
➢ For a prescribed temperature and the interval from 0 to 𝜆 this fraction is
determined by the ratio of the shaded section to the total area under the
curve of Figure

➢ They may also be used to obtain the fraction of the radiation between any
two wavelengths 𝜆1 and 𝜆2

Table 12.2 is used to determine the fraction of the total black body emissions.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Kirchhoff’s Law
𝑇𝑠

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Kirchhoff’s Law
➢ Consider a large, isothermal enclosure of surface temperature 𝑇𝑠 , within which
several small body is confined
➢ The small body is at a temperature 𝑇.
➢ Under steady-state conditions, thermal equilibrium must exist between the
bodies and the enclosure.
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇
➢ The net rate of energy transfer must be zero
𝒒′′𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔 − 𝜶𝑮 = 𝟎
➢ The radiation incident on a small body is the amount of radiation emitted by the
surface which is a black body.
𝑮 = 𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔
➢ We can write,
𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔 − 𝜶𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔 = 𝟎
𝜺=𝜶
➢ That is, the total, hemispherical emissivity of the surface is equal to its total,
hemispherical absorptivity if isothermal conditions exist and no net radiation heat
transfer occurs at any of the surfaces.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

12.16. The spectral distribution of the radiation emitted by a diffuse surface may be approximated as follows.
a. What is the total emissive power?
b. What is the total intensity of the radiation emitted in the normal direction and at an angle of 30 from the
normal?
c. Determine the fraction of the emissive power leaving the surface in the directions 𝜋/4 to 𝜋/2 .

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Part a
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
∞
𝐸 = න 𝐸 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
0

5 10 15 20 ∞
𝐸 = න 0𝑑𝜆 + න 100𝑑𝜆 + න 200𝑑𝜆 + න 100𝑑𝜆 + න 0𝑑𝜆
0 5 10 15 20
Part c
𝐸 = 0 + 100 10 − 5 + 200 15 − 10 + 100 20 − 15 + 0

𝐸 = 2000 𝑊/𝑚2 Fraction of emission can be given

𝜋 𝜋
Part b 𝐸( 4 → 2 )
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐸
For a diffuse emitter, 𝑰𝒆 is independent of 𝜽 𝜋/2 2𝜋
‫𝜋׬‬/4 ‫׬‬0 𝐼𝑒 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑∅
𝐸 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐼𝑒 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒
𝜋
2000
𝐼𝑒 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.5
𝜋

𝐼𝑒 = 637𝑊/𝑚2 𝑠𝑟
Asad Akhter Naqvi
 Lecture 16
Radiation Heat Transfer

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The View Factor
• Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the
surfaces relative to each other as well as their radiation properties and
temperatures.
• A person will maximize the amount of solar radiation incident on him and
take a sunbath by lying down on his back instead of standing up on his
feet.
• To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer between
two surfaces, we define a new parameter called the view factor.

Point Source Asad Akhter Naqvi

The View Factor
The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is denoted by 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 or just 𝐹𝑖𝑗 , and is
defined as
𝑭𝒊𝒋 =the fraction of the radiation leaving surface 𝒊 that strikes surface j directly

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The View Factor
➢ Consider the arbitrarily oriented surfaces 𝐴𝑖 and 𝐴𝑗
➢ Elemental areas on each surface, 𝑑𝐴𝑖 and 𝑑𝐴𝑗 , are connected
by a line of length 𝑅, which forms the polar angles 𝑖 and 𝑗,
respectively, with the surface normal 𝒏𝒊 and 𝒏𝒋 .
➢ The values of R, 𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃𝑗 vary with the position of the
elemental areas on 𝐴𝑖 and 𝐴𝑗 .
➢ The rate at which radiation leaves 𝑑𝐴𝑖 and is intercepted by 𝑑𝐴𝑗
may be expressed as
𝒅𝒒𝒊→𝒋 = 𝑰𝒆+𝒓,𝒊 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 𝒅𝑨𝒊 𝒅𝝎𝒋−𝒊

𝑑𝐴𝑗 cos 𝜃𝑗
𝑑𝜔𝑗−𝑖 =
𝑅2
𝐼𝑒+𝑟,𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑗 𝑑𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝐴𝑗
𝑑𝑞𝑖→𝑗 =
𝑅2
➢ Assuming that surface i emits and reflects diffusely
𝑱=𝑬
𝐸𝑖 𝐽𝑖
𝐼𝑖 = = Asad Akhter Naqvi
𝜋 𝜋
The View Factor
𝐼𝑒+𝑟,𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑗 𝑑𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝐴𝑗 𝐽𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑗 𝑑𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝐴𝑗
𝑑𝑞𝑖→𝑗 = 𝑑𝑞𝑖→𝑗 =
𝑅2 𝜋𝑅 2
➢ The total rate at which radiation leaves surface i and is intercepted by
j may then be obtained by integrating over the two surfaces.

➢ From the definition of the view factor as the fraction of the radiation
that leaves 𝐴𝑖 and is intercepted by 𝐴𝑗
𝑞𝑖→𝑗
𝐹𝑖𝑗 =
𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑖

➢ Similarly, the view factor 𝑭𝒋𝒊 is defined as the fraction of the

radiation that leaves 𝐴𝑗 and is intercepted by 𝐴𝑖

➢ Above Equations may be used to determine the view factor associated

with any two surfaces that are diffuse emitters and reflectors and have
uniform radiosity. Asad Akhter Naqvi
View Factor Relations
Reciprocity relation
➢ The view factor for surface i and j are found as:

➢ Solving these two equations

𝑨𝒊 𝑭𝒊𝒋 = 𝑨𝒋 𝑭𝒋𝒊
➢ This expression, termed as reciprocity relation.
➢ It is useful in determining one view factor from knowledge
of the other.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 4
View Factor Relations 5
Summation Rule 3

➢ When formulating a radiation problem, we usually form an

enclosure consisting of the surfaces interacting radiatively.
➢ The conservation of energy principle requires that the entire 6 2
radiation leaving any surface i of an enclosure be intercepted
by the surfaces of the enclosure.
➢ Therefore, the sum of the view factors from surface i of an
enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including to
itself, must equal unity. 𝑁 1

෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 1
𝑗=1
4
➢ This is known as the summation rule.
3
➢ For example, applying the summation rule to surface 1 of a 5
six-surface enclosure yields
6 2
6
෍ 𝐹1𝑗 = 𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 + 𝐹15 + 𝐹16 = 1
𝑗=1

For first case 𝐹11 = 0 For second case 𝐹11 ≠ 0

Asad Akhter Naqvi 1
View Factor Relations
Summation Rule
➢ The summation rule can be applied to each surface of an
enclosure by varying i from 1 to N
➢ Therefore, the summation rule applied to each of the N surfaces
of an enclosure gives N relations for the determination of the
view factors.
➢ Then the total number of view factors that need to be evaluated
directly for an N-surface enclosure becomes

➢ For example, for a six-surface enclosure

➢ 15 view factors will be determined directly .

➢ The remaining 21 view factors can be determined from the 21
equations that are obtained by applying the reciprocity and the
summation rules.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
View Factor Relations
Summation Rule
➢ Since all radiation leaving the inner surface must reach the
outer surface
𝐹12 = 1
➢ From Summation Rule
𝐹11 = 0
➢ Using Reciprocating Rule

𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
𝐴1
𝐹21 =
𝐴2

𝐴1
𝐹22 =1−
𝐴2

Asad Akhter Naqvi

View Factor Relations
➢ View factors for several common geometries are presented in Tables 13.1
and 13.2 and Figures 13.4 through 13.6.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Blackbody Radiation Exchange
➢ Consider radiation exchange between two black surfaces of arbitrary
shape 𝐽𝑗 = 𝐸𝑏𝑗
➢ The rate at which radiation leaves surface i and is intercepted by
surface j
𝑞𝑖→𝑗 = (𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑖 )𝐹𝑖𝑗
𝐴𝑗 𝑇𝑗
➢ Since radiosity equals emissive power for a black surface (𝐽𝑖 = 𝐸𝑏𝑖 )
𝑞𝑖→𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐸𝑏𝑖
Similarly
𝑞𝑗→𝑖 = 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑗
𝐽𝑖 = 𝐸𝑏𝑖
➢ The net radiative exchange between the two surfaces may then be 𝐴𝑖 𝑇𝑖
defined as
𝑞𝑖𝑗 = 𝑞𝑖→𝑗 − 𝑞𝑗→𝑖
from which it follows that
𝑞𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐸𝑏𝑖 − 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑗
𝑞𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 (𝐸𝑏𝑖 −𝐸𝑏𝑗 )
𝑞𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝜎(𝑇𝑖4 − 𝑇𝑗4 )
Asad Akhter Naqvi
 Lecture 17
Radiation Heat Transfer (Cont.)

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Radiation Exchange Between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray
Surfaces in an Enclosure

𝑻𝒋 , 𝑨𝒋 , 𝜺𝒋

𝑱𝒊 𝒒𝒊 𝑮𝒊

𝒒𝒊 = 𝑨𝒊 ( 𝑱𝒊 −𝑮𝒊 )
𝑻𝒊 , 𝑨𝒊 , 𝜺𝒊
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Exchange Between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray
Surfaces in an Enclosure
➢ In general, radiation may leave an opaque surface due to both
reflection and emission, and on reaching a second opaque surface,
experience reflection as well as absorption.
➢ Analyzing radiation exchange in an enclosure may be simplified by
making certain assumptions.
➢ Each surface of the enclosure is assumed to be isothermal and to be
characterized by a uniform radiosity and a uniform irradiation.
➢ The surfaces are also assumed to be opaque 𝜏 = 0 .
➢ Surfaces have emissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity that are
independent of direction (the surfaces are diffuse) and independent of
wavelength (the surfaces are gray).
➢ The emissivity is equal to the absorptivity 𝜀 = 𝛼 .

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Net Radiation Exchange at a Surface
➢ The net radiation that leave the surface i will be the difference between
the amount of radiation that leaves the surface i and the radiation that
fall on the surface i.
➢ It is equal to the difference between the surface radiosity and irradiation.
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝐽𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 ) 1
➢ We have learned that
𝐽𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 + 𝜌𝑖 𝐺𝑖 2
➢ Eq. 1 will be written as
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝐸𝑖 + 𝜌𝑖 𝐺𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 )
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝐸𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 (1 − 𝜌𝑖 ))
➢ For opaque surface
𝛼𝑖 = 1 − 𝜌𝑖
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝐸𝑖 − 𝛼𝑖 𝐺𝑖 )
➢ The emissive power of a grey body is given by
𝐸𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖
➢ Also
𝜀𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖
➢ The radiosity of a grey body will be given by (eq. 2)

𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 𝑖 + (1 − 𝛼𝑖 )𝐺𝑖 𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 𝑖 + (1 − Asad

𝜀𝑖 )𝐺Akhter
𝑖 Naqvi
Net Radiation Exchange at a Surface
𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏 𝑖 + (1 − 𝜀𝑖 )𝐺𝑖
➢ Solving for 𝐺𝑖
𝐽𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏 𝑖
𝐺𝑖 =
(1 − 𝜀𝑖 )
➢ Eq. 1 will be written as
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝐽𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 )
𝐽𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏 𝑖
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑖 −
1 − 𝜀𝑖
𝑬𝒃𝒊 − 𝑱𝒊
𝒒𝒊 =
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝒊 )Τ𝜺𝒊 𝑨𝒊
➢ Above equation provides a convenient representation for the net
radiative heat transfer rate from a surface.
➢ This transfer is associated with the driving potential (𝑬𝒃𝒊 − 𝑱𝒊 )
and a surface radiative resistance of the form (𝟏 − 𝜺𝒊 )Τ𝜺𝒊 𝑨𝒊 .
➢ Hence, if the emissive power that the surface would have if it
were black exceeds its radiosity, there is net radiation heat
transfer from the surface.
➢ If the inverse is true, the net transfer is to the surface.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
➢ The total rate at which radiation reaches surface i from all surfaces,
𝑁
including i, is
𝐴𝑖 𝐺𝑖 = ෍ 𝐹𝑗𝑖 𝐴𝑗 𝐽𝑗
𝑗=1
➢ or from the reciprocity relation
𝑱𝟑 𝑱𝟐
𝑁 𝑁

𝐴𝑖 𝐺𝑖 = ෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑗 𝐺𝑖 = ෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐽𝑗 𝑱𝟒
𝑗=1 𝑗=1

➢ The radiation heat exchange will be 𝑁 𝑮𝒊

𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝐽𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 ) 𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 ( 𝐽𝑖 − ෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐽𝑗 ) 𝑱𝟓 𝑱𝟏
𝑗=1
➢ Using summation rule
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

𝑞𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐽𝑖 − ෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐽𝑗 ) 𝑞𝑖 = ෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐽𝑗 = ෍ 𝑞𝑖𝑗 𝑻𝒊 , 𝑨𝒊 , 𝜺𝒊

𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑵
(𝑱𝒊 − 𝑱𝒋 )
𝑞𝑖 = ෍
(𝑭𝒊𝒋 𝑨𝒋 )−𝟏
𝒋=𝟏

➢ Each component may be represented by a network element for which

𝐽𝑖 − 𝐽𝑗 is the driving potential.
➢ (Fij Aj )−1 is a space or geometrical resistance.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
➢ We have found 𝑵
𝑬𝒃𝒊 − 𝑱𝒊
𝒒𝒊 = 𝒒𝒊 = ෍ 𝑭𝒊𝒋 𝑨𝒊 𝑱𝒊 − 𝑱𝒋
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝒊 )Τ𝜺𝒊 𝑨𝒊 𝒋=𝟏

➢ By comparing
𝑵
𝑬𝒃𝒊 − 𝑱𝒊 (𝑱𝒊 − 𝑱𝒋 )
=෍
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝒊 )Τ𝜺𝒊 𝑨𝒊 (𝑭𝒊𝒋 𝑨𝒋 )−𝟏
𝒋=𝟏
➢ The rate of radiation transfer (current flow) to i through its surface resistance
must equal the net rate of radiation transfer (current flows) from i to all other
surfaces through the corresponding geometrical resistances.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Two-Surface Enclosure 𝐴2 , 𝑇2 , 𝜀2

➢ Consider there are only two surfaces in an enclosure

➢ The net rate of radiation transfer from surface 1, 𝑞1 , must equal the net
rate of radiation transfer to surface 2 −𝑞2 𝒒𝟏𝟐

𝑬𝒃𝟏 − 𝑱𝟏 𝑱𝟐 − 𝑬𝒃𝟐
𝒒𝟏 = 𝒒𝟐 = 𝐴1 , 𝑇1 , 𝜀1
𝑬𝒃𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒒𝟏𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟐 𝑨𝟐

𝑱𝟏 (𝑭𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏 )−𝟏 𝑱𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟐 𝑨𝟐

(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑬𝒃𝟐

𝑬𝒃𝟏 − 𝑬𝒃𝟐
𝒒𝟏𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐

➢ This important result is applicable to any two gray, diffuse, opaque

surfaces that form an enclosure

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Shields
Radiation Shield

𝐴1 , 𝑇1 , 𝜀1 𝐴2 , 𝑇2 , 𝜀2

𝜀3,1 𝜀3,2

𝐴3 , 𝑇3
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Shields
➢ Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by
inserting a thin, high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between
the two surfaces.
➢ Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields.
➢ Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates of emissivity
𝜀1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀2 maintained at uniform temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 .
𝐴𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )
𝑞12 =
1 1
𝜀1 𝜀2 − 1
+
➢ To reduce radiation heat transfer, radiation shield will be added.
➢ With the radiation shield, additional resistances are present, and the heat
transfer rate is reduced.
𝐴𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) 𝐴2 , 𝑇2 , 𝜀2
𝑞12 = 𝐴1 , 𝑇1 , 𝜀1
1 1 1 − 𝜀3,1 1 − 𝜀3,2
𝜀1 𝜀2 + 𝜀3,1 + 𝜀3,2
+

➢ Note that the resistances associated with the radiation shield become very
large when the emissivity 𝜀3,1 and 𝜀3,2 are very small.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Radiation Shields
𝐴𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )
𝑞12 =
1 1 1 − 𝜀3,1 1 − 𝜀3,2
𝜀1 𝜀2 + 𝜀3,1 + 𝜀3,2
+

(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟏 𝑨𝟏 (𝑭𝟏𝟑 𝑨𝟏 )−𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟑,𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟑,𝟏 𝑨𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟑,𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟑,𝟐 𝑨𝟏 (𝑭𝟑𝟐 𝑨𝟐 )−𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟐 𝑨𝟏
𝑬𝒃𝟏 𝑱𝟏 𝑱𝟑,𝟏 𝑬𝒃𝟑 𝑱𝟑,𝟐 𝑱𝟐 𝑬𝒃𝟐

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Radiation Shields
➢ The radiation heat transfer through large parallel plates separated by N
radiation shields becomes.

➢ If the emissivities of all surfaces are equal,

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 18
Numericals of Radiation Heat Exchange

Asad Akhter Naqvi

13-1. Determine 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 for the following configurations using the reciprocity theorem and other basic shape
factor relations. Do not -use tables or charts.

b. Small sphere of area A1 under a concentric hemisphere of area

a. Long duct 𝐴2 = 2𝐴1

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Part a
By inspection

𝐴2 𝐹12 = 1.0

𝐴1
𝐹21 = 𝐹
𝐴2 12

𝐴1 𝐴1 = 2𝑅 × 𝐿

3
𝐴2 = × 2𝜋𝑅 × 𝐿
4

2𝑅 × 𝐿
𝐹21 = (1.0)
3
4 × 2𝜋𝑅 × 𝐿
4
𝐹21 =
3𝜋

𝐹21 = 0.424

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝐴1 is emitting radiation and by using Summation Rule
Part b
𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 1.0

Look carefully

𝐴2 𝐹11 = 0

By Symmetry
𝐴1
𝐹12 = 0.5 𝐹13 = 0.5

Using Reciprocating Rule

𝐴1
𝐹21 = 𝐹
𝐴2 12
𝐴3 𝐴2 = 2𝐴1

𝐹21 = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25

Asad Akhter Naqvi

12-9. Consider the perpendicular rectangles shown schematically.
Determine the shape factor 𝐹12 .

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑨𝟏

𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟑 𝑨𝟑
𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟐

𝑭𝟐(𝟏,𝟑) = 𝑭𝟐𝟑 + 𝑭𝟐𝟏

𝑨𝟐

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝑌 0.3
= = 0.6
𝑋 0.5
𝑍 0.4
= = 0.8
𝑋 0.5

𝑭𝟐(𝟏,𝟑) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝑌 0.3
= = 0.6
𝑋 0.5
𝑍 0.2
= = 0.4
𝑋 0.5

𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝐹2(1,3) = 𝐹23 + 𝐹21

𝐹21 = 𝐹2(1,3) − 𝐹23

𝐹21 = 0.25 − 0.19 = 0.06

Using Reciprocating Rule

𝐴2
𝐹12 = × 𝐹21
𝐴1
0.3 × 0.5
𝐹12 = × 0.06
0.2 × 0.5
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗

Asad Akhter Naqvi

13-85. Consider a circular furnace that is 0.3 m long and 0.3 m in diameter. The two
ends have diffuse, gray surfaces that are maintained at 400 K and 500 K with
emissivities of 0.4 and 0.5, respectively. The lateral surface is also diffuse and gray
with an emissivity of 0.8 and a temperature of 800 K. Determine the net radiative
heat transfer from each of the surfaces.
𝐷 = 0.3 𝑚

𝐴2

𝐴3 𝐿 = 0.3 𝑚

𝐴1

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝑇1 = 400 𝐾 𝑇2 = 500 𝐾 𝑇3 = 800 𝐾 (𝑭𝒊𝒋 𝑨𝒊 )−𝟏
𝜀1 = 0.4 𝜀2 = 0.5 𝜀3 = 0.8

𝜋 2
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐷 = 0.07069 𝑚2 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝒊 )Τ𝜺𝒊 𝑨𝒊
4 (𝑭𝒊𝒋+𝟏 𝑨𝒊 )−𝟏
𝐴3 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 0.2827 𝑚2

𝑵
𝑬𝒃𝒊 − 𝑱𝒊 (𝑱𝒊 − 𝑱𝒋 )
=෍
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝒊 )Τ𝜺𝒊 𝑨𝒊 (𝑭𝒊𝒋 𝑨𝒊 )−𝟏
𝒋=𝟏

𝐸𝑏1 = 𝜎𝑇14 = 1452 𝑊/𝑚2

𝐸𝑏2 = 𝜎𝑇24 = 3544 𝑊/𝑚2

𝐸𝑏3 = 𝜎𝑇34 = 23224 𝑊/𝑚2

Asad Akhter Naqvi

For 𝐴1

𝐿 0.3
= =2
𝑟1 0.15

𝑟2 0.15
= = 0.5
𝐿 0.3

𝐹12 = 0.17

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Using Summation Rule
(𝑭𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏 )−𝟏
𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 1

𝐹11 = 0 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟏 𝑨𝟏
(𝑭𝟏𝟑 𝑨𝟏 )−𝟏
𝐹13 = 1 − 𝐹12

𝐹13 = 1 − 0.17 = 0.83

𝑬𝒃𝟏 − 𝑱𝟏 (𝑱𝟏 − 𝑱𝟐 ) (𝑱𝟏 − 𝑱𝟑 )

= +
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟏 𝑨𝟏 (𝑭𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏 )−𝟏 (𝑭𝟏𝟑 𝑨𝟏 )−𝟏

𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟐 − 𝑱𝟏 (𝑱𝟏 − 𝑱𝟐 ) (𝑱𝟏 − 𝑱𝟑 )

= +
(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟒)Τ𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗)−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗)−𝟏

𝟐. 𝟓𝑱𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝑱𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒𝑱𝟑 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟐 𝟏

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Considering 𝑨𝟐 (𝑭𝟐𝟏 𝑨𝟐 )−𝟏

𝐹12 = 0.17

Using Reciprocating Rule (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟐 𝑨𝟐

(𝑭𝟐𝟑 𝑨𝟐 )−𝟏
𝑨𝟏
𝐹21 = 𝐹
𝑨𝟐 12

𝐹21 = 0.17

Using Summation Rule

𝑬𝒃𝟐 − 𝑱𝟐 (𝑱𝟐 − 𝑱𝟏 ) (𝑱𝟐 − 𝑱𝟑 )
= +
𝐹21 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹23 = 1 (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟐 𝑨𝟐 (𝑭𝟐𝟏 𝑨𝟐 )−𝟏 (𝑭𝟐𝟑 𝑨𝟐 )−𝟏

𝐹22 = 0
𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟒 − 𝑱𝟐 (𝑱𝟐 − 𝑱𝟏 ) (𝑱𝟐 − 𝑱𝟑 )
𝐹23 = 1 − 𝐹21 = +
(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓)Τ𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗)−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗)−𝟏
𝐹23 = 1 − 0.17 = 0.83
−𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝑱𝟏 + 𝟐𝑱𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟖𝑱𝟑 = 𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟒 2

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Considering 𝑨𝟑 (𝑭𝟑𝟏 𝑨𝟑 )−𝟏
𝐹13 = 0.83 𝐹23 = 0.83

Using Reciprocating Rule (𝟏 − 𝜺𝟑 )Τ𝜺𝟑 𝑨𝟑

(𝑭𝟑𝟐 𝑨𝟑 )−𝟏
𝑨𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗
𝐹31 = 𝐹 𝐹31 = × 0.83
𝑨𝟑 13 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟑

𝐹31 = 0.207

Similarly

𝐹32 = 0.207

𝑬𝒃𝟑 − 𝑱𝟑 (𝑱𝟑 − 𝑱𝟏 ) (𝑱𝟑 − 𝑱𝟐 )

= +
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟑 )Τ𝜺𝟑 𝑨𝟑 (𝑭𝟑𝟏 𝑨𝟑 )−𝟏 (𝑭𝟑𝟐 𝑨𝟑 )−𝟏

𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟒 − 𝑱𝟑 (𝑱𝟑 − 𝑱𝟏 ) (𝑱𝟑 − 𝑱𝟐 )

= +
(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟖)Τ𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕 (𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕)−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕)−𝟏

−𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟕𝑱𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟕𝑱𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝑱𝟑 = 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟒 3

Asad Akhter Naqvi
 Solving Eq. 1 ,2 and 3 The Net radiation Transfer from each surface will be

𝟐. 𝟓𝑱𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝑱𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒𝑱𝟑 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟐

−𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝑱𝟏 + 𝟐𝑱𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟖𝑱𝟑 = 𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝑬𝒃𝟏 − 𝑱𝟏 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟖

𝒒𝟏 = = = −𝟓𝟑𝟔 𝑾
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟏 )Τ𝜺𝟏 𝑨𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟒)Τ𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟕𝑱𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟕𝑱𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝑱𝟑 = 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝑬𝒃𝟐 −𝑱𝟐 𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟔𝟐
𝑱𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝒒𝟐 = = = −𝟔𝟎𝟐𝑾
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 )Τ𝜺𝟐 𝑨𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓)Τ𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟗

𝑱𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟔𝟐 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑬𝒃𝟑 − 𝑱𝟑 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟒 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟏

𝒒𝟑 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑾
(𝟏 − 𝜺𝟑 )Τ𝜺𝟑 𝑨𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟖)Τ𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕
𝑱𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟏 𝑾/𝒎𝟐

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 19
Introduction to Convection

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Introduction
➢ There are three basic mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
➢ Conduction and convection are similar in that both mechanisms require the
presence of a material medium.
➢ But they are different in that convection requires the presence of fluid motion.
➢ Heat transfer through a solid is always by conduction, since the molecules of a
solid remain at relatively fixed positions.
➢ Heat transfer through a liquid or gas, however, can be by conduction or
convection, depending on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
➢ Heat transfer through a fluid is by convection in the presence of bulk fluid
motion and by conduction in the absence of it.
➢ Therefore, conduction in a fluid can be viewed as the limiting case of
convection, corresponding to the case of quiescent fluid

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝒖∞

𝒖∞ 𝒖

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Velocity Boundary Layer
➢ To introduce the concept of a boundary layer, consider flow over the flat plate of Figure.
➢ When fluid particles make contact with the surface, their velocity is reduced significantly
relative to the fluid velocity upstream of the plate, and for most situations it is valid to
assume that the particle velocity is zero at the wall.
➢ These particles then act to retard the motion of particles in the adjoining fluid layer,
which act to retard the motion of particles in the next layer, and so on until at a
distance 𝑦 = 𝛿.
➢ With increasing distance 𝑦 from the surface, the 𝑥 velocity component of the fluid, 𝑢,
must then increase until it approaches the free stream value 𝑢∞ .
➢ The quantity 𝛿 is termed the boundary layer thickness, and it is typically defined as the
value of y for which 𝑢 = 0.99𝑢∞ .
➢ For external flows it provides the basis for determining the local friction coefficient.
𝜏𝑠
𝐶𝑓 = 2
𝜌𝑢∞ /2
➢ A key dimensionless parameter from which the surface frictional drag may be determined.
➢ Assuming a Newtonian fluid , the surface shear stress may be evaluated from knowledge
of the velocity gradient at the surface.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Thermal Boundary Layer
➢ Just as a velocity boundary layer develops when there is fluid flow over a
surface, a thermal boundary layer must develop if the fluid free stream and
surface temperatures differ.
➢ Consider flow over an isothermal flat plate
➢ At the leading edge the temperature is uniform, with 𝑇 𝑦 = 𝑇∞
➢ However, fluid particles that come into contact with the plate achieve
thermal equilibrium at the plate’s surface temperature.
➢ In turn, these particles exchange energy with those in the adjoining fluid
layer, and temperature gradients develop in the fluid.
➢ The region of the fluid in which these temperature gradients exist is the
thermal boundary layer.
➢ Its thickness 𝛿𝑡 is typically defined as the value of y for which the ratio.
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
= 0.99
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
➢ At any distance x from the leading edge, the local surface heat flux may be
obtained by applying Fourier’s law to the fluid at 𝑦 = 0.
𝜕𝑇
𝑞′′𝑠 = −𝑘 ቤ (𝑦 = 0)
𝜕𝑦
➢ At the surface, there is no fluid motion and energy transfer occurs only by
conduction. Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Thermal Boundary Layer
➢ From Newton’s law of cooling
𝑞′′𝑠 = ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
➢ Now we can compare and can write
𝜕𝑇
−𝑘 ฬ (𝑦 = 0)
𝜕𝑦
ℎ=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Boundary Layer Equations
Conservation of mass:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Conservation of momentum:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 +𝜈 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Velocity boundary layer thickness:
𝛿 5 𝛿 4.64
= 1/2 (Exact) = (Approximate)
𝑥 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑅𝑒 1/2
𝑥 𝑥
Velocity distribution:
𝑢 3 𝑦 1 𝑦 3
= −
𝑢∞ 2 𝛿 2 𝛿
Temperature distribution:
3
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 3 𝑦 1 𝑦
= −
𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 2 𝛿𝑡 2 𝛿𝑡
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Boundary Layer Equations
➢ We will identify the energy terms of a control volume 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 which
lies within the thermal boundary layer.
➢ Assumptions: (1) Incompressible flow (2) Steady- state conditions
(3) Fluid thermophysical properties are constant (4) Negligible
heat condition in the flow direction (5) 𝛿 > 𝛿𝑡

1. Rate at which energy advected into the left face = 𝑚𝐶

ሶ 𝑝 𝑇 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢𝑇𝑑𝑦
𝜕
2. Rate at which energy advected out of the right face = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢𝑇 + 𝜕𝑥 𝑢𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
3. Rate at which energy advected into the bottom face = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣𝑇𝑑𝑥
𝜕
4. Rate at which energy advected out of the top face = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣𝑇 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑣𝑇 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑇
5. Rate at which energy is conducted into the bottom face= −𝑘 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
6. Rate at which energy is conducted out of the top face= −𝑘 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
7. Rate at which net viscous work is done on the control volume= 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2
This force moves in unit time= 𝜏𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 =𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Boundary Layer Equations
Energy Balance (1) + (3) + (5) + (7) = (2) + (4) + (6)
2
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢𝑇𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣𝑇𝑑𝑥 − 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢𝑇 + 𝑢𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣𝑇 + 𝑣𝑇 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑘 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
2
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 +𝑇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣 +𝑇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

2
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑘 +𝜇 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 +𝑣 + =0
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜇 𝜕𝑢 2
𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 = 𝛼 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑦

For low velocity flows the viscous work term may be neglected
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
𝑢 +𝑣 =𝛼 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
The differential form of the boundary layer energy equation
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Local and Average Convection Coefficients
➢ A fluid of velocity 𝑉 and temperature 𝑇∞ flows over a surface of
arbitrary shape and of area 𝐴𝑠 .
➢ The surface is presumed to be at a uniform temperature, 𝑇𝑠 ..
➢ We know that convection heat transfer will occur if 𝑇𝑠 ≠ 𝑇∞ .
➢ the surface heat flux and convection heat transfer coefficient both
vary along the surface.
➢ The total heat transfer rate q may be obtained by integrating the
local flux over the entire surface.

➢ Defining an average convection coefficient ℎത for the entire surface, the

total heat transfer rate may also be expressed as:
ത 𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴
➢ It follows that the average and local convection coefficients are related
by an expression of the form:

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Dimensionless Parameters
Reynolds number
➢ It may be interpreted as the ratio of inertia to viscous forces in a region of characteristic dimension L.
➢ Inertia forces are associated with an increase in the momentum of a moving fluid.
➢ The ratio of forces is 𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝐿 =
𝜇
➢ Reynolds number determines the existence of laminar or turbulent flow.
Prandtl number
➢ It is defined as the ratio of the kinematic viscosity, also referred to as the momentum diffusivity, 𝜈 , to
the thermal diffusivity 𝛼.
➢ It is therefore a fluid property.
➢ The Prandtl number provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of momentum and energy
transport by diffusion in the velocity and thermal boundary layers, respectively.
➢ Pr strongly influences the relative growth of the velocity and thermal boundary layers.
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 𝜈
𝑃𝑟 = =
𝑘 𝛼
➢ For laminar boundary layer it is reasonable to expect that

➢ where n is a positive exponent. Hence for a gas ; for a liquid metal ; for an oil .
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Dimensionless Parameters
Nusselt Number
➢ Ratio of convection to pure conduction heat transfer.
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
➢ This parameter is equal to the dimensionless temperature gradient at the surface, and it
provides a measure of the convection heat transfer occurring at the surface.
➢ The Nusselt number is to the thermal boundary layer what the friction coefficient is to the
velocity boundary layer.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Lecture 20
Introduction to Convection (Cont.)

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Integral Analysis of the boundary layer
b c

𝐻 𝛿
𝛿𝑡

a d

𝑑𝑥

𝐻
1. Rate at which energy advected into the left face = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 ‫׬‬0 𝑢𝑇𝑑𝑦
𝐻 𝑑 𝐻
2. Rate at which energy advected out of the right face = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 ‫׬‬0 𝑢𝑇𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 ‫׬‬0 𝑢𝑇𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝐻
ሶ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇∞ = (𝑚ሶ 𝑐𝑑 − 𝑚𝑎𝑏
3. Rate at which energy advected from the top = 𝑚𝑏𝑐 ሶ )𝐶𝑝 𝑇∞ = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑇∞ ‫׬‬0 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑇
4. Rate at which energy is conducted into the bottom face= −𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦ቚ 𝑦 = 0)
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Integral Analysis of the boundary layer
Applying Energy balance
1 + 3 + 4 = (2)
𝐻
𝑑 𝜕𝑇
න 𝑇 − 𝑇 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = 𝛼 ቤ (𝑦 = 0) 1
𝑑𝑥 0 ∞ 𝜕𝑦

𝑘
𝛼=
𝜌𝐶𝑝
We have learned
3
𝑢 3 𝑦 1 𝑦 3 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 3 𝑦 1 𝑦
= − 2 = − 3
𝑢∞ 2 𝛿 2 𝛿 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 2 𝛿𝑡 2 𝛿𝑡

𝜕𝑇 3 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠
ቤ (𝑦 = 0) = 4
𝜕𝑦 2 𝛿𝑡
• Substitute eqs. 2, 3, and 4 in eq. 1 • Define 𝜁 = 𝛿𝑡ൗ𝛿 • Integrate from 0 𝑡𝑜 𝛿𝑡

𝑑 3 2 3 4 3𝛼(𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 𝑢∞ 𝛿 𝜁 − 𝜁 =
𝑑𝑥 20 280 2𝛿𝑡 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Integral Analysis of the boundary layer
𝑑 3 2 3 4 3𝛼(𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 𝑢∞ 𝛿 𝜁 − 𝜁 =
𝑑𝑥 20 280 2𝛿𝑡

Since 𝜁 < 1 , it follows that 𝜁 4 < 𝜁 2 and the corresponding term may be neglected. Thus

3 𝑑 2 3𝛼 𝑢∞ 𝑑 2 𝛼
𝑢∞ 𝛿𝜁 = 𝛿𝜁 =
20 𝑑𝑥 2𝛿𝑡 10 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑡

𝑢∞
2𝛿𝜁
𝑑𝜁
+ 𝜁 2 𝑑𝛿
=
𝛼 𝑢∞ 2 2
𝑑𝜁 3
𝑑𝛿
10 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 δζ 2𝛿 𝜁 + δ𝜁 =𝛼 5
10 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Also
1/2 1/2 280 𝜈
𝛿 4.64 280 𝜈 𝛿2 = 6
= 1/2 = 13 𝑢∞ 𝑥
𝑥 𝑅𝑒 13 𝑢∞ 𝑥
𝑥

Differentiating eq. 6

𝑑𝛿 140 𝜈
𝛿 = 7
𝑑𝑥 13 𝑢∞
Substituting eq. 6 and 7 in eq. 5 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Integral Analysis of the boundary layer
𝑑𝜁 13 𝛼 3
4 𝑑(𝜁 3 ) 13 𝛼
𝜁 3 + 4𝑥𝜁 2 = 𝜁 + 𝑥 = 8
𝑑𝑥 14 𝜈 3 𝑑𝑥 14 𝜈

4
Dividing eq. 8 by
3
3 −1/4 3 𝑑(𝜁 3 ) 39 𝛼 −1/4 𝑑(𝑥 3/4 𝜁 3 ) 39 𝛼 −1/4 9
𝑥 𝜁 +𝑥 3/4
= 𝑥 = 𝑥
4 𝑑𝑥 56 𝜈 𝑑𝑥 56 𝜈

Integrating eq. 9

13 𝛼 3/4
𝑥 3/4 𝜁 3 = 𝑥 +𝐶 𝑢∞ 𝑇∞
14 𝜈

13 1 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇∞
𝜁3 = + 𝐶𝑥 −3/4 10
14 𝑃𝑟

At 𝑥𝑜 𝑥=𝐿
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝜁=0
𝑥
13 1 3/4
𝐶=− 𝑥
14 𝑃𝑟 𝑜 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Integral Analysis of the boundary layer
Eq. 10 will be
3/4 3/4 1/3
13 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥
𝜁= 1− 11
𝜁3 = 1− 1.025 𝑃𝑟 −1/3 𝑥𝑜
14 𝑃𝑟 𝑥𝑜
We have learned
𝜕𝑇
−𝑘 ฬ (𝑦 = 0) 𝜕𝑇 3 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠
𝜕𝑦 ቤ (𝑦 = 0) =
ℎ= 𝜕𝑦 2 𝛿𝑡
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
3𝑘 3 𝑘
ℎ= ℎ=
2 𝛿𝑡 2 𝛿𝜁

Using eq. 11 we can write We have learned

3/4 −1/3 𝛿 4.64
3𝑘 𝑥 = 1/2
ℎ= 1.025𝑃𝑟1/3 1 − 𝑥 𝑅𝑒
2𝛿 𝑥𝑜 𝑥

1/2 3/4 −1/3

3𝑘 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑥
ℎ= 1.025𝑃𝑟1/3 1 −
2 4.64𝑥 𝑥𝑜 Asad Akhter Naqvi
Integral Analysis of the boundary layer
1/2 3/4 −1/3
3𝑘 𝑅𝑒𝑥 1/3
𝑥
ℎ= 1.025𝑃𝑟 1−
2 4.64𝑥 𝑥𝑜

3/4 −1/3
𝑘 1/2 𝑥
ℎ = 0.332 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3 1 −
𝑥 𝑥𝑜

ℎ𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 =
𝑘

3/4 −1/3
1/2 𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3 1−
𝑥𝑜

This equation is used to determine the Nusselt number for laminar flow with constant surface temperature

Asad Akhter Naqvi

6-2. In flow over a surface, velocity and temperature profiles are of the forms
𝑢 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 2 − 𝐶𝑦 3
𝑇 𝑦 = 𝐷 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹𝑦 2 − 𝐺𝑦 3
where the coefficients A through G are constants. Obtain expressions for the friction coefficient 𝐶𝑓 and the convection coefficient ℎ
in terms of 𝑢∞ , 𝑇∞ , and appropriate profile coefficients and fluid properties.

The friction coefficient will be given by The convection heat transfer coefficient will be given by
𝜏𝑠 𝜕𝑇
𝐶𝑓 = 2 −𝑘 ฬ (𝑦 = 0)
𝜌𝑢∞ /2 𝜕𝑦
ℎ=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝜕𝑇
= 𝐸 + 2𝐹𝑦 − 3𝐺𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦
= 𝐴 + 2𝐵𝑦 − 3𝐶𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦
At 𝑦 = 0
At 𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇
(𝑦 = 0) = 𝐴 =𝐸
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜏𝑠 = 𝐴𝜇 −𝑘𝐸
ℎ=
(𝐷 − 𝑇∞ )
2𝐴𝜇
𝐶𝑓 = 2 Asad Akhter Naqvi
𝜌𝑢∞
6-2. Parallel flow of atmospheric air over a flat plate of length 𝐿 = 3 𝑚 is disrupted by an array of stationary rods placed in the
flow path over the plate.

Laboratory measurements of the local convection coefficient at the surface of the plate are made for a prescribed value of 𝑉 and
𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇. The results are correlated by an expression of the form ℎ𝑥 = 0.7 + 13.6𝑥 − 3.4𝑥 2 , where ℎ𝑥 has units of 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 and 𝑥
is in meters. Evaluate the average convection coefficient ℎ𝐿 ℎ𝐿 Τℎ𝐿 for the entire plate and the ratio ℎ𝐿 Τℎ𝐿 at the trailing edge.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The local heat transfer coefficient will be

ℎ𝑥 = 0.7 + 13.6𝑥 − 3.4𝑥 2

For 𝐿 = 3𝑚
ℎ𝑥 = 0.7 + 13.6(3) − 3.4(3)2
𝒉𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

The average heat transfer coefficient will be

1 𝐿
ℎത 𝐿 = න ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0
1 3
ℎത 𝐿 = න 0.7 + 13.6𝑥 − 3.4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3 0

ഥ 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲
𝒉

ഥ 𝑳 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗
𝒉
= =𝟏
𝒉𝒙 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗

Asad Akhter Naqvi

6-27. An object of irregular shape has a characteristic length of 𝐿 = 1 𝑚 and is maintained at a uniform surface
temperature of 𝑇𝑠 = 400 𝐾. When placed in atmospheric air at a temperature of 𝑇∞ = 300 𝐾 and moving with a
velocity of 𝑉 = 100 𝑚/𝑠, the average heat flux from the surface to the air is 20,000 𝑊/𝑚2 . If a second object of the
same shape, but with a characteristic length of 𝐿 = 5 𝑚, is maintained at a surface temperature of 𝑇𝑠 = 400 𝐾 and is
placed in atmospheric air at 𝑇∞ = 300 𝐾, what will the value of the average convection coefficient be if the air
velocity is 𝑉 = 20 𝑚/𝑠?

𝑇∞ = 300 𝐾 𝑇∞ = 300 𝐾

𝑉 = 100 𝑚/𝑠 𝑉 = 20 𝑚/𝑠

𝑇𝑠 = 400𝐾 𝑇𝑠 = 400𝐾

𝐿𝑐 = 1 𝑚 𝐿𝑐 = 5 𝑚

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The air properties will be taken at So,
𝑁𝑢1 = 𝑁𝑢2
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞
𝑇ത =
2
ℎ1 𝐿1 ℎ2 𝐿2 ℎ2 = 0.2 × 200
400 + 300 =
ത
𝑇= = 350𝐾 𝑘1 𝑘2
2
𝑘 = 30 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 ℎ1 (1) ℎ2 (5) ℎ2 = 40 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
=
𝜈 = 20.92 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 30 × 10−3 30 × 10−3
𝑃𝑟 = 0.7
ℎ2 = 0.2ℎ1
For case 1
For case 1
𝑉1 𝐿1
𝑅𝑒1 = = 4.8 × 106
𝜈1 𝑞′′1 = 20000𝑊/𝑚2
For case 2 𝑞′′1 = ℎ1 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑉2 𝐿2
𝑅𝑒2 = = 4.8 × 106 20000
𝜈2 ℎ1 =
400 − 300
Since
ℎ1 = 200 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝜈1 = 𝜈2 𝑅𝑒1 = 𝑅𝑒2 𝑃𝑟1 = 𝑃𝑟2

Asad Akhter Naqvi

6-39. Forced air at 𝑇∞ = 25𝐶 and 𝑉 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 is used to cool electronic elements on a circuit board. One such element is a chip,
4 𝑚𝑚 × 4 𝑚𝑚, located 120 𝑚𝑚 from the leading edge of the board. Experiments have revealed that flow over the board is
disturbed by the elements and that convection heat transfer is correlated by an expression of the form
𝑁𝑢 = 0.04𝑅𝑒 0.85 𝑃𝑟1/3
Estimate the surface temperature of the chip if it is dissipating 30 𝑚𝑊.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶 𝑉 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑘 477 × 26.9 × 10−3
ℎ= =
𝐿 0.12
𝐴 = 4𝑚𝑚 × 4𝑚𝑚 𝐿 = 120 𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝐿 ℎ = 107 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑞 = 30 𝑚𝑊 𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑁𝑢 = 0.04𝑅𝑒 0.85 𝑃𝑟1/3

Assume 𝑞
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ +
VL ℎ𝐴
𝑇𝑠 = 45𝑜 𝐶 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈 30 × 10−3
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝑠 = 25 +
𝑇ത = = 35𝑜 𝐶 10 × 0.12 107 × 0.004 × 0.004
2 𝑅𝑒 =
16.69 × 10−6
At 𝑇𝑠 = 42.5𝑜 𝐶
𝑅𝑒 = 71.9 × 103
𝑇ത = 35𝑜 𝐶

𝑘 = 26.9 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 𝑁𝑢 = 0.04(71.9 × 103 )0.85 0.7031/3

𝜈 = 16.69 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑁𝑢 = 0.04(71.9 × 103 )0.85 0.7031/3
𝑃𝑟 = 0.703
𝑁𝑢 = 477
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Lecture 21
External Flow

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Laminar Flow over an Isothermal Plate
➢ We have found, the local Nusselt Number

ℎ𝑥 𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.332𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝑘

➢ The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow is

1 𝑥
ℎ𝑥 = න ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 0

1/2 𝑥
𝑘 𝑢∞ 1
ℎ𝑥 = 0.332 𝑃𝑟1/3 න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝜈 0 𝑥 1/2

ℎ𝑥 = 2ℎ𝑥

𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.664𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3

Asad Akhter Naqvi
The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate
➢ It is not possible to obtain exact analytical solutions for turbulent
boundary layers, which are inherently unsteady.
➢ It is known that, to a reasonable approximation, the velocity
boundary layer thickness may be expressed as

𝛿 = 0.37𝑥 𝑅𝑒 −1/5
➢ Comparing these results with those for the laminar boundary layer,
we see that turbulent boundary layer growth is much more rapid.
➢ The local Nusselt number for turbulent flow is
4/5
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0296𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3
➢ Enhanced mixing causes the turbulent boundary layer to grow more
rapidly than the laminar boundary layer and to have larger friction
and convection coefficients.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
Mixed Boundary Layer Conditions
➢ If transition occurs toward the rear of the plate, for example, in
the range 0.95 ≤ (𝑥𝑐 /𝐿) ≤ 1
➢ Laminar flow equations will be used to compute the average
coefficients for a reasonable approximation.
➢ However, when transition occurs sufficiently upstream of the
trailing edge 𝑥𝑐 /𝐿 ≤ 0.95
𝑅𝑒 ≥ 5 × 105
➢ The surface average coefficients will be influenced by conditions
in both the laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
𝑥𝑐 𝐿
1
ℎ𝐿 = න ℎ 𝑑𝑥 + න ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝑙𝑎𝑚 𝑥𝑐
1/2 𝑥𝑐 4/5 𝐿
𝑘 𝑢∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝑢∞ 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝐿 = 0.332 න 1/2
+ 0.0296 න 1/5 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝐿 𝜈 0 𝑥 𝜈 𝑥𝑐 𝑥

➢ Integrating, we then obtain

Τ5
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = (0.037𝑅𝑒𝐿4 − 𝐴)𝑃𝑟1/3
4 5 Τ 1 2 Τ Asad Akhter Naqvi
𝐴 = 0.037𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 − 0.664𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐
Flat Plates with Constant Heat Flux Conditions
➢ It is also possible to have a uniform surface heat flux, rather than a
uniform temperature, imposed at the plate

𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3

➢ while for turbulent flow

4/5
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Consider atmospheric air at 29𝑜 𝐶 in parallel flow at 5 𝑚/𝑠 over a 1 𝑚 by 0.5 𝑚 flat plate
maintained at 75𝑜 𝐶. Estimate the total heat transfer from the plate when the air flow is along (a)
the longer side (b) the shorter side. For case (a) , also determine 𝛿𝑡 and 𝑞′′𝑠 at the trailing edge.

𝑇∞ = 29𝑜 𝐶
𝑢∞ = 5 𝑚/𝑠 𝑇𝑠 = 75𝑜 𝐶

0.5 𝑚

1𝑚

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 𝑇∞ + 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑓 = = 52𝑜 𝐶 = 325 𝐾
2

At 𝑇𝑓 = 325 𝐾

𝑘 = 28.15 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚𝐾

𝜈 = 18.41 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑃𝑟 = 0.704

ത 𝑞 = 8.65 × 0.5 × 1(75 − 29)

ℎ𝐿
When flow is parallel to 1 m side 𝑁𝑢𝐿 =
𝑘
𝑢∞ 𝐿 5×1 𝑞 = 199 𝑊
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑁𝑢𝐿 L
𝜈 18.41 × 10−6 ℎ𝐿 =
k
𝑅𝑒 = 2.71 × 105 < 5 × 105 308 × 1
ℎ𝐿 =
Flow is laminar 28.15 × 10−3

1/2 1/3 ℎ𝐿 = 8.65 𝑊/𝑚2 K

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.664𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.664(2.71 × 105 )1/2 0.7041/3 𝑞 = ℎ𝐿 A(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 308
Asad Akhter Naqvi
 𝑇∞ + 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑓 = = 52𝑜 𝐶 = 325 𝐾 𝑇∞ = 29𝑜 𝐶
2 𝑇𝑠 = 75𝑜 𝐶
𝑢∞ = 5 𝑚/𝑠
At 𝑇𝑓 = 325 𝐾

𝑘 = 28.15 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚𝐾

ത
ℎ𝐿
𝜈 = 18.41 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝐿 =
𝑘 1𝑚
𝑃𝑟 = 0.704
𝑁𝑢𝐿 L
ℎ𝐿 =
k
When flow is parallel to 0.5 m side
217 × 0.5 0.5 𝑚
𝑢∞ 𝐿 5 × 0.5 ℎ𝐿 =
𝑅𝑒 = = 28.15 × 10−3
𝜈 18.41 × 10−6
ℎ𝐿 = 12.24 𝑊/𝑚2 K
𝑅𝑒 = 1.35 × 105 <5 × 105
Flow is laminar 𝑞 = ℎ𝐿 A(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.664𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3 𝑞 = 12.24 × 0.5 × 1(75 − 29)

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.664(1.35 × 105 )1/2 0.7041/3 𝑞 = 281.5 𝑊

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 217
Asad Akhter Naqvi
For case A

At trailing edge
1/2
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3

𝑃𝑟 = 0.704 𝑅𝑒 = 2.71 × 105 𝛿𝑡

= 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝛿
ℎ𝑥 = 4.325 𝑊/𝑚2 K
𝛿𝑡 = 𝛿𝑃𝑟1/3
𝑞′′𝑠 = ℎ𝑥 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝛿𝑡 = 7.92 × 10−3 𝑚
𝑞′′𝑠 = 199 𝑊/𝑚2

4.64𝑥
𝛿=
𝑅𝑒𝑥
4.64(1)
𝛿=
2.71 × 105
𝛿 = 8.91 × 10−3 𝑚
Asad Akhter Naqvi
Air at 15𝑜 𝐶flows at 1.8 𝑚/𝑠 over a 0.6 𝑚 long heating panel. The panel is intended to supply
420 𝑊/𝑚2 to the air but the surface can sustain only about 110𝑜 𝐶 without being damaged. Is it
safe? What is the average temperature of the plate?

𝑢∞ = 1.8 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇∞ = 15𝑜 𝐶

𝑞′′𝑠 = 420 𝑊/𝑚2

0.6 𝑚

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Assume 𝑇𝑠 = 60𝑜 𝐶 Using constant flux condition

𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.453 𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3

ത
𝑇= = 348 𝐾 ≈ 350𝐾
2 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 91.38
𝐴𝑡 350𝐾
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 =
𝑘
𝑘 = 30 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
91.38 × 30 × 10−3
𝜈 = 20.92 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 ℎ=
0.6
𝑃𝑟 = 0.7 ℎ = 4.6 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑢∞ 𝐿 1.8 × 0.6 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ +
𝜈 20.92 × 10−6 ℎ𝐴
𝑅𝑒 = 51625 < 5 × 105 420
𝑇𝑠 = 15 +
4.6 × 0.6 × 1
Flow is laminar
𝑇𝑠 = 167𝑜 𝐶 > 110𝑜 𝐶

Panel is not safe

Asad Akhter Naqvi

A flat plate of width 1𝑚 is maintained at a uniform surface temperature 230𝑜 𝐶 by using
independently controlled, electrical strip heaters, each of which is 50 𝑚𝑚 long. If atmospheric
air at 25𝑜 𝐶 flows over the plate at the velocity of 60 𝑚/𝑠, at what heater is electrical input a
maximum? What is the value of this input?

𝑢∞ = 60 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶

𝑇𝑠 = 230𝑜 𝐶

50 𝑚𝑚

Asad Akhter Naqvi

 Using constant temperature condition

𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.664 𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3

ത
𝑇= = 400 𝐾
2 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 198
𝐴𝑡 400 𝐾
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 =
𝑘
𝑘 = 33.8 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
198 × 33.8 × 10−3
𝜈 = 26.41 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 ℎ=
0.05
𝑃𝑟 = 0.69 ℎ = 133.6 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑢∞ 𝐿 60 × 0.05
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑞 = ℎ𝐿 A(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝜈 26.41 × 10−6
𝑅𝑒 = 1.13 × 105 < 5 × 105 𝑞 = 133.6 × 1 × 0.05(230 − 25)

Flow is laminar 𝑞 = 1369 𝑊

Asad Akhter Naqvi

7-35. One hundred electrical components, each dissipating 25 𝑊, are attached to one surface of a square (0.2 𝑚 × 0.2 𝑚) copper
plate, and all the dissipated energy is transferred to water in parallel flow over the opposite surface. A protuberance at the leading
edge of the plate acts to trip the boundary layer, and the plate itself may be assumed to be isothermal. The water velocity and
temperature are 𝑢∞ = 2 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑇∞ = 17𝑜 𝐶, and the water’s thermophysical properties may be approximated as ν = 0.96 ×
10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 , 𝑘 = 0.620 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾, and Pr = 5.2.

What is the temperature of the copper plate?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 25 × 100 = 2500 𝑊

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝑥 =
𝑘

ν = 0.96 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑘

ℎ=
𝑘 = 0.620 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 𝐿
Pr = 5.2.

𝑢∞ 𝐿 2 × 0.2 ℎ = 5180 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾

𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜈 0.96 × 10−6 𝑞
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ +
𝑅𝑒 = 4.16 × 105 ℎ𝐴
< 5 × 105
2500
𝑇𝑠 = 17 +
5180 × 0.2 × 0.2
But the flow is turbulent because there is
a protuberance at the leading edge
𝑇𝑠 = 29𝑜 𝐶
4/5
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3

𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308(4.16 × 105 )1/3 (5.2)1/3

𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 1671
Asad Akhter Naqvi
7-43. The cover plate of a flat-plate solar collector is at 15𝑜 𝐶, while ambient air at 10𝑜 𝐶 is in
parallel flow over the plate, with 𝑢∞ = 2 𝑚/𝑠.

a. What is the rate of convective heat loss from the plate?

b. If the plate is installed 2 m from the leading edge of a roof and flush with the roof surface,
what is the rate of convective heat loss?

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Part a Average Nusselt Number will be
1/2
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.664𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝑇ത = = 288.5 𝐾
2 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 219.2
𝐴𝑡 288.5 𝐾 𝑁𝑢𝑘
ℎ𝐿 =
𝐿
𝑘 = 25.1 × 10−3 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
ℎ𝐿 = 5.5 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝜈 = 14.6 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑃𝑟 = 0.71 𝑞 = ℎ𝐿 A(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑢∞ 𝐿 2×1
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜈 14.6 × 10−6
𝑞 = 55 W
𝑅𝑒 = 1.37 × 105 < 5 × 105

Flow is laminar

Asad Akhter Naqvi

With unheated starting length
Average heat transfer coefficient will be
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞
𝑇ത = = 288.5 𝐾 𝐿
2 𝑞′′ = න 𝑞 ′′ 𝑑𝐴
𝑥𝑜
𝐴𝑡 288.5 𝐾
𝐿
−3 2
𝑘 = 25.1 × 10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 𝑞 = න ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑑𝐴
𝑥𝑜
𝜈 = 14.6 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝑘
𝑃𝑟 = 0.71 𝑞=න 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑑𝐴
𝑥𝑜 𝑥
𝑢∞ 𝐿 2×3
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜈 14.6 × 10−6 3/4 −1/3
1/2 𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3 1 −
𝑅𝑒 = 4.11 × 105 < 5 × 105 𝑥𝑜

3 1/2 3/4 −1/3

Flow is laminar 𝑘 𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑞=න 0.332 𝑃𝑟1/3 1 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 𝜈 𝑥𝑜

𝑞 = 39 W
Asad Akhter Naqvi
 Lecture 22
External Flow over the cylinders.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

External Flow over a cylinder

Asad Akhter Naqvi

External Flow over a cylinder
➢ The fluid approaching the cylinder branches out and encircles the cylinder,
forming a boundary layer that wraps around the cylinder.
➢ The fluid particles on the midplane strike the cylinder at the stagnation
point, bringing the fluid to a complete stop and thus raising the pressure at
that point.
➢ The pressure decreases in the flow direction while the fluid velocity
increases.
➢ At very low upstream velocities (𝑅𝑒 ≤ 1), the fluid completely wraps
around the cylinder and the two arms of the fluid meet on the rear side of
the cylinder in an orderly manner.
➢ At higher velocities, the fluid still hugs the cylinder on the frontal side, but
it is too fast to remain attached to the surface as it approaches the top of
the cylinder.
➢ As a result, the boundary layer detaches from the surface, forming a
separation region behind the cylinder.
➢ Flow in the wake region is characterized by random vortex formation and
pressures much lower than the stagnation point pressure.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

External Flow over a cylinder
➢ From 𝑢∞ = 0 at the stagnation point, the fluid accelerates because of the
favorable pressure gradient ( 𝑑𝑢∞ Τ𝑑𝑥 > 0 when 𝑑𝑃Τ𝑑𝑥 < 0 ), reaches a
maximum velocity when 𝑑𝑃Τ𝑑𝑥 = 0, and decelerates because of the adverse
pressure gradient (𝑑𝑢∞ Τ𝑑𝑥 < 0 when 𝑑𝑃Τ𝑑𝑥 > 0)

➢ As the fluid decelerates, the velocity gradient at the surface, 𝜕𝑢 Τ𝜕𝑦ȁ(𝑦 = 0),
eventually becomes zero.
➢ At this location, termed the separation point, fluid near the surface lacks
sufficient momentum to overcome the pressure gradient, and continued
downstream movement is impossible.
➢ This is a condition for which the boundary layer detaches from the surface,
and a wake is formed in the downstream region.
➢ Flow in this region is characterized by vortex formation and is highly
irregular.
➢ The separation point is the location for which 𝜕𝑢 Τ𝜕𝑦ȁ(𝑦 = 0).

Asad Akhter Naqvi

External Flow over a cylinder
➢ For the circular cylinder the characteristic length is the diameter, and the
Reynolds number is defined as

➢ If 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 2 × 105 , the boundary layer remains laminar, and separation occurs
at θ = 80𝑜
➢ However, if 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≥ 2 × 105 , boundary layer transition occurs, and separation
is delayed to θ = 140𝑜

Asad Akhter Naqvi

External Flow over a cylinder
➢ Experimental results for the variation of the local Nusselt number with θ
are shown in Figure 7.10 for the cylinder in a cross flow of air.
➢ Consider conditions for 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 105 .
➢ Starting at the stagnation point,𝑁𝑢θ decreases with increasing as a result of
laminar boundary layer development.
➢ However, a minimum is reached at θ = 80𝑜 , where separation occurs and
𝑁𝑢θ increases with due to mixing associated with vortex formation in the
wake.
➢ In contrast, for 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≥ 105 the variation of 𝑁𝑢θ with is characterized by
two minima.
➢ The decline in 𝑁𝑢θ from the value at the stagnation point is again due to
laminar boundary layer development, but the sharp increase that occurs
between 80𝑜 and 100𝑜 is now due to boundary layer transition to
turbulence.
➢ With further development of the turbulent boundary layer, 𝑁𝑢θ again begins
to decline.
➢ Eventually separation occurs (θ = 140𝑜 )and 𝑁𝑢θ increases as a result of
mixing in the wake region.
➢ The increase in 𝑁𝑢θ with increasing 𝑅𝑒𝐷 is due to a corresponding reduction
in the boundary layer thickness.
Asad Akhter Naqvi
External Flow over a cylinder
➢ Correlations may be obtained for the local Nusselt number, and at the
forward stagnation point for Pr ≥ 0.6
➢ At low Reynolds number:
Τ
𝑁𝑢𝐷 (𝜃 = 0) = 1.15𝑅𝑒𝐷1 2 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
➢ However, from the standpoint of engineering calculations, we are more
interested in overall average conditions.
➢ An empirical correlation due to that has been modified to account for
fluids of various Prandtl numbers,
ത
ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷𝑚 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
𝑘
➢ is widely used for Pr ≥ 0.7, where the constants C and m are listed in
Table 7.2.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Asad Akhter Naqvi
External Flow over a cylinder
➢ Other correlations have been suggested for the circular cylinder in cross flow
➢ The correlation due to Zukauskas is of the form

➢ where all properties are evaluated at 𝑇∞ , except 𝑃𝑟𝑠 , which is evaluated at 𝑇𝑆 .

➢ Values of C and m are listed in Table 7.4.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

External Flow over a cylinder
➢ Churchill and Bernstein have proposed a single comprehensive equation
that covers the entire range of 𝑅𝑒𝐷 for which data are available, as well as a
wide range of Pr

➢ where all properties are evaluated at the film temperature.

Asad Akhter Naqvi

7-47. A circular pipe of 25-mm outside diameter is placed in an airstream at
25𝑜 𝐶 and 1-atm pressure. The air moves in cross flow over the pipe at 15 m/s,
while the outer surface of the pipe is maintained at 100𝑜 𝐶. What is the rate of heat
transfer from the pipe per unit length?
𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚

𝑉 = 15 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶

𝑇𝑠 = 100𝑜 𝐶

Asad Akhter Naqvi

𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚 𝑇∞ = 25𝑜 𝐶
76.6 × 0.0288
𝑇𝑠 = 100𝑜 𝐶 𝑉 = 15 𝑚/𝑠 ℎത =
Using Table 7.2 0.025

𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞
𝑇𝑓 = = 335 𝐾 ℎത = 88.2 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
2
At 335 𝐾 ത
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑘 = 0.0288 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
𝜈 = 19.31 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 𝑞 = ℎത × (𝜋𝐷𝐿) × (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑃𝑟 = 0.7
𝐶 = 0.193 𝑚 = 0.618 𝑞
𝑉𝐷 𝑞′ = = ℎത × (𝜋𝐷) × (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑅𝑒 = = 19420 𝐿
𝜈 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.193 × 194200.618 × 0.71Τ3

𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 76.6 𝑞 ′ = 88.2 × (0.025𝜋) × (100 − 25)

Nusselt Number will be calculated as

ത
ℎ𝐷 ത
ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷𝑚 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 𝑁𝑢𝐷 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑞′ = 520 𝑊/𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝐷 𝑘
ℎത =
𝐷
Asad Akhter Naqvi
External Flow over a sphere
➢ Boundary layer effects associated with flow over a sphere are much like those
for the circular cylinder, with transition and separation playing prominent
roles.
➢ Numerous heat transfer correlations have been proposed, and Whitaker [15]
recommends an expression of the form

➢ where all properties are evaluated at 𝑇∞ , except 𝑃𝑟𝑠 , which is evaluated at 𝑇𝑆 .

➢ A special case of convection heat and mass transfer from spheres relates to
transport from freely falling liquid drops, and the correlation of Ranz and
Marshall [19] is often used

Asad Akhter Naqvi

Lecture 23
Internal Flows
The Entrance Region
➢ Consider a fluid entering a circular tube at a uniform velocity.
➢ As in external flow, the fluid particles in the layer in contact with
the surface of the tube will come to a complete stop.
➢ As a result, a velocity boundary layer develops along the tube.
➢ The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow direction
until the boundary layer reaches the tube center and thus fills the
entire tube
➢ The region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary
layer merges at the centerline is called the hydrodynamic
entrance region,
➢ The length of this region is called the hydrodynamic entry
length, 𝒙𝒇𝒅,𝒉
➢ The velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic in
laminar flow and somewhat flatter in turbulent flow due to eddy
motion in radial direction.
➢ The velocity profile will be

2
𝑢 𝑟
=2 1−
𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑜
The Entrance Region
➢ When dealing with internal flows, it is important to be cognizant of the extent
of the entry region, which depends on whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent.
➢ The Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube is defined as
𝜌𝑢𝑚 𝐷 𝑢𝑚 𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝜇 𝜈
➢ In a fully developed flow, the critical Reynolds number corresponding to the
onset of turbulence is
𝑅𝑒𝐷,𝑐 ≈ 2300
➢ For laminar flow the hydrodynamic entry length may be obtained from an
expression of the form
𝑥𝑓𝑑,ℎ
≈ 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷
𝐷 𝑙𝑎𝑚
➢ This expression is based on the presumption that fluid enters the tube from a
rounded converging nozzle and is hence characterized by a nearly uniform
velocity profile at the entrance.
➢ There is no satisfactory general expression for the entry length in turbulent
flow
➢ It is approximately independent of Reynolds number and that,
Thermal Considerations
➢ If fluid enters the tube at a uniform temperature T(r, 0) that is
less than the surface temperature
➢ Convection heat transfer occurs and a thermal boundary
layer begins to develop.
➢ The shape of the fully developed temperature profile
𝑇(𝑟, 𝑥) differs according to whether a uniform surface
temperature or heat flux is maintained.
➢ For laminar flow the thermal entry length may be expressed as
𝑥𝑓𝑑,𝑡
≈ 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟
𝐷 𝑙𝑎𝑚
➢ Comparing Equations of hydrodynamic and thermal
conditions it is evident that, if Pr > 1, the hydrodynamic
boundary layer develops more rapidly than the thermal
boundary layer , while the inverse is true for Pr < 1.

➢ In contrast, for turbulent flow, conditions are nearly

independent of Prandtl number, and to a first approximation,
we shall assume
𝑥𝑓𝑑,𝑡
= 10
𝐷 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏
The Energy Balance
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑚.𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑖 )

𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ((𝑇𝑚 + 𝑑𝑇𝑚 ) − 𝑇𝑚 )

𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇𝑚

The rate of convection heat transfer to the differential element

𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑞′′𝑠 𝑃𝑑𝑥

where P is the surface perimeter. For circular pipes 𝑃 = 𝜋𝐷

Pause the video and write this
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇𝑚 = 𝑞′′𝑠 𝑃𝑑𝑥 equation on your notebook.

𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 𝑃 𝑃
= = ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑚𝐶𝑝
The Energy Balance
Constant Surface Heat Flux

➢ Since 𝑞′′𝑠 is independent of x, it follows that

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 ( 𝑃. 𝐿)

➢ For constant 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠

𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 𝑃
= ≠ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝐶𝑝

Integrating from 𝑥 = 0, it follows that

𝑞′′ 𝑠 𝑃
𝑇𝑚 𝑥 = 𝑇𝑚,𝑖 + 𝑥
𝑚𝐶𝑝
Accordingly, the mean temperature varies linearly with x along the tube
we also expect the temperature difference (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 ) to vary with x,
The Energy Balance
Constant Surface Temperature
➢ Results for the total heat transfer rate and the axial distribution of the mean
temperature are entirely different for the constant surface temperature
condition.
➢ Defining ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 ,
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑑(∆𝑇) 𝑃
=− = ℎ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝐶𝑝
➢ Separating variables and integrating from the tube inlet to the outlet
∆𝑇𝑜 𝐿
𝑑(∆𝑇) 𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐿 1 𝐿
න =− න ℎ𝑑𝑥 ln =− න ℎ𝑑𝑥
∆𝑇𝑖 ∆𝑇 𝑚𝐶𝑝 0 ∆𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿 0

➢ From the definition of the average convection heat transfer coefficient

∆𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐿
ln =− ℎ
∆𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿

➢ This result tells us that the temperature difference ( 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 ) decays

exponentially with distance along the tube axis.
The Energy Balance
Constant Surface Temperature
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑚.𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑖 )

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑜 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (∆𝑇𝑖 − ∆𝑇𝑜 )

∆𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐿 ℎ𝐿 𝐴𝑆
ln =− ℎ 𝑚𝐶𝑝 = −
∆𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿 ∆𝑇
ln ∆𝑇𝑜
𝑖

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐿 𝐴𝑆 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚

where AS is the tube surface area AS = P. L

∆Tlm is the log mean temperature difference

∆𝑇𝑜 − ∆𝑇𝑖
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
∆𝑇
ln ∆𝑇𝑜
𝑖
Lecture 24
Internal Flows (Cont.)
Temperature Profile
Assumptions

1. Fully Developed flow inside a circular tube.

2. Constant thermophysical properties.
3. Uniform pressure at any cross section.
4. Negligible axial conduction of heat
compared to conduction in radial direction.
5. 𝑞′′𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Temperature Profile
𝜕𝑇
1. Rate at which energy conducted into the CV at r = −𝑘 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
2. Rate at which energy conducted out the CV = −𝑘 2𝜋 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
3. Rate at which energy advected into the CV at x = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢𝑇(2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑇
4. Rate at which energy advected out of CV at x + dx = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 𝑇 + 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)

Energy Balance
𝑑𝑥
4 − 3 = 1 − (2) 𝑥 𝑟

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑥 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 − 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢𝑇 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 = −𝑘 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑥 + 𝑘 2𝜋 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2

𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 2
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑑𝑟 + dr + 2 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
2
Since 𝑑𝑟 = 0, the above expression will be
Temperature Profile
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑑𝑟 + dr
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑢𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝑢 𝑟
2 𝑢𝑐
𝑢𝑟 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 =2 1− 𝑢𝑚 =
= 𝑟 𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑜 2
𝛼 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑇 (1)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑢𝑐 1 −
𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑜 𝛼 𝜕𝑥

Integrating eq. 1

𝜕𝑇 𝑢𝑐 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑇 (2)
𝑟 = − + 𝐶1
𝜕𝑟 𝛼 2 4𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑥

Integrating eq. 2

𝑢𝑐 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑇
𝑇= − + 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝐶2
𝛼 4 16𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑥
Temperature Profile
𝑢𝑐 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑇
𝑇= − + 𝐶1 𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝐶2
𝛼 4 16𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑥

Boundary Conditions

𝜕𝑇
= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0
𝜕𝑟

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0

𝐶1 = 0 𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑐

𝑢𝑐 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 + −
𝛼 4 16𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑥
The Mean Temperature
𝑟𝑜
𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑚 = න 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑑𝑚
0
𝑟𝑜
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑚 = න 𝜌𝑢𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑑𝐴𝑐 (3)
0
For circular pipes
𝐴𝑐 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝜌𝑢𝑐
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑢𝑚 𝜋𝑟𝑜2 = (𝜋𝑟𝑜2 )
2
𝑢𝑐 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 + −
𝛼 4 16𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑥
2
𝑢 𝑟
= 1−
𝑢𝑐 𝑟𝑜

Substituting temperature and velocity distribution

in eq. 3 and then solving
7 𝑢𝑐 𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑇
𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇𝑐 + . .
96 𝛼 𝜕𝑥
Heat Transfer with constant Flux
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
−𝑘 ฬ (𝑦 = 0) −𝑘 ฬ (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 (4)
ℎ= =
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 ) (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 )

𝑢𝑐 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑇 Fluid properties are evaluated at the

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 + − arithmetic average of the mean temperature
𝛼 4 16𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑥

At 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑚.𝑖 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑜
𝑇𝑚 =
2
𝜕𝑇 𝑢𝑐 𝑟𝑜 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜 = Constant Surface temperature Condition
𝜕𝑟 4𝛼 𝜕𝑥

3𝑢𝑐 𝑟𝑜2 𝜕𝑇 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66

𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑐 +
16𝛼 𝜕𝑥
Now eq. 4 will be

24 𝑘 48 𝑘
ℎ= =
11 𝑟𝑜 11 𝐷

𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 4.364
The Entry Region
➢ The results of the preceding section are valid only when both the
velocity and temperature profiles are fully developed,
➢ However, two different entry length are also associated
➢ The simplest solution is for the thermal entry length problem, and it is
based on assuming that thermal conditions develop in the presence of a
fully developed velocity profile.
➢ the combined (thermal and velocity) entry length problem corresponds
to the case for which the temperature and velocity profiles develop
simultaneously.
➢ It would never be the case that thermal conditions are fully developed
and hydrodynamic conditions are developing.
➢ Since the temperature distribution depends on the velocity distribution,
as long as the velocity is still changing, thermal conditions cannot be
fully developed.
The Entry Region
For thermal entry length problem

0.0668(𝐷 Τ𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 (𝐷 Τ𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 2/3

For combined entry length problems

1Τ3 0.14
𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 𝜇
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86
𝐿Τ𝐷 𝜇𝑠
Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
➢ For fully developed (hydrodynamically and thermally) turbulent flow in a
smooth circular tube, the local Nusselt number may be obtained from the
Dittus. Boelter equation
Τ
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷4 5 𝑃𝑟 𝑛

➢ where 𝑛 = 0.4 for heating (𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇𝑚 ) and 0.3 for cooling (𝑇𝑠 < 𝑇𝑚 ).
➢ These equations have been confirmed experimentally for the range of
conditions

➢ Since entry lengths for turbulent flow are typically short, 10 ≤ (𝑥𝑓𝑑 /𝐷) ≤ 60,
it is often reasonable to assume that the average Nusselt number for the entire
tube is equal to the value associated with the fully developed region, 𝑁𝑢𝐷 ≈
𝑁𝑢𝐷,𝑓𝑑 .
Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
➢ For flows characterized by large property variations, the following equation, due
to Sieder and Tate
0.14
Τ 𝜇
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.027𝑅𝑒𝐷4 5 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝜇𝑠

➢ where all properties except 𝜇𝑠 are evaluated at Tm.

➢ To a good approximation, the foregoing correlations may be applied for both the
uniform surface temperature and heat flux conditions.
 Lecture 25
Problem related to Internal Flows
A 3 𝑚 long tube, 1.4 𝑐𝑚 in diameter is subjected to a uniform heat flux 2.2 𝑘𝑊/
𝑚2 . It conveys ethylene glycol at a flow rate of 3.25 × 10−6 𝑚3 /𝑠. The liquid
enters the tube at a bulk temperature of 20𝑜 𝐶 . Determine the fluid outlet
temperature and the tube wall temperature at the outlet.

𝑄ሶ = 3.25 × 10−6 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑇𝑏𝑜
𝑇𝑏𝑖 = 20𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑠
𝐷 = 1.4 𝑐𝑚

𝐿 =3𝑚
Taking Properties at 𝑇𝑏𝑖 = 20𝑜 𝐶 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 (𝑇𝑏𝑜 − 𝑇𝑏𝑖 )
𝑞
𝑇𝑏𝑜 = + 𝑇𝑏𝑖
From table A 5 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝
𝐶𝑃 = 2382 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑞
𝑇𝑏𝑜 = + 𝑇𝑏𝑖
𝜌 = 1116 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝜌𝑄𝐶𝑝

𝑘 = 0.249 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 290.3

𝑇𝑏𝑜 = + 20
𝜈 = 19.18 × 10 −6 2
𝑚 /𝑠 1116 × 3.25 × 10−6 × 2382
𝑃𝑟 = 204.23
𝑇𝑏𝑜 = 53.6𝑜 𝐶
Total heat transfer will be The surface temperature will be
𝑞 = 𝑞′′(𝜋𝐷𝐿) 𝑞 ′′ = ℎ(𝑇𝑠𝑜 − 𝑇𝑏𝑜 )
𝑞 = 2.2 × 103 (𝜋 × 0.014 × 3) For determining the nature of the flow
𝑞 = 290.3 𝑊 𝑄 3.25 × 10−6
𝑢𝑚 = = 𝜋 = 0.0211 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 2
4 × 0.014
 𝑢𝑚 𝐷 0.0211 × 0.014 For constant flux condition
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝜈 19.18 × 10−6 2.2 × 103
𝑁𝑢 = 4.364 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = + 53.6
77.62
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 15.4 < 2300 hD
𝑁𝑢 =
Flow is laminar k

ℎ=
Nuk 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 81.9𝑜 𝐶
D
Checking either flow is developed or not
4.364 × 0.249
𝑥ℎ = 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷 ℎ=
0.014
𝑥ℎ = 0.011 𝑚
ℎ = 77.62 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑥𝑡 = 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷𝑃𝑟
𝑥𝑡 = 2.303 𝑚
𝑞 ′′ = ℎ(𝑇𝑠𝑜 − 𝑇𝑏𝑜 )

Both 𝑥ℎ and 𝑥𝑡 are less than 3 m

𝑞 ′′
It means flow is fully developed at outlet. 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = + 𝑇𝑏𝑜
ℎ
Oil is heated by flowing through a circular tube of 50 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 25 𝑚
length, whose surface is maintained at 150𝑜 𝐶. If the flow rate of the oil and inlet
temperature of the oil are 0.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 and 20𝑜 𝐶, respectively, what is the outlet
temperature? What is the total heat transfer for the tube?

𝑚ሶ = 0.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑇𝑏𝑜
𝑇𝑏𝑖 = 20𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑠
𝐷 = 50 𝑚𝑚

𝐿 = 25 𝑚
Taking Properties at 𝑇𝑏𝑖 = 20𝑜 𝐶 Checking flow nature

From table A 5 𝑢𝑚 𝐷 0.286 × 0.05

𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝐶𝑃 = 1880.3 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝜈 9.49 × 10−4
𝜌 = 888.23 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 15.01 < 2300
𝑘 = 0.145 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
Flow is laminar
𝜈 = 9.49 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑃𝑟 = 10950
Checking either flow is developed or not
𝑥ℎ = 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑢𝑚
𝑥ℎ = 0.0375 𝑚
𝑚ሶ
𝑢𝑚 = 𝑥𝑡 = 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷𝑃𝑟
𝜌𝐴
𝑥𝑡 = 410.8 𝑚
0.5
𝑢𝑚 = 𝜋
888.23 × (0.05)2
4
𝑥ℎ is less than 25 m but 𝑥𝑡 is greater than 25 m
𝑢𝑚 = 0.286 𝑚/𝑠
It means flow is thermally developing.
 0.0668(𝐷 Τ𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 (𝐷 Τ𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 2/3

0.0668(0.05Τ25) × 15.01 × 10950

𝑇𝑏𝑜 = 36.55𝑜 𝐶
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 (0.05Τ25) × 15.01 × 10950 2/3
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 11.425 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 (𝑇𝑏𝑖 − 𝑇𝑏𝑜 )

ℎ𝐷 𝑞 = 15564 𝑊
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
𝑁𝑢𝑘
ℎത = = 32.61 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝐷

The outlet temperature will be determined by

∆𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐿
ln =− ℎ
∆𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿

𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑏𝑖 𝜋𝐷𝐿
ln = ℎ
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑏𝑜 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿
Engine oil flows through a 25 𝑚𝑚 diameter tube at a rate of 0.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠. The oil enters the tube at a
temperature of 25𝑜 𝐶, while the tube surface temperature is maintained at 100𝑜 𝐶
Determine the oil outlet temperature for a 5 − 𝑚 and for a 100 − 𝑚 long tube. For each case,
compare the log mean temperature difference to the arithmetic mean temperature difference

𝑚ሶ = 0.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑇𝑏𝑜
𝑇𝑏𝑖 = 20𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑠
𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚

𝐿 =5𝑚
Assume 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑢𝑚 Checking either flow is developed or not
𝑇𝑚𝑜 = 85𝑜 𝐶 𝑚ሶ 𝑥ℎ = 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷
𝑢𝑚 =
𝜌𝐴 𝑥ℎ = 0.380 𝑚
𝑇𝑚𝑖 + 𝑇𝑚𝑜
ത
𝑇= 0.5
2 𝑢𝑚 = 𝑥𝑡 = 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷𝑃𝑟
𝜋
865.8 × 4 (0.025)2 𝑥𝑡 = 458.3 𝑚
𝑇ത = 328𝐾 ≈ 330 𝐾
𝑢𝑚 = 1.176 𝑚/𝑠
From table A 5 𝑥ℎ is less than 5 m but 𝑥𝑡 is greater than 5 m
𝐶𝑃 = 2035 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 Checking flow nature It means flow is thermally developing.
𝜌 = 865.8 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑘 = 0.141 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 𝑢𝑚 𝐷 1.176 × 0.025
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝜈 = 96.6 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 𝜈 96.6 × 10−6
𝑃𝑟 = 1205
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 304.3 < 2300
Flow is laminar
 0.0668(𝐷 Τ𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 ∆𝑇𝑜 − ∆𝑇𝑖
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 + ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
1 + 0.04 (𝐷 Τ𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 2/3 ∆𝑇
ln ∆𝑇𝑜
𝑖
0.0668(0.025Τ5) × 304.3 × 1250
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 (0.025Τ5) × 304.3 × 1250 2/3
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 21.16
(100 − 28.4) − (100 − 25)
ℎ𝐷 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
𝑁𝑢 = (100 − 28.4)
𝑘 ln
(100 − 25)
𝑁𝑢𝑘
ത
ℎ= = 119 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 73.3𝑜 𝐶
𝐷
The outlet temperature will be determined by ∆𝑇𝑜 + ∆𝑇𝑖
∆𝑇𝑎𝑚 =
2
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑏𝑖 𝜋𝐷𝐿
ln = ℎ
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑏𝑜 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿 ∆𝑇𝑎𝑚 = 73.3𝑜 𝐶

𝑇𝑏𝑜 = 28.4𝑜 𝐶
Water is to be heated from 15°C to 65°C as it flows through a 3-cm-internal diameter 5-m-long
tube (Fig. 8–29). The tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater that provides uniform
heating throughout the surface of the tube. The outer surface of the heater is well insulated, so that
in steady operation all the heat generated in the heater is transferred to the water in the tube. If the
system is to provide hot water at a rate of 10 L/min, determine the power rating of the resistance
heater. Also, estimate the inner surface temperature of the pipe at the exit.
Average Film temperature 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 (𝑇𝑏𝑜 − 𝑇𝑏𝑖 )

𝑇𝑚𝑖 + 𝑇𝑚𝑜 𝑞 = 34560 𝑊

𝑇ത =
2
0.1654
𝑇ത = 313 𝐾 𝑢𝑚 = 𝜋
992.1 × 4 (0.03)2

From table A 6 𝑢𝑚 = 0.235 𝑚/𝑠

𝐶𝑃 = 4179 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑢𝑚 𝐷
𝜌 = 992.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = = 10750 > 2300
𝜈
𝑘 = 0.631 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
Turbulent flow
𝜈 = 0.658 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑃𝑟 = 4.32
Checking either flow is developed or not

𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑄 = 992.1 × 0.01 = 9.921 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥ℎ = 𝑥𝑡 = 10D = 0.3

Less than L=5m, Flow is developed at outlet
𝑚ሶ = 0.1654 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Using Dittus. Boelter equation

Τ
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷4 5 𝑃𝑟 0.4
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023(10750)0.8 4.320.4
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 69.3

𝑁𝑢𝑘
ℎത = = 1457 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝐷

𝑞
𝑇𝑠𝑜 = + 𝑇𝑏𝑜
ℎ(𝜋𝐷𝐿)

𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 115𝑜 𝐶
 Lecture 26
Heat Transfer due to free convection
Introduction
• In free convection fluid motion is due to buoyancy forces within the fluid, while in forced
convection it is externally imposed.
• Buoyancy is due to the combined presence of a fluid density gradient and a body force that is
proportional to density.
• In practice, the body force is usually gravitational, although it may be a centrifugal force in
rotating fluid machinery or a Coriolis force in atmospheric and oceanic rotational motions.
• The fluid will move due to density gradient.
• The density gradient is due to a temperature gradient and the body force is gravitational.
 Thermal Stratification
𝑇2 𝑇1

𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑇1 > 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

Heat transfer will be due to convection. Heat transfer will be due to conduction only
Buoyancy Forces
➢ In a gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes upward a light fluid placed in a heavier fluid.
➢ The upward force exerted by a fluid on a body completely or partially immersed in it is called the buoyancy force.

➢ In heat transfer studies, the primary variable is temperature, and it is desirable to express the net buoyancy force in terms of
temperature differences.
➢ The property that provides that information is the volume expansion coefficient 𝜷 ,

➢ For an ideal gas

𝑃 𝜕𝜌 𝑃 𝟏
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝜌= =− 2 𝜷=
𝑅𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑻
➢ The buoyancy force is proportional to the density difference, which is proportional to the temperature difference at constant
pressure.
Equation of motion
➢ Consider a vertical hot flat plate immersed in a quiescent fluid body.
➢ Assume the natural convection flow to be steady, laminar, and two-dimensional,
and the fluid to be Newtonian with constant properties, including density, with one
exception: the density difference 𝜌 − 𝜌∞
➢ We take the upward direction along the plate to be x, and the direction normal to
surface to be y, as shown in Figure
➢ Therefore, gravity acts in the x-direction.
➢ Noting that the flow is steady and two-dimensional, the x- and y-components of
velocity within boundary layer are 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), respectively.
➢ The thickness of the boundary layer increases in the flow direction.
➢ Unlike forced convection, however, the fluid velocity is zero at the outer edge of
the velocity boundary layer as well as at the surface of the plate.
➢ This is expected since the fluid beyond the boundary layer is motionless.
➢ Thus, the fluid velocity increases with distance from the surface, reaches a
maximum, and gradually decreases to zero at a distance sufficiently far from the
surface.
➢ At the surface, the fluid temperature is equal to the plate temperature, and gradually
decreases to the temperature of the surrounding fluid at a distance sufficiently far
from the surface,
Equation of motion
➢ Consider a differential volume element of height dx, length dy, and unit depth in the z-
direction.
➢ The forces acting on this volume element are shown in Figure
➢ Newton’s second law of motion for this control volume can be expressed as

𝛿𝑚. 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 (1)

𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌(𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1)
➢ The acceleration in the x-direction

➢ The forces acting on the differential volume element in the vertical direction are the pressure
forces acting on the top and bottom surfaces, the shear stresses acting on the side surfaces
and the force of gravity acting on the entire volume element.

𝜕𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝜕𝑦
Equation of motion
(2)

➢ The x-momentum equation in the quiescent fluid outside the boundary layer can be
obtained from the relation above as a special case by setting 𝑢 = 0. It give

➢ For a given x the pressure in the boundary layer is equal to the pressure in the quiescent
fluid. 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑃∞ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃∞
= = −𝜌∞ 𝑔
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
➢ Eq. 2 will be
(3)

➢ The last term represents the net upward force per unit volume of the fluid. This is the force
that initiates and sustains convection currents.
➢ From the definition of volumetric expansion coefficient
𝜌∞ − 𝜌 = 𝜌𝛽(𝑇 − 𝑇∞ )
➢ Eq. 3 will be
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝜈 2 + 𝑔𝛽(𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
The Grashof Number
➢ Assume L be the characteristic length and we are introducing nondimensional parameters
𝑥 𝑦 𝑢 𝑣 𝑇 − 𝑇∞
𝑥∗ = 𝑦∗ = 𝑢∗ = 𝑣∗ = 𝑇∗ =
𝐿 𝐿 𝑢𝑜 𝑢𝑜 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
➢ Substitute in eq. 4

𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿3
𝐺𝑟𝐿 =
𝜈2

➢ Grashof number plays the same role in free convection that the Reynolds number plays
in forced convection.
➢ Reynolds number provides a measure of the ratio of the inertial to viscous forces acting
on a fluid element.
➢ In contrast, the Grashof number is a measure of the ratio of the buoyancy forces to the
viscous forces acting on the fluid.
➢ In free convection
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 𝑓(𝐺𝑟𝐿 , 𝑃𝑟)
Combined Free and Forced Convection
➢ Richardson Number
𝐺𝑟
𝑅𝑖 = 2
𝑅𝑒
➢ The combined effects of free and forced convection must be considered when 𝑅𝑖 ≈ 1
➢ If 𝑅𝑖 ≪ 1 then free convection effects will be neglected
➢ If 𝑅𝑖 ≫ 1 then forced convection effects will be neglected
𝑛 = 3 (𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦)
➢ The effect of buoyancy on heat transfer in a forced flow is strongly influenced by the
direction of the buoyancy force relative to that of the flow.
➢ Three special cases that have been studied extensively correspond to buoyancy-
induced and forced motions having the same direction (assisting flow), opposite
directions (opposing flow), and perpendicular directions (transverse flow).
➢ Upward and downward forced motions over a hot vertical plate are examples of
assisting and opposing flows, respectively.
➢ Examples of transverse flow include horizontal motion over a hot cylinder, sphere, or
horizontal plate.
Governing Equations
Continuity equation

Momentum equation

Energy Equation
Empirical Correlations: External Free Convection Flows
➢ Rayleigh number: 𝑅𝑎𝑥 = 𝐺𝑟𝑥 𝑃𝑟

ത
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝐿𝑛
𝑘
The Vertical Plate

➢ Applicable to inclined surfaces (0 < 𝜃 < 60𝑜 ) , with 𝑔 replaced

𝑔 cos 𝜃, when heat surface is from the top surface of a cooled plate or
bottom surface of a heated plate.
➢ Applicable vertical cylinders when,
Empirical Correlations: External Free Convection Flows
The Horizontal Plate
➢ The characteristic length is defined as

𝐴𝑠
𝐿=
𝑃

Upper surface heated or lower cooled Lower surface heated or upper cooled

Τ Τ4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.54𝑅𝑎𝐿1 4 104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 107 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.27𝑅𝑎𝐿1 105 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 1010
Τ
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.15𝑅𝑎𝐿1 3 107 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 1011

(a) Top surface of cold plate.

(b) Bottom surface of cold plate.
(c) Top surface of hot plate.
(d) Bottom surface of hot plate.
Empirical Correlations: External Free Convection Flows
The Long Horizontal Cylinder

Spheres
 Lecture 27
Problem related to free convection
Air flows through a 15 𝑚 long rectangular heating duct that is 0.75 𝑚 wide and
0.3 𝑚 high maintains the outer duct surface at 45𝑜 𝐶. If the duct is uninsulated and
exposed to still air 15𝑜 𝐶, what is the heat loss from the duct?

𝑇∞ = 15𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑠 = 45𝑜 𝐶

0.3 𝑚

0.75 𝑚
The average film temperature is: 𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 7.09 × 107 (Laminar)
15 + 45
𝑇𝑓 = = 30𝑜 𝐶 = 303 𝐾 104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎 ≤ 109
2
For vertical side
𝜈 = 16.2 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑘 = 0.0265 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
𝑃𝑟 = 0.71
1
𝛽 = = 0.0033 /𝐾 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 55.13
𝑇
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢 =
For vertical side 𝐿 = 0.3 𝑚 𝑘
𝑁𝑢𝑘
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿3 ℎ=
𝐿
𝐺𝑟𝐿 =
𝜈2
ℎ = 4.87 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
9.8 × 0.033(45 − 15) × 0.33 𝑞𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2(ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝐺𝑟𝐿 =
(16.2 × 10−6 )2
𝑞𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2(4.87 × 15 × 0.3 × 30)
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 9.99 × 107
𝑞𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 1315 𝑊
For horizontal side

𝐴𝑠 15 × 0.75 ℎ𝐿 = 5.485 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾

𝐿= = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝑞𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑃 2(15 + 0.75)
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
𝐿 = 0.357 𝑚 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 3873 𝑊
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 5.485 × 15 × 0.75 × 30
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿3
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 1851 𝑊
𝜈2
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 168.37 × 106 Bottom surface heated

Τ4
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.27𝑅𝑎𝐿1

𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 1.1954 × 106 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 28.23

ℎ𝐿 = 2.096 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Upper surface heated
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
Τ
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.15𝑅𝑎𝐿1 3
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 2.096 × 15 × 0.75 × 30
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 73.89
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 707 𝑊
A horizontal rod 5 𝑚𝑚 in diameter is immersed in water maintained at 18𝑜 𝐶. If the
rod surface temperature is 56𝑜 𝐶, estimate the free convection heat transfer rate per
unit length of the rod.
5 𝑚𝑚

𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐷3
The average film temperature is: 𝐺𝑟𝐿 =
𝜈2
18 + 56
𝑇𝑓 = = 37𝑜 𝐶 = 310 𝐾 9.8 × 361.9 × 10−6 (56 − 18) × 0.0053
2 𝐺𝑟𝐿 =
(16.2 × 10−6 )2
𝜈 = 6.99 × 10−7 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 34478.9
𝑘 = 0.268 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
𝑃𝑟 = 4.62 𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟
𝛽 = 361.9 × 10−6 /𝐾
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 34478.9 × 4.62

𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 159292
 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝑞 = ℎ × (𝜋𝐷𝐿) × (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑁𝑢 = 10.40
′
𝑞
𝑞 = = ℎ × (𝜋𝐷) × (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
ℎ𝐷 𝐿
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
𝑞 ′ = 1306 × (𝜋 × 0.005) × (56 − 18)
𝑁𝑢𝑘
ℎ=
𝐷
10.40 × 0.628
𝑞′ = 780 𝑊/𝑚
ℎ=
0.005
ℎ = 1306 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Airflow through a long, 0.2 𝑚 square air conditioning duct maintains the outer duct
surface temperature at 10𝑜 𝐶. If the horizontal duct is uninsulated and exposed to air
at 35𝑜 𝐶 in the crawlspace beneath a home, what is the heat gain per unit length of
the duct?
𝑇∞ = 35𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑠 = 10𝑜 𝐶

0.2 𝑚

0.2 𝑚
The average film temperature is:
𝑞𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2 × ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟
10 + 35
𝑇𝑓 = = 22.5𝑜 𝐶 = 295.5 𝐾
2 𝑞′𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2 × 4.92 × 0.2 × (35 − 10)
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 25.61 × 106 × 0.71
𝜈 = 15.89 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 18.11 × 106 𝑞′𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 49.2 𝑊/𝑚
𝑘 = 0.0265 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
𝑃𝑟 = 0.71
1
𝛽 = = 0.0033 /𝐾
𝑇

For vertical side 𝐿 = 0.2 𝑚

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 37.13
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿3
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 𝑁𝑢𝑘
𝜈2 ℎ=
𝐿
9.8 × 0. 0333(35 − 10) × 0.23 37.13 × 0.0265
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = ℎ=
(15.89 × 10−6 )2 0.2

ℎ = 4.92 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 25.61 × 106
 𝑁𝑢𝑘
ℎ=
For horizontal side 𝐿

𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝐿 = 5.51 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝐿= 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝑞𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑃
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
𝐿 = 0.1 𝑚 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 90.5 𝑊/𝑚
𝑞′𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 5.5 × 0.2 × 25
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿3
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 27.55 𝑊/𝑚
𝜈2
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 3.202 × 106 Bottom surface heated

Τ4
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.27𝑅𝑎𝐿1

𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 2.27 × 106 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 10.48

ℎ𝐿 = 2.75 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Upper surface heated
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
Τ
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.54𝑅𝑎𝐿1 4
𝑞′𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 2.75 × 0.2 × 25
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 20.96
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 13.75 𝑊/𝑚
 Lecture 28
Boiling and Condensation
Boiling
➢ When evaporation occurs at a solid liquid interface, it is termed boiling.
➢ The process occurs when the temperature of the surface 𝑇𝑠 exceeds the
saturation temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 corresponding to the liquid pressure.
➢ Heat is transferred from the solid surface to the liquid, and the appropriate
form of Newton’s law of cooling is

𝑞′′𝑠 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = ℎ∆𝑇𝑒

➢ where ∆𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 is termed the excess temperature.

➢ The process is characterized by the formation of vapor bubbles, which grow
and subsequently detach from the surface.
➢ Vapor bubble growth and dynamics depend, in a complicated manner, on the
excess temperature, the nature of the surface, and thermophysical properties
of the fluid, such as its surface tension.
➢ The dynamics of vapor bubble formation affect liquid motion near the surface
and therefore strongly influence the heat transfer coefficient.
Dimensionless Parameters in Boiling and Condensation
➢ Since it is difficult to develop governing equations for boiling and condensation processes, the appropriate
dimensionless parameters can be obtained by using the Buckingham pi theorem.
➢ For either process, the convection coefficient could depend on the difference between the surface and
saturation temperatures, the body force arising from the liquid vapor density difference, the latent heat, the
surface tension , a characteristic length, and the thermophysical properties of the liquid or vapor.

➢ or, defining the dimensionless groups,

➢ The Jakob number is the ratio of the maximum sensible energy absorbed by the liquid (vapor) to the latent
energy absorbed by the liquid (vapor) during condensation (boiling).
➢ The Bond number is the ratio of the buoyancy force to the surface tension force.
➢ In many applications, the sensible energy is much less than the latent energy and Ja has a small numerical
value.
Pool Boiling
➢ Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling, depending on the presence
of bulk fluid motion.
➢ Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow and flow boiling
(or forced convection boiling) in the presence of it.
➢ In pool boiling, the fluid is stationary, and any motion of the fluid is due to
natural convection currents and the motion of the bubbles under the influence of
buoyancy.
➢ The boiling of water in a pan on top of a stove is an example of pool boiling.
➢ In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by
external means such as a pump.
➢ Therefore, flow boiling is always accompanied by other convection effects.
The Boiling Curve
➢ Nukiyama was the first to identify different regimes of pool boiling using the apparatus as shown in figure.
➢ The heat flux from a horizontal nichrome wire to saturated water was determined by measuring the current flow I and potential
drop E.
➢ The wire temperature was determined from knowledge of the manner in which its electrical resistance varied with temperature.
➢ Nukiyama noticed that boiling takes different forms, depending on the value of the excess temperature ∆Te .
➢ Four different boiling regimes are observed: natural convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and film
boiling.
The Boiling Curve
The Boiling Curve
Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
➢ A pure substance at a specified pressure starts boiling when it reaches the saturation temperature at that pressure.
➢ But in practice we do not see any bubbles forming on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the
saturation temperature.
➢ Therefore, the liquid is slightly superheated in this case (a metastable condition) and evaporates when it rises to the free
surface.
➢ The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection currents, and heat transfer from the heating surface
to the fluid is by natural convection.
The Boiling Curve
Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)
➢ The nucleate boiling regime can be separated into two distinct regions.
➢ In region A–B, isolated bubbles are formed at various preferential nucleation sites
on the heated surface.
➢ But these bubbles are dissipated in the liquid shortly after they separate from the
surface.
➢ The space vacated by the rising bubbles is filled by the liquid in the vicinity of the
heater surface, and the process is repeated.
➢ In region B–C, the heater temperature is further increased, and bubbles form at such
great rates at such a large number of nucleation sites that they form numerous
continuous columns of vapor in the liquid.
➢ These bubbles move all the way up to the free surface, where they break up and
release their vapor content.
➢ At large values of ∆𝑇𝑒 , the rate of evaporation at the heater surface reaches such
high values that a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by bubbles, making
it difficult for the liquid to reach the heater surface and wet it.
➢ Consequently, the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing ∆𝑇𝑒 , and
reaches a maximum at point C.
➢ The heat flux at this point is called the critical (or maximum) heat flux, 𝒒′′𝒎𝒂𝒙 .
For water, the critical heat flux exceeds 1 𝑀𝑊/𝑚2 .
The Boiling Curve
Transition Boiling (between Points C and D on the Boiling Curve)
➢ As the heater temperature and thus the ∆𝑇𝑒 is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases, as shown in boiling curve.
➢ This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an insulation due to the low
thermal conductivity of the vapor relative to that of the liquid.
➢ In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling partially occur.
➢ Operation in the transition boiling regime, which is also called the unstable film boiling regime, is avoided in practice.
➢ For water, transition boiling occurs over the excess temperature range from about 30°C to about 120°C.
The Boiling Curve
Film Boiling (beyond Point D)
➢ In this region the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor
film.
➢ Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum, is called the Leidenfrost point.
➢ The presence of a vapor film between the heater surface and the liquid is
responsible for the low heat transfer rates in the film boiling region.
➢ The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess temperature as a result of
heat transfer from the heated surface to the liquid through the vapor film by
radiation, which becomes significant at high temperatures.
Condensation: Physical Mechanisms
➢ Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature.
➢ In industrial equipment, the process commonly results from contact between the vapor and a cool
surface.
➢ The latent energy of the vapor is released, heat is transferred to the surface, and the condensate is
formed.
➢ Two distinct forms of condensation are observed: film condensation and dropwise condensation.
➢ In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid film on the surface that slides
down under the influence of gravity.
➢ The thickness of the liquid film increases in the flow direction as more vapor condenses on the film.
➢ In dropwise condensation, the condensed vapor forms droplets on the surface instead of a continuous
film, and the surface is covered by countless droplets of varying diameters
Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
➢ The film originates at the top of the plate and flows downward under the influence of gravity.
➢ The thickness 𝛿 and the condensate mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ increase with increasing x because of continuous
condensation at the liquid–vapor interface, which is at 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
➢ There is then heat transfer from this interface through the film to the surface, which is maintained at 𝑇𝑠 < 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
• Despite the complexities associated with film condensation, useful results may be obtained by making assumptions that
originated with an analysis by Nusselt.
1. Laminar flow and constant properties are assumed for the liquid film.
2. The gas is assumed to be a pure vapor and at a uniform temperature equal to 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 . With no temperature gradient in the vapor,
heat transfer to the liquid–vapor interface can occur only by condensation at the interface and not by conduction from the
vapor.
3. The shear stress at the liquid–vapor interface is assumed to be negligible, in which . With this assumption and
the foregoing assumption of a uniform vapor temperature, there is no need to consider the vapor velocity or thermal boundary
layers.
4. Momentum and energy transfer by advection in the condensate film are assumed to be negligible. This assumption is
reasonable by virtue of the low velocities associated with the film. It follows that heat transfer across the film occurs only by
conduction, in which case the liquid temperature distribution is linear.
Lecture 29
Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger Types
➢ Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.
➢ The simplest heat exchanger is one for which the hot and cold fluids move in the same or opposite directions in a concentric
tube (or double-pipe) construction.
➢ In the parallel-flow arrangement, the hot and cold fluids enter at the same end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same
end.
➢ In the counterflow arrangement of, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.
Heat Exchanger Types
• Alternatively, the fluids may move in cross flow (perpendicular to each other).
Heat Exchanger Types
➢ Another common configuration is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
➢ The simplest form, involves single tube and shell passes.
➢ Baffles are usually installed to increase the convection coefficient of the shell-side fluid by inducing
turbulence and a cross-flow velocity component relative to the tubes.
➢ In addition, the baffles physically support the tubes, reducing flow-induced tube vibration.
The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
➢ A wall separating two fluid streams, the overall heat transfer coefficient may be expressed as:

➢ It is important to acknowledge, however, that above equation applies only to clean, unfinned surfaces.
➢ During normal heat exchanger operation, surfaces are often subject to fouling by fluid impurities, rust formation, or other
reactions between the fluid and the wall material.
➢ This effect can be treated by introducing an additional thermal resistance in equation 1, termed the fouling factor, 𝑅𝑓 .

➢ Although representative fouling factors are listed in Table 11.1

➢ The quantity 𝜂𝑜 in Equation 2 is termed the overall surface efficiency or temperature effectiveness of a finned surface.
➢ It is defined such that, for the hot or cold surface without fouling, the heat transfer rate is
The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
➢ For the unfinned, tubular heat exchangers of, Equation 2 reduces to
Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference
➢ If q is the total rate of heat transfer between the hot and cold fluids and there is
negligible heat transfer between the exchanger and its surroundings, as well as
negligible potential and kinetic energy changes, application of the steady flow
energy equation

𝒒 = 𝒎𝒉 (𝒊𝒉,𝒊 − 𝒊𝒉,𝒐 ) 𝒒 = 𝒎𝒉 (𝒊𝒄,𝒐 − 𝒊𝒄,𝒊 )

➢ where i is the fluid enthalpy. The subscripts h and c refer to the hot and cold
fluids, whereas the subscripts i and o designate the fluid inlet and outlet
conditions.
➢ If the fluids are not undergoing a phase change and constant specific heats are
assumed, these expressions reduce to

𝒒 = 𝒎𝒉 𝑪𝒑,𝒉 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒉,𝒐 ) 𝒒 = 𝒎𝒄 𝑪𝒑,𝑪 (𝑻𝒄,𝒐 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )

since ∆𝑇 varies with position in the heat exchanger, it is necessary to work with a
rate equation of the form
The Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger

➢ The energy balances and the subsequent analysis are subject to the following assumptions.

1. The heat exchanger is insulated from its surroundings, in which

case the only heat exchange is between the hot and cold fluids.
2. Axial conduction along the tubes is negligible.
3. Potential and kinetic energy changes are negligible.
4. The fluid specific heats are constant.
5. The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant.
The Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger
➢ Applying an energy balance to each of the differential elements

𝒒 = 𝒎𝒉 𝑪𝒑,𝒉 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒉,𝒐 )

𝒅𝒒 = −𝒎𝒉 𝑪𝒑,𝒉𝒅𝑻𝒉 𝒅𝒒 = −𝑪𝒉 𝒅𝑻𝒉 3
𝒒 = 𝒎𝒄 𝑪𝒑,𝑪 (𝑻𝒄,𝒐 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )

𝒅𝒒 = 𝒎𝒄 𝑪𝒑,𝒄 𝒅𝑻𝒄 𝒅𝒒 = 𝑪𝒄 𝒅𝑻𝒄 4

➢ where 𝑪𝒉 and 𝑪𝒄 are the hot and cold fluid heat capacity rates, respectively
➢ Heat transfer across the surface area 𝑑𝐴 may also be expressed as

𝒅𝒒 = 𝑼∆𝑻𝒅𝑨 5
∆𝑻 = 𝑻𝒉 − 𝑻𝒄
𝒅(∆𝑻) = 𝒅𝑻𝒉 − 𝒅𝑻𝒄
➢ From eq. 3 and 4
𝟏 𝟏
𝒅 ∆𝑻 = −𝒅𝒒 +
𝑪𝒉 𝑪𝒄
The Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑑 ∆𝑇 = −𝒅𝒒 + 𝑑 ∆𝑇 = −𝑈∆𝑇𝑑𝐴 +
𝑪𝒉 𝑪𝒄 𝑪𝒉 𝑪𝒄

∆𝑇2 2
𝑑 ∆𝑇 𝟏 𝟏 ∆𝑇2 1 1
න =𝑈 + න 𝑑𝐴 ln = −𝑈𝐴 + 6
∆𝑇1 ∆𝑇 𝑪𝒉 𝑪𝒄 1 ∆𝑇1 𝐶ℎ 𝐶𝑐

➢ By substituting eq. 1 and 2 in eq. 6

∆𝑇2 𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒉,𝒐 𝑻𝒄,𝒐 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊
ln = −𝑈𝐴 +
∆𝑇1 𝑞 𝑞
Recognizing that, for the parallel-flow heat exchanger ∆𝑇1 = 𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 and ∆𝑇2 = 𝑻𝒉,𝒐 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒐
∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴
ln(∆𝑇2 Τ∆𝑇1 )

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
The Counterflow Heat Exchanger

➢ Note that, for the same inlet and outlet temperatures, the log mean temperature difference for counterflow exceeds that for
parallel flow
➢ Hence the surface area required to effect a prescribed heat transfer rate q is smaller for the counterflow than for the parallel-
flow arrangement, assuming the same value of U.
➢ Also note that 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 can exceed 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 for counterflow but not for parallel flow.
Special Operating Conditions
➢ If the hot fluid has a heat capacity rate, much larger than that of the cold fluid then the temperature of the hot fluid remains
approximately constant throughout the heat exchanger, while the temperature of the cold fluid increases.
➢ The same condition is achieved if the hot fluid is a condensing vapor.
➢ Condensation occurs at constant temperature, and, for all practical purposes, 𝐶ℎ → ∞.
➢ In an evaporator or a boiler, it is the cold fluid that experiences a change in phase and remains at a nearly uniform temperature
(𝐶𝑐 → ∞).
➢ The third special case involves a counterflow heat exchanger for which the heat capacity rates are equal (𝐶ℎ = 𝐶𝑐 ).
Lecture 30
Heat Exchanger (Cont.)
Heat Exchanger Analysis: The Effectiveness–NTU Method
➢ To define the effectiveness of a heat exchanger, we must first determine the maximum possible heat transfer rate, 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 , for the
exchanger.
➢ Consider a counterflow heat exchanger of infinite length and also 𝐶𝑐 < 𝐶ℎ .
➢ The cold fluid would then experience the larger temperature change, and since 𝐿 → ∞, it would be heated to the inlet
temperature of the hot fluid (𝑇𝑐,𝑜 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 )
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪𝒄 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )
➢ If 𝐶ℎ < 𝐶𝑐 the hot fluid would experience the larger temperature change and would be cooled to the inlet temperature of the cold
fluid (𝑇ℎ,𝑜 = 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪𝒉 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )
➢ From the foregoing results we are then prompted to write the general expression
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )
➢ The effectiveness, 𝜀 , is the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate for a heat exchanger to the maximum possible heat transfer rate:
𝒒
𝜺=
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑪𝒉 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒉,𝒐 ) 𝑪𝒄 (𝑻𝒄,𝒐 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )
𝜺= 𝜺=
𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 ) 𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )

➢ By definition the effectiveness, which is dimensionless, must be in the range 0 ≤ 𝜀 ≤ 1.

Heat Exchanger Analysis: The Effectiveness–NTU Method
➢ It is useful because, if , ε, 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 , and 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 are known, the actual heat transfer rate may readily be determined from the expression
𝒒 = 𝜺𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝑻𝒉,𝒊 − 𝑻𝒄,𝒊 )
➢ For any heat exchanger it can be shown that
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜀 = 𝑓 𝑁𝑇𝑈,
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥

➢ The number of transfer units (NTU) is a dimensionless parameter that is widely used for heat exchanger analysis and is defined
as
𝑈𝐴
𝑁𝑇𝑈 =
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑟 =
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
A shell-and-tube exchanger (two shells, four tube passes) is used to heat 10,000 𝑘𝑔/ℎ of
pressurized water from 35𝑜 to 120𝑜 𝐶 with 5000 𝑘𝑔/ℎ pressurized water entering the exchanger
at 300 𝑜 𝐶. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾, determine the required heat
exchanger area.
𝑚ሶ 𝑐 = 10000 𝑘𝑔Τℎ𝑟 = 2.77 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝐶𝑝,𝑐 (𝑇𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )

𝑚ሶ ℎ = 5000 𝑘𝑔Τℎ𝑟 = 1.38 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑞 = 2.77 × 4.195 × (120 − 35)

𝑇𝑐,𝑖 = 35𝑜 𝐶 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 = 120𝑜 𝐶 𝑞 = 990 𝐾𝑊

𝑇ℎ,𝑖 = 300𝑜 𝐶 𝑈 = 1500 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 Amount of heat gained by cold fluid is same as that of heat lost by hot fluid

Assume 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 = 150𝑜 𝐶 𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ ℎ 𝐶𝑝,ℎ (𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 )

35 + 120
𝑇𝑐,𝑚 = = 77.5𝑜 𝐶 = 350𝐾 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 = 146.5𝑜 𝐶
2
300 + 150
𝑇ℎ,𝑚 = = 225𝑜 𝐶 = 498𝐾
2
At
𝑇𝑐,𝑚 = 350𝐾, 𝐶𝑝,𝑐 = 4.195 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑇ℎ,𝑚 = 498𝐾, 𝐶𝑝,ℎ = 4.660 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
 ∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
∆𝑇 990 × 103
ln ∆𝑇2 𝐴=
1 1500 × 143

(𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 ) − (𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 ) 𝐴 = 4.61 𝑚2

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
(𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 )
ln
(𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )

(300 − 120) − (146.5 − 35)

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
(300 − 120)
ln
(146.5 − 35)

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 143𝑜 𝐶

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚

𝑞
𝐴=
𝑈 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
A counterflow, concentric tube heat exchanger is used to cool the lubricating oil for a large
industrial gas turbine engine. The flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube (𝐷𝑖 = 25 𝑚𝑚)
is 0.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑠, while the flow rate of oil through the outer annulus (𝐷𝑜 = 45 𝑚𝑚) is 0.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑠. The
oil and water enter at temperatures of 100𝑜 and 30𝑜 𝐶, respectively. How long must the tube be
made if the outlet temperature of the oil is to be 60𝑜 𝐶?
 At
𝑚ሶ 𝑐 = 0.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 30 + 40
𝑇𝑐,𝑚 = = 35𝑜 𝐶 = 308𝐾
𝑚ሶ ℎ = 0.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 2
𝐶𝑃,𝑐 = 4187 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑇ℎ,𝑖 = 100𝑜 𝐶 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 = 60𝑜 𝐶
𝑜 𝜇 = 725 × 10−6 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
𝑇𝑐,𝑖 = 30 𝐶
𝑘 = 0.625 𝑊/𝑚𝐾
At
𝑃𝑟 = 4.85
100 + 60 Amount of heat lost by the hot fluid
𝑇ℎ,𝑚 = = 80𝑜 𝐶 = 353𝐾
2
𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ ℎ 𝐶𝑝,ℎ (𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 )
𝐶𝑃,ℎ = 2131 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑞 = 0.1 × 2131 × (100 − 60)
𝜇 = 3.25 × 10−3 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
𝑞 = 8524 𝑊
𝑘 = 0.138 𝑊/𝑚𝐾 Same amount of heat will be gained by cold fluid
Assume 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 = 40𝑜 𝐶 𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝐶𝑝,𝑐 (𝑇𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )

𝑇𝑐,𝑜 = 40.1𝑜 𝐶
 For flow through tube
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
4𝑚ሶ 𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝐷 =
𝜋𝐷𝑖 𝜇
(𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 ) − (𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 4 × 0.2
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 ) 𝑅𝑒𝐷 =
ln ℎ,𝑖 𝜋 × 0.025 × 725 × 10−6
(𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 14050 > 2300
(100 − 40.1) − (60 − 30) Turbulent flow
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
(100 − 40.1) Using Dittus Boelter equation and water is heated
ln
(60 − 30)
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 4/5 𝑃𝑟 0.4
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 43.2𝑜 𝐶
𝑁𝑢 = 90
The over all heat transfer coefficient will be ℎ𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
1 1 1
= + ℎ𝑖 = 2250 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑈 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜
For outer tube flow (annulus) 1 1 1
= +
𝜌𝑢𝑚 𝐷ℎ 𝑈 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜
𝑅𝑒 = 𝐴
𝜇 1 1 1 𝐿=
= + 𝜋𝐷𝑖
𝜌 (𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 ) 𝑚ሶ ℎ 𝑈 2250 38.847
𝑅𝑒 = × 𝜋
𝜇 𝜌 × 4 × (𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑖4 ) 𝐿 = 65.9 𝑚
2
𝑈 = 38.187 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾
𝑅𝑒 = 56 < 2300
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
Flow is laminar 𝑞
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
𝐷𝑖
= 0.56 8524
𝐷𝑜 𝐴=
38.187 × 43.2
Using table 8-2
𝐴 = 5.177 𝑚2
ℎ𝑜 𝐷ℎ ℎ𝑜 (𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑖 )
𝑁𝑢 = = = 5.63 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝑖 𝐿
𝑘 𝑘

ℎ𝑜 = 38.847 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Hot exhaust gases, which enter a finned-tube, cross-flow heat exchanger at 300𝑜 𝐶 and leave at
100𝑜 𝐶, are used to heat pressurized water at a flow rate of 1 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 from 35𝑜 to 125𝑜 𝐶. The
overall heat transfer coefficient based on the gas-side surface area is 𝑈ℎ = 100 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.
Determine the required gas-side surface area 𝐴ℎ using the 𝑁𝑇𝑈 method.

The amount of heat lost by hot fluid is same as that of gained by cold fluid
35 + 125
𝑇ത𝑐 = = 80𝑜 𝐶
2
𝑞ℎ = 𝑞𝑐
At
𝑇ത𝑐 = 80𝑜 𝐶 𝐶ℎ 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 = 𝐶𝑐 (𝑇𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )

𝐶𝑝,𝑐 = 4197 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 (𝑇𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )

𝐶ℎ = 𝐶𝑐
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝,𝑐 = 1 × 4197 = 4197 𝑊/𝐾 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ,𝑜

𝐶ℎ = 1889 𝑊/𝐾
 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 ) 𝜀 = 𝑓 𝑁𝑇𝑈,
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1889(300 − 35)

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5 × 105 𝑊 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛

= 0.45
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
Actual heat gained by the cold fluid

Using fig. 11.14

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑐 (𝑇𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )
𝑁𝑇𝑈 = 2
𝑞 = 4197(125 − 35)
𝑈ℎ 𝐴ℎ
𝑞 = 3.7 × 105 𝑊 𝑁𝑇𝑈 =
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝒒
𝜺= 𝐴ℎ = 37.78 𝑚2
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜺 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟓
Lecture 31
Mass Transfer
The Concentration Boundary Layer
➢ When air moves past the surface of a pool of water, the liquid water will evaporate, and water vapor will be transferred into the
airstream.
➢ This is an example of convection mass transfer.
➢ More generally, consider a binary mixture of chemical species A and B that flows over a surface.
➢ The molar concentration (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3 ) of species A at the surface is 𝐶𝐴,𝑠 , and in the free stream it is 𝐶𝐴,∞ .
➢ If 𝐶𝐴,𝑠 differs from 𝐶𝐴,∞ , transfer of species A by convection will occur.
➢ For example, species A could be a vapor that is transferred into a gas stream (species B) due to evaporation at a liquid surface
(as in the water example) or due to sublimation at a solid surface.
➢ In this situation, a concentration boundary layer will develop that is similar to the velocity and thermal boundary layers.
➢ The concentration boundary layer is the region of the fluid in which concentration gradients exist, and its thickness 𝛿𝑐 is
typically defined as the value of y for which
𝑪𝑨,𝑺 − 𝑪𝑨
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗
𝑪𝑨,𝑺 − 𝑪𝑨,∞
➢ With increasing distance from the leading edge, the effects of species transfer penetrate farther into the free stream and the
concentration boundary layer grows.
The Concentration Boundary Layer
➢ Species transfer by convection between the surface and the free stream fluid is
determined by conditions in the boundary layer, and we are interested in determining
the rate at which this transfer occurs.
➢ We are interested in the molar flux of species A, 𝑁′′𝐴 (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙Τ𝑠𝑚2 ).
➢ The molar flux associated with species transfer by diffusion is determined by an
expression that is analogous to Fourier’s law.
𝜕𝐶𝐴
𝑁′′𝐴 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵
𝜕𝑦
➢ The expression, is termed as Fick’s law.
➢ 𝐷𝐴𝐵 is a property of the binary mixture known as the binary diffusion coefficient .
➢ Within the boundary layer, species transfer is due to both bulk fluid motion (advection)
and diffusion.
➢ Accordingly, species transfer at the surface is only by diffusion, and applying Fick’s
law at 𝑦 = 0, the molar flux is
𝜕𝐶𝐴
𝑁′′𝐴,𝑆 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 ቤ (𝑦 = 0) 1
𝜕𝑦
➢ Across the boundary layer, the specie transfer is given by an equation analogous to
Newton’s law of cooling,
𝑁′′𝐴,𝑆 = ℎ𝑚 (𝐶𝐴,𝑆 − 𝐶𝐴,∞ ) 2
➢ where ℎ𝑚 (m/s) is the convection mass transfer coefficient , analogous to the
convection heat transfer coefficient.
The Concentration Boundary Layer

➢ Combining Equations

➢ The total molar transfer rate for an entire surface, 𝑁𝐴 (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠), may then be expressed as

𝑁𝐴 = ℎ𝑚 𝐴𝑠 (𝐶𝐴,𝑠 − 𝐶𝐴,∞ ) 3
➢ where the average and local mass transfer convection coefficients are related by an equation of the form

➢ For the flat plate

Mass Transfer
➢ Species transfer may also be expressed as a mass flux 𝑛′′𝐴 (𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠𝑚2 ) or as a mass transfer rate, 𝑛𝐴 (kg/s).
➢ Multiplying both sides of Equations 2 and 3, respectively, by the molecular weight 𝑀𝐴 (𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙) of species A
𝑛′′𝐴 = ℎ𝑚 (𝜌𝐴,𝑆 − 𝜌𝐴,∞ )
And
𝑛𝐴 = ℎ𝑚 𝐴𝑠 (𝜌𝐴,𝑆 − 𝜌𝐴,∞ )
➢ We can also write Fick’s law on a mass basis by multiplying Equation 1 by 𝑀𝐴 to yield
𝜕𝜌𝐴
𝑛′′𝐴,𝑆 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 ቤ (𝑦 = 0)
𝜕𝑦
Dimensionless parameters in Mass Transfer
Schmidt number
➢ It is the ratio of momentum diffusivity and mass diffusivity.
➢ Schmidt number in mass transfer is same as Prandtl number in Heat Transfer.

➢ A Schmidt number of near unity (Sc = 1) indicates that momentum and mass
transfer by diffusion are comparable, and velocity and concentration boundary
layers almost coincide with each other.

Lewis number
➢ It is the ratio of thermal diffusivity to the mass diffusivity.

➢ It represent the relative magnitudes of heat and mass diffusion in the thermal
and concentration boundary layers.
Dimensionless parameters in Mass Transfer
Sherwood number:
➢ It is the dimensionless concentration gradient at the surface.
➢ Nusselt number to Heat Transfer as Sherwood number to mass
transfer.

Stanton number
➢ Sometimes it is more convenient to express the heat and mass
transfer coefficients in terms of the dimensionless Stanton
number as
Dimensionless parameters in Mass Transfer
➢ For a given geometry, the average Nusselt number in forced convection
depends on the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, whereas the average
Sherwood number depends on the Reynolds and Schmidt numbers.

➢ The Sherwood number can be obtained from the Nusselt number

expression by simply replacing the Prandtl number by the Schmidt
number.
➢ In natural convection mass transfer, the analogy between the Nusselt
and Sherwood numbers still holds, and thus 𝑆ℎ = 𝑓(𝐺𝑟, 𝑆𝑐). But the
Grashof number in this case should be determined directly from
Estimate the evaporation rate of water from a lake that is 500 × 500𝑚2 in size.
The wind velocity is 5 𝑚/𝑠. Both lake and air has a temperature of 27𝑜 𝐶. the
relative humidity is given as 10%, diffusivity of water vapor in air at a given
condition is 2.6 × 10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠.
The nature of the flow will be determined by The Schmidt number will be determined by
𝑢∞ 𝐿 𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑆𝑐 =
𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐷
From table A-4 𝑆𝑐 = 0.611

𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 15.89 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 The Sherwood number will be determined by

5 × 500
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑆ℎ = 0.037𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑆𝑐 1/3
15.89 × 10−6
𝑆ℎ = 1.13 × 105
𝑅𝑒 = 157.3 × 106 > 5 × 105
Flow is turbulent The convective mass transfer will be determined by
15.89 × 10−6 ℎ𝑚 𝐿
𝑥𝑐𝑟 = 5 × 105 × 𝑆ℎ =
5 𝐷𝐴𝐵
𝑥𝑐𝑟 = 1.589 𝑚
Assume turbulent flow completely ℎ𝑚 = 5.87 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
The convective mass transfer will be determined by Concentration at air side
𝑛𝐴 = ℎ𝑚 𝐴(𝜌𝐴,𝑠 − 𝜌𝐴,∞ )
𝐶𝐴,∞ = 1.415 × 10−4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3

Partial Pressure of water at lake

Density at air side
𝑃𝐴,𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 300𝐾
𝜌𝐴,𝑠 = 𝐶𝐴,𝑠 × 𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝐴,𝑠 = 3531 𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝐴,𝑠 = 2.55 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Partial Pressure of water at air side
𝜌𝐴,∞ = 2.55 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑃𝐴,∞ = 𝑃𝐴,𝑠 ∅
𝑃𝐴,∞ = 353.1 𝑃𝑎
𝑛𝐴 = 5.87 × 10−3 × 500 × 500(2.55 × 10−2 − 2.55 × 10−3 )
Concentration in lake
𝑃𝐴,𝑠
𝐶𝐴,𝑠 = 𝑛𝐴 = 34 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑅𝑇
3.531
𝐶𝐴,𝑠 =
8.314 × 300
𝐶𝐴,𝑠 = 1.415 × 10−3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3
An industrial process involves evaporation of a thin water film maintained at
310 𝐾 from a surface by forcing air across it. The laboratory measurement for thin
surface have provided the following HT co-relation 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.45𝑅𝑒 0.6 𝑃𝑟 0.4 . The air
flowing over the surface has a temperature of 310 𝐾 and velocity of 10 𝑚/𝑠 and is
completely dry. The surface has a length of 1𝑚 and an area of 1𝑚2 . Determine
mass transfer coefficient and evaporation rate (𝑘𝑔/hr) of the water at the surface.
The diffusivity of water vapor in air at a given condition is 0.26 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠
We are going to use Analogy between heat and mass transfer

𝑆ℎ𝐿 = 0.45𝑅𝑒 0.6 𝑆𝑐 0.4 10 × 1

𝑅𝑒 =
15.89 × 10−6
𝑢∞ 𝐿 𝑅𝑒 = 629327
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟
The Schmidt number will be determined by
From table A-4
𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑇 = 310 𝐾 𝑆𝑐 =
𝐷
𝑆𝑐 = 0.611
𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 15.89 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
 𝑆ℎ𝐿 = 0.45𝑅𝑒 0.6 𝑆𝑐 0.4
The convective mass transfer will be determined by
𝑆ℎ𝐿 = 0.45(629327)0.6 (0.611)0.4 𝑛𝐴 = ℎ𝑚 𝐴(𝜌𝐴,𝑠 − 𝜌𝐴,∞ )

ℎ𝑚 𝐿 𝑛𝐴 = 0.029 × 1(0.436 − 0)
𝑆ℎ =
𝐷𝐴𝐵
𝑛𝐴 = 1.262 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
ℎ𝑚 = 0.029 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛𝐴 = 4.55 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
The density at air side : 𝜌𝐴,∞ = 0
1
𝜌𝐴,𝑆 =
𝑣𝑔

1
𝜌𝐴,𝑆 = = 0.436 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
22.93
A stream of air at 150 KPa and 300 K is flowing over a top surface of a thin flat
sheet of solid naphthalene of length 0.2 m with velocity of 20 m/s. If diffusivity of
naphthalene in air at a given condition is 4 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 and concentration of
naphthalene is 1 × 10−5 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙 Τ𝑚3 . Find the rate of loss of naphthalene from the
surface per unit width.

Air at atmospheric pressure 𝑅𝑒 = 3.725 × 105 Flow is laminar

𝜈 = 15.89 × 10−6 𝑚2 Τ𝑠
Air at 150 KPa The Schmidt number will be determined by
𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟
101325 𝑆𝑐 =
𝜈 = 15.89 × 10−6 × 𝐷
150 × 103 𝑆𝑐 = 2.6825
𝜈 = 10.73 × 10−6 𝑚2 Τ𝑠 The Sherwood number will be determined by

𝑢∞ 𝐿 𝑆ℎ𝐿 = 0.664𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑆𝑐1/3

𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑆ℎ𝐿 = 563.32
20 × 0.2
𝑅𝑒 =
10.73 × 10−6
The mass transfer coefficient will be determined by

ℎ𝑚 𝐿
𝑆ℎ =
𝐷𝐴𝐵

ℎ𝑚 = 0.01127 𝑚/𝑠

The convective mass transfer will be determined by

𝑁 = ℎ𝑚 𝐴(𝐶𝐴,𝑠 − 𝐶𝐴,∞ )

𝐶𝐴,∞ = 0

𝑁𝐴 = 0.01127 × 0.2 × 𝑤 (1 × 10−5 − 0)

𝑁𝐴 = 22.54 × 10−9 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚𝑠