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Seymour Carraher s Polymer Chemistry 6th Edition
Undergraduate Chemistry 16 Undergraduate Chemistry
Series Charles E. Carraher Jr. Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Charles E. Carraher Jr.
ISBN(s): 9780203911303, 020391130X
Edition: 6
File Details: PDF, 6.75 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
Sepour/Carraher's
Polymer
Chemistry Sixth Edition
Revised and Expanded
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UNDERGRADUATE CHEMISTRY
A Series of Textbooks
Edited by
J. J. LAGOWSKI
Department of Chemistry
The University of Texas at Austin
Polymer science and technology has developed tremendously over the last few decades,
and the production of polymers and plastics products has increased at a remarkable pace.
By the end of 2000, nearly 200 million tons per year of plastic materials were produced
worldwide (about 2% of the wood used, and nearly 5% of the oil harvested) to fulfill the
ever-growing needs of the plastic age; in the industrialized world plastic materials are
used at a rate of nearly 100 kg per person per year. Plastic materials with over $250 billion
dollars per year contribute about 4% to the gross domestic product in the United States.
Plastics have no counterpart in other materials in terms of weight, ease of fabrication,
efficient utilization, and economics.
It is no wonder that the demand and the need for teaching in polymer science and
technology have increased rapidly. To teach polymer science, a readable and up-to-date
introductory textbook is required that covers the entire field of polymer science, engineer-
ing, technology, and the commercial aspect of the field. This goal has been achieved in
Carraher’s textbook. It is eminently useful for teaching polymer science in departments
of chemistry, chemical engineering, and material science, and also for teaching polymer
science and technology in polymer science institutes, which concentrate entirely on the
science and technologies of polymers.
This sixth edition addresses the important subject of polymer science and technology,
with emphasis on making it understandable to students. The book is ideally suited not
only for graduate courses but also for an undergraduate curriculum. It has not become
more voluminous simply by the addition of information—in each edition less important
subjects have been removed and more important issues introduced.
Polymer science and technology is not only a fundamental science but also important
from the industrial and commercial point of view. The author has interwoven discussion
of these subjects with the basics in polymer science and technology. Testimony to the
high acceptance of this book is that early demand required reprinting and updating of each
v
vi Foreword
of the previous editions. We see the result in this new significantly changed and improved
edition.
Otto Vogl
Herman F. Mark Professor Emeritus
Department of Polymer Science and Engineering
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
Preface
An explosive scientific and technological revolution is underway and at its center are
polymers. This revolution is the result of a number of factors that complement one another.
These factors include a better understanding of the science of materials and availability
of new and refined materials, synthetic techniques, and analytical tools. Much of this
revolution is of a fundamental nature and it is explored in the latest edition of this text.
These advances are often based on new and extended understanding and application of
basic principles initially presented in the core chemistry courses (organic, physical, inor-
ganic, analytical, and biological).
Polymer Chemistry complies with the advanced course definition given by the Amer-
ican Chemical Society Committee on Professional Training, building on the foundations
laid in general, organic, physical, analytical/instrumentation, and inorganic chemistry. It
also includes all the major and optional topics recommended in the syllabus adopted by
the joint polymer education committee of the American Chemical Society (Appendix D:
Syllabus). The text integrates and interweaves the important core topic areas. The core
topics are interrelated with information that focuses on polymer topics. This assists students
in integrating their chemical knowledge and illustrates the connection between theoretical
and applied chemical information. Also, industrial practices and testing procedures and
results are integrated with the theoretical treatment of the various topics, allowing the
reader to bridge the gap between industrial practice and the classroom. It is written so
that chapters can be taken out of order and not all the chapters need to be covered to gain
an adequate appreciation of the science of polymers. Many of the chapters begin with
theory, followed by application. Some readers will elect to read the more descriptive
chapters dealing with polymer types before looking at the analytical/analysis/properties
chapters.
This book is user friendly—it is appropriate as an advanced undergraduate text or
an introductory-level graduate-level course text. It can serve as the text for the initial
vii
viii Preface
course in a series taken by a student, or it can be the lone polymer text read by a student
in the study of polymers. Students of chemistry, materials, engineering, medicine, biochem-
istry, physics, and geology will benefit from an understanding of the material found in
this text.
The application and theory of polymers continues to expand. This new edition re-
flects this growth and the continually expanding role of polymers. There is an increased
emphasis on pictorializing, reinforcing, integrating, and interweaving the basic concepts.
The first chapter is shorter in order to allow time for student orientation. However,
the other chapters should not require more than a week’s time each. Each chapter is
essentially self-contained, but each relates to the other chapters. Whenever possible, diffi-
cult concepts are distributed and reinforced over several chapters. A glossary, biography,
suggested questions (and answers), and learning objectives/summary are included at the
end of each chapter.
Application and theory are integrated so that they reinforce one another. This is true
for all the various important and critical types of polymers including synthetic, biological,
organometallic, and inorganic polymers. The principle that the basic concepts that apply
to one grouping of polymers apply to all the other types of polymers is emphasized.
The updating of analytical, physical, and spectral characterization techniques contin-
ues, including expanded coverage of the theory and results arising from atomic force
microscopy and scanning probe microscopy. Special sections dealing with industrially
important polymers are included, and the section dealing with soluble stereoregulating
catalysis has been expanded.
There is still an emphasis on naturally occurring polymers, and discussions of
supercoiling, replication, and compacting are included. As before, the interplay between
natural and synthetic polymers is emphasized.
A number of miscellaneous topics have been drawn together in one chapter, which
includes sections on conductive polymers, smart materials, protomics, human genome,
optical fibers, material selection charts, carbon nanotubes, and liquid crystals.
Emphasis on nanotechnology and nanomaterials remains with added or expanded
sections dealing with zeolites, nanotubes, nanocomposites, molecular wires, dendrites, and
self assembly. The chapter on polymer technology and processing has been rewritten and
expanded. The section listing Web sites has been updated.
The nomenclature section has been enlarged, and a new appendix on the stereoge-
ometry of polymers has been added.
Additional aids and appendixes are included: how to study, nomenclature, over 1500
trade names, about 400 citations to appropriate Journal of Chemical Education and Poly-
mer News articles, Web sites dealing with polymer topics, and over 100 structures of
common polymers.
ix
Polymer Nomenclature
As with most areas of science, names associated with reactions, particular chemical and
physical tests, etc., were historically derived with few overall guiding principles. Further,
the wide diversity of polymer science permitted a wide diversity in naming polymers.
Even though the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has a
long-standing commission associated with the nomenclature of polymers [reports include
“Report on nomenclature in the field of macromolecules,” Journal of Polymer Science,
8, 257 (1952); “Report on nomenclature dealing with steric regularity in high polymers,”
Pure and Applied Chemistry, 12, 645 (1966); “Basic definitions of terms relating to poly-
mers,” IUPAC Information Bull. App., 13, 1 (1971); and “Nomenclature of regular single-
strand organic polymers,” Macromolecules, 6(2), 149 (1973)], most of these suggestions
for naming of simple polymers have not yet been accepted by many in the polymer science
community.
Although there is wide diversity in the practice of naming polymers, we will concen-
trate on the most utilized systems.
COMMON NAMES
Little rhyme or reason is associated with the common names of polymers. Some names
are derived from the place of origin of the material, such as Hevea brasiliensis—literally
“rubber from Brazil”—for natural rubber. Other polymers are named after their discoverer,
as is Bakelite, the three-dimensional polymer produced by condensation of phenol and
formaldehyde, which was commercialized by Leo Baekeland in 1905.
Portions adapted from C. Carraher, G. Hess, and L. Sperling, J. Chem. Ed., 64(1), 36 (1987) and L. H. Sperling
W. V. Metanomski, and C. Carraher, Appl Polym Science (C. Craver and C. Carraher, eds.), Elsevier, New
York, 2000.
xi
xii Polymer Nomenclature
For some important groups of polymers, special names and systems of nomenclature
were invented. For example, the nylons were named according to the number of carbons
in the diamine and carboxylic acid reactants (monomers) used in their syntheses. The
nylon produced by the condensation of 1,6-hexanediamine (6 carbons) and sebacic acid
(10 carbons) is called nylon-6,10.
Similarly, the polymer from 1,6-hexanediamine and adipic acid (each with 6 carbons)
is called nylon-6,6 or nylon-66, and the nylon from the single reactant caprolactam (6
carbons) is called nylon-6.
SOURCE-BASED NAMES
Most polymer names used by polymer scientists are source-based; i.e., they are based on
the common name of the reactant monomer, preceded by the prefix “poly.” For example,
polystyrene is the most frequently used name for the polymer derived from the monomer
1-phenylethene, which has the common name styrene.
The vast majority of polymers based on the vinyl group (CH2BCHX) or the vinyli-
dene group (CH2BCX2) as the repeat unit are known by their source-based names. For
example, polyethylene is derived from the monomer ethylene, poly(vinyl chloride) from
the monomer vinyl chloride, and poly(methyl methacrylate) from methyl methacrylate:
Many condensation polymers are also named in this manner. In the case of poly(eth-
ylene terephthalate), the glycol portion of the name of the monomer, ethylene glycol, is
used in constructing the polymer name, so that the name is actually a hybrid of a source-
based and a structure-based name.
Polymer Nomenclature xiii
This polymer is well known by trade names, such as Dacron, or its common grouping,
polyester.
Although it is often suggested that parentheses be used in naming polymers of more
than one word [like poly(vinylidene chloride)] but not for single-word polymers (like
polyethylene), many authors omit entirely the use of parentheses for either case (like
polyvinylidene chloride). Thus there exists a variety of practices with respect to even
source-based names.
Copolymers are composed of two or more monomer units. Source-based names are
conveniently used to describe copolymers by using an appropriate term between the names
of the monomers. Any of a half dozen or so connecting terms may be used, depending
on what is known about the structure of the copolymer. When no information is specified
about the sequence of monomer units in the copolymer, the connective term co is used
in the general format poly(A-co-B), where A and B are the names of the two monomers.
An unspecified copolymer of styrene and methyl methacrylate would be called poly[sty-
rene-co-(methyl methacrylate)].
Kraton, the yellow rubber-like material on the bottom of many running shoes, is an
example of a copolymer about which structural information is available. It is formed from
a group of styrene units, i.e., a “block” of polystyrene, attached to a group of butadiene
units, or a block of polybutadiene, which is attached to another block of polystyrene
forming a triblock copolymer. The general representation of such a block copolymer is
—AAAAABBBBBAAAAA—, where each A or B represents an individual monomer
unit. The proper source-based name for Kraton is polystyrene-block-polybutadiene-block-
polystyrene, with the prefix “poly” being retained for each block.
STRUCTURE-BASED NAMES
Although source-based names are generally employed for simple polymers, the interna-
tional body responsible for systematic nomenclature of chemicals, IUPAC, has published
a number of reports for the naming of polymers, now being accepted for more complex
polymers. The IUPAC system names the components of the repeat unit, arranged in a
prescribed order. The rules for selecting the order of the components to be used as the
repeat unit are found elsewhere [Macromolecules, 6(2), 149 (1973); Pure and Applied
Chemistry, 48, 373 (1976), 57, 149 (1985), and 57, 1427 (1985)]. However, once the order
is selected, the naming is straightforward for simple linear molecules, as indicated in the
following examples:
A listing of source- and structure-based names for some common polymers is given
in Table 1.
LINKAGE-BASED NAMES
Many polymer “families” are referred to by the name of the particular linkage that connects
the polymers (Table 2). The family name is “poly” followed by the linkage name. Thus,
xiv Polymer Nomenclature
those polymers that contain the carbonate linkage are known as polycarbonates; those
containing the ether linkage are called polyethers, etc.
The section dealing with polymers is subtopic 222: Polymers. The subsection on
polymers builds on the foundations given before. Some of the guidelines appear to be
confusing and counterproductive to the naming of polymers, but the rules were developed
for the naming of small molecules. Following is a description of the guidelines that are
most important to polymer chemists. Additional descriptions are found in the CA Appendix
IV itself and in articles listed in the readings. Appendix IV concentrates on linear polymers.
A discussion of other more complex polymeric materials is also found in articles cited in
the readings section.
General Rules
In the chemical literature—in particular, systems based on Chemical Abstracts—searches
for particular polymers can be conducted using the Chemical Abstracts Service number,
(CAS ) (where known) or the repeat unit. The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) and CAS have agreed on a set of guidelines for the identification,
orientation, and naming of polymers based on the structural repeat unit (SRU). IUPAC
refers to polymers as “poly(constitutional repeat unit)” while CAS utilizes a “poly(struct-
ural repeating unit).” These two approaches typically give similar results.
Here we will practice using the sequence “identification, orientation, and naming,”
first by giving some general principles and finally by using specific examples.
xvi Polymer Nomenclature
In the identification step, the structure is drawn, usually employing at least two
repeat units. Next, in the orientation step, the guidelines are applied. Here we concentrate
on basic guidelines. Within these guidelines are subsets of guidelines that are beyond our
scope.
Structures will generally be drawn in the order, from left to right, in which they are
to be named.
Seniority
The starting point for the naming of a polymer unit involves determining seniority among
the subunits.
A. This order is
Heterocyclic rings⬎
Greatest number of most preferred acyclic heteroatoms⬎
Carbocyclic rings⬎
Greatest number of multiple bonds⬎
Shortest path or route (or lowest locant) to these substituents
Chains containing only carbon atoms.
with the symbol “⬎” indicating “is senior to.”
This is illustrated below.
Heterocyclic ring ⬎ Acyclic hetero atoms ⬎ Carbocyclic rings
⬎ MOMCH2M ⬎
Nitrogenous heterocyclic⬎
Heterocyclic⬎
Largest number of rings⬎
Cyclic system occurring earliest in the following list of systems
spiro, bridged fused,
bridges nonfused, fused⬎
Largest individual ring (applies to fused carbocyclic systems)⬎
Greatest number of ring atoms
For example,
and
and
O
M(MOMCMCH2M)nM
Route
A. From the senior subunit determined from “Seniority” take the shortest path (smallest
number of atoms) to another like or identical unit or to the next most preferred subunit.
Thus for the homopolymer poly(oxymethylene) it is simply going from one oxygen to the
next oxygen and recognizing that this is the repeat unit. For a more complex ether this
means going until the chain begins to repeat itself going in the shortest direction from the
senior unit or atom to the next most senior unit or atom. Thus, MOMCMC-
MOMCMCMCM is named “oxy-1,2-ethanediyloxy-1,3-propanediyl” rather than “oxy-
1,3-propanediyloxy-1,2-ethanediyl.
B. Where path lengths are equal, such as in some nylons, the repeat unit is named so
that the heteroatom “N” is first named and then the more highly substituted (carbonyl)
unit appears next. Thus, nylon 3,3, with the structure
O O
M(MNHMCMCH2MCMNHMCH2MCH2MCH2M)nM
is named poly[imino(1,3-dioxo-1,3-propanediyl)imino-1,3-propanediyl].
C. In otherwise identical subunits, there are three items to be considered in decreasing
order of importance:
1. Maximum substitution: thus, 2,3,5-trichloro-p-phenylene is senior to 2,5-dichl-
oro-p-phenylene which in turn is senior to 2-chloro-p-phenylene,
2. Lowest locants: thus, 2,3-dichloro-p-phenylene is senior to 2,5-dichloro-p-phe-
nylene,
3. Earliest alphabetical order: thus, 2-bromo-p-phenylene is senior to 2-chloro-p-
phenylene that is senior to 2-iodo-p-phenylene.
D. Where there is no conflict with other guidelines, multiple bonds should be assigned
the lowest locants; in rings, double bonds are senior to single bonds; in acyclic carbon
chains, double bonds are senior to triple bonds, which are in turn senior to single bonds.
Thus, the polymer from 1,3-butanediene polymerized in the so-called “1,4M” mode is
usually drawn as M(MCMCBCMCM)M but it is named as drawn as
M(MCBCMCMCM)M and named poly(1-butene-1,4-diyl) with the appropriate “cis-”
or “trans-” designation. Polyisoprene, typically drawn as
M(MCH2MC(CH3)BCHMCH2M)nM
is frequently named poly(2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) but it is named as though its structure
is
M(C(CH3)BCHMCH2MCH2M)nM
with the name poly(1-methyl-1-butene-1,4-diyl).
Substituents are named as one of several classes. The most important ones are dealt with
here. For monoatomic radicals from borane, methane, silane (and other Group IVA ele-
ments) they are named by replacing the “ane” ending with “yl,” “ylene,” and “ylidyne”
to denote the loss of one, two, or three hydrogen atoms, respectively.
Polymer Nomenclature xix
Searching
Polymers from a single monomer are indexed at the monomer name with the term “homo-
polymer” cited in the modification. Thus, polymers of 1-pentene are listed under the
monomer
1-Pentene
homopolymer
Polymers formed from two or more monomers such as condensation polymers and copoly-
mers, and homopolymers are indexed at each inverted monomer name with the modifying
term “polymer with” followed by the other monomer names in uninverted alphabetical
order. The preferential listing for identical heading parents is in the order: (a) maximum
number of substituents, (b) lowest locants for substituents, (c) maximum number of occur-
rences of index heading parent, and (d) earliest index position of the index heading.
Examples are
1-Petene
polymer with 1-hexene
2,5-Furandione
polymer with 1,4-butanedisulfonic acid
Silane, dichlorodiethyl-
polymer with dichlorodiphenylsilane
Although the percentage composition of copolymers (i.e., the ratio of comonomers)
is not given, copolymers with architecture other than random or statistical are identified
as “alternating, block, graft, etc.” Random or statistical copolymer are not so identified
in the CA index. Oligomers with definite structure are noted as dimer, trimer, tetramer, . . .
Often, similar information is found at several sites. For instance, for copolymers of
1-butene and 1-hexene, information will be listed under both 1-butene and 1-hexene, but
because the listings are not necessarily complementary both entries should be consulted
for completeness.
CA’s policy for naming acetylenic, acrylic, methacrylic, ethylenic, and vinyl poly-
mers is to use the source-based method, and source-based representation is used to depict
the polymers graphically; thus, a synonym for polyethene is polyethylene and not poly(1,2-
xx Polymer Nomenclature
p-Phenylene 1,4-Phenylene
Phenylenedimethylene 1,4-Phenylenebis(methylene)
Phenylenedioxy 1,4-Phenylenebis(oxy)
Styrenyl 1-Phenyl-1,2-ethanediyl
Terephthaloyl 1,4-Phenylenedicarbonyl
Examples
Following are examples that illustrate CAS guidelines for naming.
M(CHBCHM)nM Poly(1,2-ethenediyl)
O O
M(CMCMCH2MCH2M)nM Poly1,2-dioxo-1,4-butanediyl
M(MCHBCHMCH3MCH2M)nM Poly(3-methyl-1-butene-1,4-diyl
|
CH3
O
M(NHMCMCH2MCH2M)nM Poly[imino(1-oxo-1,3-propanediyl)]
O
M(MOMCMOMCH2CH2M)nM Poly[oxocarbonyloxy(1,2-ethanediyl)]
M(MOMCH2MSMCH2MNHMCH2MCH2 Poly(oxymethylenethiomethyleneimino-1,2-
MSMNHCH2MCH2M)nM ethanediylthioimino-1,2-ethanediyl)
M(MOMCH2MCH2M)nM Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl)
M(MOMCH2M)nM Poly(oxymethylene)
Poly(3,5-pyridinediyl-2,5-thiophenediyl)
O O
Poly[imino(1,6-dioxo-1,6hexanediyl)imino-
M[MNHMCM(CH2)4MCMNHM(CH2)6M]nM 1,6-hexanediyl]
xxii Polymer Nomenclature
Poly(oxy-1,4-phenylene)
Poly(thio-1,4-phenylene)
Poly(oxy1,2-ethanediyloxycarbonyl-1,4-
phenylenecarbonyl)
Poly(imino-1,4-phenyleneiminocarbonyl-
1,4-phenylenecarbonyl)
COPOLYMERS
Generally, copolymers are defined as polymeric materials containing two or more kinds
of mers. It is important to distinguish between two kinds of copolymers—those with
statistical distributions of mers or at most short sequences of mers (Table 5), and those
containing long sequences of mers connected in some fashion (Table 6).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks William Work, Les Sperling, and W. V. (Val) Metanomski for their
assistance with polymer nomenclature. The author also acknowledges the assistance of
Edward S. Wilks for his help in preparing the section on ‘‘Chemical Abstracts Based
Polymer Nomenclature.’’
Polymer Nomenclature xxiii
SUMMARY
While there are several important approaches to the naming of polymers, in this book we
utilize common and source-based names because these are the names that are most com-
monly utilized by polymer chemists and the general public and these names, in particular
the source-based names, allow a better understanding of the basics of polymers as a
function of polymer—structure relationships based on starting materials. Even so, those
wishing to do further work in polymers must become proficient in the use of the guidelines
used by Chemical Abstracts and IUPAC.
SELECTED READINGS
Compendium of Macromolecular Nomenclature, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1991.
Polymer nomenclature, Polymer Preprints, 33(1), 6–11 (1992).
Basic classification and definitions of polymerization reactions, Pure Appl. Chem., 66:2483–2486
(1994).
Graphic representations (chemical formulae) of macromolecules, Pure Appl. Chem., 66:2469–2482
(1994).
Structure-based nomenclature for irregular single-strand organic polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 66:
873–889 (1994).
Nomenclature of regular double-strand (ladder and spiro) organic polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 65:
1561–1580 (1993).
A. D. Jenkins and K. L. Loening, Nomenclature, in Comprehensive Polymer Science (G. Allen, J.
Bevington, C. Booth, and C. Price, eds.), Vol. 1, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1989, pp. 13–54.
N. M. Bikales, Nomenclature, in Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, 2nd ed. (H.
F. Mark, N. M. Bikales, C. G. Overberger, and G. Menges, eds.), Vol. 10, Wiley, New York,
1987, pp. 191–204.
Definitions of terms relating to crystalline polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 61:769–785 (1989).
A classification of linear single-strand polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 61:243–254 (1989).
Definitions of terms relating to individual macromolecules, their assemblies, and dilute polymer
solutions, Pure Appl. Chem., 61:211–241 (1989).
Use of abbreviations for names of polymeric substances, Pure Appl. Chem., 59:691–693 (1987).
Source-based nomenclature for copolymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 57:1427–1440 (1985).
Nomenclature for regular single-strand and quasi single-strand inorganic and coordination polymers,
Pure Appl. Chem., 57:149–168 (1985).
Notes on terminology for molar masses in polymer science: makromol. chem., 185, Appendix to
No. 1 (1984). J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Lett. Ed., 22, 57 (1984). J. Macromol. Sci. Chem., A21,
903 (1984). J. Colloid Interface Science, 101, 227 (1984). Br. Polym. J., 17, 92 (1985).
Stereochemical definitions and notations relating to polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 53:733–752
(1981).
Nomenclature of regular single-strand organic polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 48:373–385 (1976).
Basic definitions of terms relating to polymers, Pure Appl. Chem., 40:479–491 (1974).
ADDITIONAL READING
Carraher, C.(2001) J. Polym. Materials, 17(4):9–14.
Carraher, C., Hess, G., Sperling, L. (1987) J. Chem. Ed., 64:36–38.
Chemical Abstract Service, Appendix IV; Chemical Abstracts Service, 2540 Olentangy River Rd.,
PO Box 3012, Columbus, OH 43210.
IUPAC (1952) Report on Nomenclature in the Field of Macromolecules, J. Poly. Sci., 8:257–277.
Polymer Nomenclature xxv
IUPAC (1966) Report on Nomenclature Dealing with Steric Regularity in High Polymers, Pure
Appl Chem, 12:645–656; previously published as M. L. Huggins, G. Natta, V. Desreus, and
H. Mark (1962) J. Poly Sci., 56:153–161.
IUPAC (1969) Recommendations for Abbreviations of Terms Relating to Plastics and Elastomers.
Pure Appl. Chem., 18:583–589.
IUPAC (1991) Compendium of Macromolecular Nomenclature, Blackwell Scientific Pubs., Oxford,
UK, 171 pp. (Collection of summaries)
IUPAC (1976) Nomenclature of Regular Single-Strand Organic Polymers. Pure Appl. Chem., 48:
373–385.
IUPAC (1981) Stereochemical Definitions and Notations Relating to Polymers. Pure Appl. Chem.,
53:733–752.
IUPAC (1985) Source-Based Nomenclature for Copolymers. Pure Appl. Chem., 57:1427–1440.
IUPAC (1987) Use of Abbreviations for Names of Polymeric Substances. Pure Appl. Chem., 59:
691–693.
IUPAC (1989) A Classification of Linear Single-Strand Polymers. Pure Appl. Chem., 61:243–254.
IUPAC (1989) Definitions of Terms Relating to Individual Macromolecules, Their Assemblies, and
Dilute Polymer Solutions. (1989) Pure Applied Chemistry 61:211–241.
IUPAC (1989) Definition of Terms Relating to Crystalline Polymers. Pure Appl. Chem., 61:769–785.
IUPAC (1993) Nomenclature of Regular Double-Strand (Ladder or Spiro) Organic Polymers. Pure
Appl. Chem., 65:1561–1580.
IUPAC (1994) Graphic Representations (Chemical Formulae) of Macromolecules. Pure Appl.
Chem., 66:2469–2482.
IUPAC (1994) Structure-Based Nomenclature for Irregular Single-Strand Organic Polymers. Pure
Appl. Chem., 66:873–889.
IUPAC (1985) Nomenclature for Regular Single-Strand and Quasi-Single Strand Inorganic and
Coordination Polymers. Pure Appl. Chem., 57:149–168.
Polymer Preprints 32(1) (1991) 655; 33(2) (1992) 6; 34(1) (1993) 6; 34(2) (1993) 6; 35(1) (194)
6; 36(1) (1995) 6; 36(2) (1995) 6; 37(1) (1996) 6; 39(1) (1998)9; 39(2) (1998) 6; 40(1) (1999)
6; 41(1) (2000) 6a.
Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering, 68 (1993) 341; 69 (1993) 575; 72 (1995) 612; 74
(1996) 445; 78 (1998), Back Page; 79 (1998) Back Page; 80 (1999), Back Page; 81 (1999)
569.
Contents
3.2 Solubility 63
3.3 Average Molecular Weight Values 67
3.4 Fractionation of Polydisperse Systems 73
3.5 Chromatography 75
3.6 Osmometry 78
3.7 End-Group Analysis 81
3.8 Ebulliometry and Cryometry 82
3.9 Refractometry 82
3.10 Light Scattering Measurements 82
3.11 Ultracentrifugation 91
3.12 Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering 91
3.13 Mass Spectrometry 92
3.14 Viscometry 92
Summary 100
Glossary 101
Exercises 105
Bibliography 107
4/ TESTING AND SPECTROMETRIC CHARACTERIZATION OF
POLYMERS 109
4.1 Electric Properties: Theory 110
4.2 Electric Measurements 112
4.3 Weatherability 116
4.4 Optical Property Tests 117
4.5 Chemical Resistance 120
4.6 Spectronic Characterization of Polymers 121
4.7 Thermal Analysis 132
4.8 Thermal Property Tests 137
4.9 Flammability 140
4.10 Surface Characterization 141
4.11 Amorphous Region Determinations 147
4.12 Particle Size 148
4.13 Measurement of Adhesion 148
Summary 150
Glossary 150
Exercises 152
Bibliography 152
5/ RHEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL TESTS 156
5.1 Rheology 156
5.2 Typical Stress–Strain Behavior 163
5.3 Stress–Strain Relationships 167
5.4 Specific Physical Tests 175
Summary 186
Glossary 186
Exercises 188
Bibliography 189
6/ STEP-REACTION POLYMERIZATION OR POLYCONDENSATION
REACTIONS 191
6.1 Comparison Between Polymer Type and Kinetics of Polymerization 191
Contents xxix
9/ COPOLYMERIZATION 332
9.1 Kinetics of Copolymerization 333
9.2 The Q-e Scheme 337
9.3 Commercial Copolymers 339
9.4 Block Copolymers 341
9.5 Graft Copolymers 344
9.6 Elastomers 346
9.7 Networks—General 352
9.8 General Information on Block and Graft Copolymers 353
9.9 Polymer Mixtures—IPNs, Composites, Blends, and Alloys 353
9.10 Dendrites 357
9.11 Ionomers 360
Summary 362
Glossary 363
Exercises 365
Bibliography 366
Solutions 763
Appendix A: Symbols 781
Appendix B: Trade Names 791
Appendix C: Sources of Laboratory Exercises 821
Appendix D: Syllabus 837
Appendix E: Polymer Core Course Committees 841
Appendix F: Polymer Models 843
Appendix G: Structures of Common Polymers 845
Appendix H: Mathematical Values and Units 869
Appendix I: Comments on Health 873
Appendix J: Comments on ISO 9000 and 14000 877
Appendix K: Electronic Education—Web Sites 879
Appendix L: Introduction to the Stereogeometry of Polymers 883
Appendix M: Variability of Measurements 891
Index 893
Studying Polymer Chemistry
Studying polymer chemistry is similar to studying any chemistry. Following are some
ideas that may assist you as you study polymer chemistry.
Much of chemistry is abstract. While much of polymer chemistry is abstract, it is
easier to conceptualize—i.e., make mind pictures of what a polymer is and how it should
behave—than many other areas of chemistry. For linear polymers, think of a string or
rope. Long ropes get entangled with themselves and other ropes. In the same way, polymers
entangle with themselves and with other polymer chains that are brought into contact with
them. Thus, create mental pictures of the polymers as you study them.
Polymers are real and all around us. We can look at polymers on a microscopic or
atomic level or on a macroscopic level. The PET bottles we have are composed of long
chains of poly(ethylene terephthalate) chains. The aramid tire cord is composed of aromatic
polyamide chains. Our hair is made up of complex bundles of fibrous proteins, again
polyamides. The chemistry you study is related to the real world in which we live. We
experience this “chemistry” at the macroscopic level every day of our lives and this
macroscopic behavior is a direct consequence of the atomic level structure and behavior.
Make pictures in your mind that allow you to relate the atomic and macroscopic worlds.
At the introductory level we often examine only the primary factors that may cause
particular polymer behavior. Other factors may become important under particular condi-
tions. The polymer chemistry you study at times examines only the primary factors that
impact polymer behavior and structure. Nevertheless, it does form the basis for both
complex and simple structure–property behavior.
The structure–property relationships you will be studying are based on well-known
basic chemistry and physical relationships. Because such relationships build on one an-
other you need to study in an ongoing manner. Understand as you go along. Read the
material BEFORE you go to class.
This course is an introductory-level course that builds on firm foundations in all of
the core areas of chemistry. Each chapter or topic emphasizes knowledge from one or
xxxv
xxxvi Studying Polymer Chemistry
more of these areas. Polymer chemistry also has its own language. It is a language that
requires you to memorize it. Our memory can be short-term or long-term. Short-term
memory may be considered as that used by an actor or actress for a TV drama. It really
does not need to be totally understood or retained after the final “take.” Long-term memory
is required in studying polymer chemistry since it will be called on repeatedly and is used
to understand other concepts.
In memorizing, learn how you do this best—at what time of day, in what setting,
etc. Use as many senses as necessary—be active—read your assignment, write out what
you need to learn, say it, listen to yourself say it. Also, look for patterns, create mnemonic
devices, avoid cramming too much into too little time, practice associations in all direc-
tions, and test yourself. Memorization is hard work.
While knowledge involves recalling memorized material, to really know something
involves more than simple recall. It involves comprehension, application, evaluation, and
integration of the knowledge. Comprehension is the interpretation of this knowledge, i.e.,
making predictions, applying it to different situations. Analysis involves evaluation of the
information and comparison with other information. Synthesis has to do with integration
of the information with other information.
In studying polymer chemistry, consider doing the following:
Skim the text before the lecture.
Attend the lecture and take notes.
Organize your notes and relate information.
Read and study the assigned material.
Study your notes and the assigned material.
Review and self-test.
Learning takes time and effort. Study daily, skimming the text and other study material;
think about it, visualize key points and concepts, write down important material, make
outlines, take notes, study sample problems, etc. All of this helps, but some approaches
may help you more than others, so focus on these modes of learning—but not to the
exclusion of the other aspects.
In preparing for an exam, consider doing the following:
Accomplish the above. Do not wait until the day before the exam to begin studying.
Develop good study habits.
Study wisely. Study how you study best, i.e., time of day, surroundings, etc.
Take care of yourself. Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam.
Attend to last-minute details. Is your calculator working? Is it the right kind? Do
you have the needed pencils? Review the material once again.
Know what kind of test it will be (if possible).
Get copies of old exams (if possible). Talk to others who have already taken the
course.
During the test,
Stay cool; do not panic.
Read the directions; try to understand what is being asked.
In an essay or similar exam work for partial credit, plan your answers ahead of time.
In a multiple-choice or true/false exam, eliminate obviously wrong choices.
Look over the entire exam. Work on questions that you are sure of, then go to less
obvious questions. Check answers if time permits.
Studying Polymer Chemistry xxxvii
Since most chemists and chemical engineers are now involved in some phase of polymer
science or technology, some have called this the polymer age. Actually, we have always
lived in a polymer age.
The ancient Greeks classified all matter as animal, vegetable, and mineral. Minerals
were emphasized by the alchemists, but medieval artisans emphasized animal and vegeta-
ble matter. All are largely polymers and are important to life as we know it.
The word polymer is derived from the Greek poly and meros, meaning many and
parts, respectively. Some scientists prefer to use the word macromolecule, or large mole-
cule, instead of polymer. Others maintain that naturally occurring polymers, or biopoly-
mers, and synthetic polymers should be studied in different courses. However, the same
principles apply to all polymers. If one discounts the end uses, the differences between
all polymers, including plastics, fibers, and elastomers or rubbers, are determined primarily
by the intermolecular and intramolecular forces between the molecules and within the
individual molecule, respectively, and by the functional groups present.
In addition to being the basis of life itself, protein is used as a source of amino acids
and energy. The ancients degraded or depolymerized the protein in tough meat by aging
and cooking, and they denatured egg albumin by heating or adding vinegar to the eggs.
Early humans learned how to process, dye, and weave the natural proteinaceous
fibers of wool and silk and the carbohydrate fibers of flax and cotton. Early South American
civilizations such as the Aztecs used natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) for making elastic
articles and for waterproofing fabrics.
There has always been an abundance of natural fibers and elastomers but few plastics.
Of course, early humans employed a crude plastic art in tanning the protein in animal
skins to make leather and in heat-formed tortoise shells. They also used naturally occurring
1
2 Chapter 1
tars as caulking materials and extracted shellac from the excrement of small coccid insects
(Coccus lacca).
Until Wöhler synthesized urea from inorganic compounds in 1828, there had been
little progress in organic chemistry since the alchemists emphasized the transmutation of
base metals to gold and believed in a vital force theory. Despite this essential breakthrough,
little progress was made in understanding organic chemistry until the 1850s, when Kekulé
developed the presently accepted technique for writing structural formulas. However, poly-
mer scientists displayed a talent for making empirical discoveries before the science was
developed.
Charles Goodyear grew up in poverty. He was a Connecticut Yankee born in 1800.
He began work in his father’s farm implement business. Later he moved to Philadelphia
where he opened a retail hardware store that soon went bankrupt. He then turned to being
an inventor. As a child he had noticed the magic material that formed a rubber bottle he
had found. He visited the Roxbury India Rubber Company to try and interest them in his
efforts to improve the properties of rubber, but they assured him that there was no need
to do so.
He started his experiments with a malodorous gum from South America in debtor’s
prison. In a small cottage on the grounds of the prison, he blended the gum, the raw rubber
called hevea rubber, with anything he could find, e.g., ink, soup, caster oil. While rubber-
based products were available, they were either sticky or became sticky in the summer
heat. He found that treatment of the raw rubber with nitric acid allowed the material to
resist heat and not to adhere to itself. This success attracted backers who helped form a
rubber company. After some effort he obtained a contract to supply the U.S. Post Office
with 150 rubber mailbags. He made the bags and stored them in a hot room while he and
his family went away. When they returned they found the bags in a corner of the room,
joined together as a mass. The nitric acid treatment was sufficient to prevent surface
stickiness, but the internal rubber remained tacky and susceptible to heat.
While doing experiments in 1839 at a Massachusetts rubber factory he accidently
dropped a lump of rubber mixed with sulfur on the hot stove. The rubber did not melt
but rather charred. He had discovered vulcanization, the secret that was to make rubber
a commercial success. While he had discovered vulcanization, it would take several years
of ongoing experimentation before the process was really commercially useful. During
this time he and his family were nearly penniless. Although he patented the process, it
was too easily copied and pirated, so that he was not able to profit fully from his invention
and years of hard work. Even so, he was able to develop a number of items.
Charles Goodyear and his brother Nelson transformed natural rubber, hevea rubber,
from a heat-“softenable” thermoplastic to a less heat-sensitive product through the creation
of crosslinks between the individual polyisoprene chain-like molecules using sulfur as the
crosslinking agent. Thermoplastics are two-dimensional molecules that may be softened
by heating. Thermosets are materials that are three-dimensional networks that cannot be
reshaped by heating. Rather than melting, thermosets degrade. As the amount of sulfur
was increased, the rubber became harder becoming a hard rubber-like (ebonite) material.
The spring of 1851 found the construction of a remarkable building on the lawns
of London’s Hyde Park. The building was designed by a maker of greenhouses so it was
not unexpected that it had a greenhouse look. This Crystal Palace was to house almost
14,000 exhibitors from all over the world. It was the chance for exhibitors to show their
wares. Charles Goodyear, then 50 years old, used this opportunity to show off his over
two decades worth of rubber-related products. He decorated his Vulcanite Court with
Introduction to Polymer Science 3
rubber walls, roof, furniture, buttons, toys, carpet, combs, etc. Above it hung a six-foot
rubber raft and assorted balloons. The European public was introduced to the world of
new man-made materials.
Within little more than a decade Charles Goodyear was dead. Within a year of his
death, the American Civil War broke out. The Union military used about $27 million
worth of rubber products by 1865 helping launch the U.S. rubber industry.
In 1862 Queen Victoria, while in mourning for her recently departed husband Albert,
opened the World’s Fair in London. One of the exhibitors was Alexander Parks. He was
displeased with the limited colors available for rubber products (generally dull and dark).
In his workshop in Birmingham, England he was working with nitrocellulose, a material
made from the treatment of cotton and nitric and sulfuric acids. Nitrocellulose solutions
were made from dissolving the nitrocellulose in organic liquids such as ethanol and ether.
Thin films and coatings were made by simply pouring the nitrocellulose solutions onto
the desired item or surface and allowing the solvent to evaporate. He wanted to make
solid objects from nitrocellulose. After years of work he developed a material he called
Parkensine from which he made buttons, combs, and many of the items that were made
of rubber, except that his materials could be brightly colored, clear, or made to shine like
mother-of-pearl. At the London World’s Fair he advertised “Patent Parkesine of various
colours: hard elastic, transparent, opaque, and waterproof.” Even with his work he had
not developed a material that could be “worked” or was stable, and even with his hype
the material never caught on except in exhibition halls.
About this time, John Wesley Hyatt, a printer from Albany, New York who was
seeking a $10,000 prize for anyone who could come up with a material that was a substitute
for ivory billiard balls, developed a material that was stable and could be “worked” from
shellac and wood pulp. He then turned to nitrocellulose discovering that shredded nitrocel-
lulose could be mixed with camphor and heated under pressure to produce a tough white
mass that retained its shape. This material, dubbed celluloid, could be made into the usual
rubber-like products, but also solid pieces like boxes, wipe-clean linen, collars, cuffs, and
ping-pong balls. Celluloid could also, like the shellac–wood pulp mixture, be cut, drilled,
and sawed. But celluloid was flammable and did not stand up well in hot water. The
wearers of celluloid dentures truly could have their “teeth curled” when drinking a hot
cup of coffee. One of its best qualities was that it could be made to look like other
materials—it could be dyed to look like marble, swirled to mimic tortoiseshell and mother-
of-pearl, and even look and feel like ivory. It did not make good billiard balls. One account
has billiard balls hitting and exploding like a shot that caused cowboys to draw their guns.
Both cellulose and cellulose nitrate are linear, or two-dimensional, polymers, but
the former cannot be softened because of the presence of multitudinous hydrogen bonds
between the chain-like molecules. When used as an explosive the cellulose nitrate is
essentially completely nitrated, but the material used by Parks and Hyatt was a dinitrate,
still potentially explosive but less so. Parks added caster oil and Hyatt added camphor to
plasticize-reduce the effect of the hydrogen bonding—the cellulose nitrate.
Worldwide, rubber gained in importance with the invention of the air-filled or pneu-
matic tires by a Scotsman, John Dunlop in 1888. He had a successful veterinary practice
in Belfast. In his off time he worked to improve the ride of his son’s tricycle. His invention
happened at the right time. The automobile was emerging and air-filled tires offered a
more gentle ride. Thus was begun the tire industry.
All of these inventions utilized natural materials as at least one ingredient. After years
of work in his chemistry labs in Yonkers, New York, Leo Baekeland in 1907 announced in
4 Chapter 1
an American Chemical Society meeting the synthesis of the first truly synthetic polymeric
material, later dubbed Bakelite.
Baekeland was born in Belgium in 1863, the son of an illiterate shoe repairman and
a maid. He was bright and received his doctorate with highest honors at the age of 20.
He could have spent the remaining part of his life in academics in Europe, but heeding
the words of Benjamin Franklin, he sailed to America. In the 1890s he developed the first
photographic paper, called Velox, that could be developed in synthetic light rather than
sunlight. George Eastman saw the importance of this discovery and paid Bakeland
$750,000 for the rights to this invention.
It was generally recognized by the leading organic chemists of the nineteenth century
that phenol would condense with formaldehyde. Since they did not recognize the concept
of functionality, Baeyer, Michael, and Kleeberg produced useless crosslinked goos, gunks,
and messes and then returned to their research on reactions of monofunctional reactants.
However, by the use of a large excess of phenol, Smith, Luft; and Blumer were able to
obtain a hard yet meltable thermoplastic material.
With his $750,000 Baekeland set up a lab next to his home. He then sought to solve
the problem of making the hard material made from phenol and formaldehyde soluble.
After many failures, he thought about circumventing the problem by placing the reactants
in a mold of the desired shape and allowing them to form the intractable solid material.
After much effort he found the conditions under which a hard, clear solid could be
made—Bakelite was discovered. Bakelite could be worked, was resistant to acids and
organic liquids, stood up well to heat and electrical charge, and could be dyed to give
colorful products. It was used to make bowling balls, phonograph records, telephone
housings, gears, and cookware. His materials also made excellent billiard balls.
Bakelite also acted as a binder for sawdust, textiles, and paper, forming a wide range
of composites including Formica laminates, many of which are still used. It was also used
as an adhesive giving us plywood.
While there is no evidence that Baekeland recognized what polymers were, he ap-
peared to have a grasp on functionality and how to “use” functionality to produce thermo-
plastic materials that could later be converted to thermosets. Through control of the ratio
of phenol to formaldehyde he was able to form a material that was a thermoplastic. He
coined the term A-stage resole resin to describe this thermoplastic. This A-stage resole
resin was converted to a thermoset crosslink, C-stage Bakelite, by additional heating.
Baekeland also prepared thermoplastic resins called novolacs by the condensation of
phenol with a lesser amount of formaldehyde under acidic conditions. The thermoplastic
novolacs were converted to thermosets by addition of more formaldehyde. While other
polymers had been synthesized in the laboratory, Bakelite was the first truly synthetic
plastic. The “recipes” used today differ little from the ones developed by Baekeland,
showing his ingenuity and knowledge of the chemistry of the condensation of the trifunc-
tional phenol and difunctional formaldehyde.
While poly(vinyl chloride) was initially formed by Baumann in 1872, it awaited
interest until 1926 when B. F. Goodrich discovered how to make sheets and adhesives
from poly(vinyl chloride)—and the “vinyl age” began. While polystyrene was probably
first formed by Simon in 1839, it was almost 100 years latter, in 1930, that the giant
German company I. G. Farben placed polystyrene on the market. Polystyrene molded
parts have became common place. Rohm and Haas bought out Plexiglas from a British
firm in 1935 and began the production of clear plastic parts and goods, including replace-
ments for glass as camera lenses, aircraft windows, clock faces, and car tail lights.
Introduction to Polymer Science 5
Polymer science was largely empirical, instinctive, and intuitive. Prior to World
War I, celluloid, shellac, Galalith (casein), Bakelite, and cellulose acetate plastics; hevea
rubber, cotton, wool, silk rayon fibers; Glyptal polyester coatings; bitumen or asphalt; and
coumarone-indene and petroleum resins were all commercially available. However, as
evidenced by the chronological data shown in Table 1.1, there was little additional develop-
ment in polymers prior to World War II because of a general lack of fundamental knowl-
edge of polymers. But the theoretical basis was being built. Only a few of the many giants
of the industry will be mentioned.
Over a century ago, Graham coined the term colloid for aggregates with dimensions
in the range of 109 to 107 m. Unfortunately, the size of many macromolecules is in
this range, but it is important to remember that unlike colloids, whose connective forces
are ionic and/or secondary forces, polymers are individual molecules whose size cannot
be reduced without breaking the covalent bonds that hold the atoms together. In 1860 an
oligomer, a small polymer, was prepared from ethylene glycol and its structure correctly
given as HM(MOCH2CH2M)nMOH. But when poly(methacrylic acid) was made by Fittig
and Engelhorn in 1880 it was incorrectly assigned a cyclic structure. Polymers were thought
of as being colloids, or cyclic compounds like cyclohexane. By use of the Raoult and
van’t Hoff concepts, several scientists obtained high molecular weight values for these
materials and for a number of other polymeric materials. But since the idea of large
molecules was not yet accepted they concluded that these techniques were not applicable
to these molecules rather than accepting the presence of giant molecules.
Hermann Staudinger studied the polymerization of isoprene as early as 1910. In-
trigued by the difference between this synthetic material and natural rubber, he began to
develop his studies toward such materials. His turn to these questionable materials, of
interest to industry but not academically important, was viewed unkindly by his fellow
academics. He was told by one of his fellow scientists “Dear Colleague, Leave the concept
of large molecules well alone. . . . There can be no such thing as a macromolecule.” But
Staudinger systematically synthesized a variety of polymers. In the 1920 paper “Uber
Polymerization” he summarized his findings and correctly proposed linear structures for
such important polymers as polyoxymethylene and polystyrene. X-ray studies of many
natural and synthetic materials were used as structural proof that polymers existed. Fore-
most in these efforts were Herman Mark and Linus Pauling. Both of these giants contrib-
uted to other important areas of science. Pauling contributed to the fundamental understand-
ing of bonding and the importance of vitamins. Mark helped found the academic and
communication (journals, short courses, workshops) basis that would allow polymer sci-
ence to grow from its very diverse roots.
Wallace Hume Carothers is the father of synthetic polymer science. History is often
measured by the change in the flow of grains of sand in the hour glass of existence.
Carothers is a granite boulder in this hour glass. Carothers was born, raised, and educated
in the U.S. midwest. In 1920 he left Tarkio College with his BS degree and entered the
University of Illinois where he received his MA in 1921. He then taught at the University
of South Dakota where he published his first paper. He returned to receive his PhD under
Roger Adams in 1924. In 1926 he became an instructor in organic chemistry at Harvard.
In 1927 the DuPont Company decided to begin a program of fundamental research
“without any regard or reference to commercial objectives.” This was a radical departure
since the bottom line was previously products marketed and not papers published. Charles
Stine, director of DuPont’s chemical department, was interested in pursuing fundamental
research in the areas of colloid chemistry, catalysis, organic synthesis, and polymer forma-
6 Chapter 1
*
24 mai.—Mme Villot m'invite à aller la voir le soir pour me rencontrer
avec une personne mystérieuse, amie de Mme Sand. J'y vais malgré
mon rhume et à travers un temps diluvien. Je trouve Mme
Plessis[448], charmante personne qui me fait promettre d'écrire à
Mme Sand. Elle est sur le point de m'embrasser dans la soirée quand
je lui dis que je ne crois pas à cette petite personne appelée âme
dont on nous gratifie.
Le bon général Parchappe veut m'avoir à dîner pour le lendemain. Je
promets malgré le rhume.
*
25 mai.—Dîné chez Mme Parchappe. Mme Franchetti qui s'y trouve
vient d'arriver ce jour même pour s'installer chez Minoret. Elle est
forcée d'accepter l'hospitalité de Mme Parchappe sous peine de
coucher sur des matelas mouillés.
*
26 mai.—Je songe, en ébauchant mon Christ descendu dans le
tombeau[449], à une composition analogue qu'on voit partout du
Barocci[450]; et je songe en même temps à ce que dit Boileau pour
tous les arts: «Rien n'est beau que le vrai.» Rien n'est vrai dans
cette maudite composition: gestes contournés, draperies volantes
sans sujet, etc. Réminiscences des divers styles des maîtres. Les
maîtres, mais je parle des plus grands et dont le style est très
marqué, sont vrais à travers cela, sans quoi ils ne seraient pas
beaux. Les gestes de Raphaël sont naïfs, malgré l'étrangeté de son
style; mais ce qui est odieux, c'est l'imitation de cette étrangeté par
des imbéciles, qui sont faux de gestes et d'intention par-dessus le
marché.
Ingres, qui n'a jamais su composer un sujet comme la nature le
présente, se croit semblable à Raphaël en singeant[451] certains
gestes, certaines tournures qui lui sont habituelles, qui ont même
chez lui une certaine grâce qui rappelle celle de Raphaël; mais on
sent bien, chez ce dernier, que tout cela sort de lui et n'est pas
cherché.
*
28 mai.—Je vais le soir chez Mme Villot: j'y trouve Mme Franchetti,
Parchappe, etc., une dame de Suberval et ses filles: l'une de ces
dernières me promet la recette du pigeon Pise.
*
29 mai.—Promenade le matin dans la forêt.
1859
Champrosay,9 janvier.—Sur la difficulté de conserver l'impression du
croquis primitif.—De la nécessité des sacrifices.—Sur les artistes qui,
comme Vernet, finissent tout de suite, et du mauvais effet qui en
résulte. Voir mes notes du 4 avril 1854[477].
Promenade à la forêt et visite au couvent en ruine de l'Ermitage.
Stupidité des démolisseurs, tant fanatiques religieux que fanatiques
révolutionnaires. Solidité de ces constructions de moines. Voir mes
notes du 13 mai 1853[478].
—Avantages de l'éducation suivant Labruyère.—L'éducation se fait
avec les honnêtes gens. Voir mes notes du 8 mars 1853[479].
—Sur les choses inachevées, impressions d'ébauches à propos du
chêne d'Antain. Que Michel-Ange doit une partie de son effet au
manque de proportions. Voir mes notes du 9 mai 1853[480].
—Tirade sur Girardin qui revenait sans cesse à cette époque sur le
labourage à la vapeur. La moralité ne me paraît pas devoir gagner à
dispenser les hommes de travail. Auront-ils une patrie? se lèveront-
ils pour la défendre? Voir mes notes du 17 mai 1853[481].
—Sur la couleur. Que les Rubens et les Titien ont employé des
couleurs brillantes, et David des couleurs ternes. Excès de sobriété
préconisé chez les modernes. Voir mes notes du 13 novembre
1857[482].
—Sur le mot distraction. On la cherche dans les travaux de toute
sorte, y compris ceux de l'esprit; on se distrait avec des ouvrages qui
ont servi à d'autres de distraction Voir mes notes du 9 novembre
1857[483].
—Sur l'ébauche et sur le fini. Les improvisations de Chopin plus
hardies que l'ouvrage; on ne gâte pas en finissant, quand on est
grand artiste. Voir mes notes du 20 avril 1853[484].
—Perfection de Mozart qui ne brille pas par le voisinage du mauvais.
Voir mes notes du 18 avril 1853[485].
—Il y a aussi les génies fougueux, dont le temps consacre les
imperfections, Rubens, etc.
1er mars.—Dictionnaire.
Tableau. Faire un tableau, l'art de le conduire depuis l'ébauche
jusqu'au fini. C'est une science et un art tout à la fois; pour s'en
acquitter d'une manière vraiment savante, une longue expérience
est indispensable.
L'art est si long que, pour arriver à systématiser[486] certains
principes qui, au fond, régissent chaque partie de l'art, il faut la vie
entière. Les talents nés trouvent d'instinct le moyen d'arriver à
exprimer leurs idées; c'est chez eux un mélange d'élans spontanés
et de tâtonnements, à travers lesquels l'idée se fait jour avec un
charme peut-être plus particulier que celui que peut offrir la
production d'un maître consommé.
Il y a dans l'aurore du talent quelque chose de naïf et de hardi en
même temps qui rappelle les grâces de l'enfance et aussi son
heureuse insouciance des conventions qui régissent les hommes
faits. C'est ce qui rend plus surprenante la hardiesse que déploient à
une époque avancée de leur carrière les maîtres illustres. Être
hardi[487], quand on a un passé à compromettre, est le plus grand
signe de la force.
Napoléon met, je crois, Turenne au-dessus de tous les capitaines,
parce qu'il remarque que ses plans étaient plus audacieux à mesure
qu'il avançait en âge. Napoléon lui-même a donné l'exemple de cette
qualité extraordinaire.
Dans les arts en particulier, il faut un sentiment bien profond pour
maintenir l'originalité de sa pensée en dépit des habitudes
auxquelles le talent lui-même est fatalement enclin à s'abandonner.
Après avoir passé une grande partie de sa vie à accoutumer le public
à son génie, il est très difficile à l'artiste de ne pas se répéter, de
renouveler, en quelque sorte, son talent, afin de ne pas tombera son
tour dans ce même inconvénient de la banalité et du lieu commun
qui est celui des hommes et des écoles qui vieillissent.
Gluck[488] a donné l'exemple le plus remarquable de cette force de
volonté qui n'était autre que celle de son génie. Rossini a toujours
été se renouvelant jusqu'à son dernier chef-d'œuvre, qui
prématurément a clos son illustre carrière de chefs-d'œuvre.
Raphaël, Mozart, etc., etc.
Hardiesse. Il ne faudrait cependant pas attribuer cette hardiesse, qui
est le cachet des grands artistes, uniquement à ce don de
renouvellement ou de rajeunissement du talent par des moyens
d'effets nouveaux. Il est des hommes qui donnent leur mesure du
premier coup, et dont la sublime monotonie est la principale qualité.
Michel-Ange n'a point varié la physionomie de ce terrible talent qui a
renouvelé lui-même toutes les écoles modernes et leur a imprimé un
élan irrésistible.
Rubens a été Rubens tout de suite. Il est remarquable qu'il n'a pas
même varié son exécution, qu'il a très peu modifiée, même après
l'avoir reçue de ses maîtres. S'il copie Léonard de Vinci, Michel-Ange,
le Titien,—et il a copié sans cesse,—il semble qu'il s'y soit montré
plus Rubens que dans ses ouvrages originaux.
Imitation. On commence toujours par imiter.
Il est bien convenu que ce qu'on appelle création dans les grands
artistes n'est qu'une manière particulière à chacun de voir, de
coordonner et de rendre la nature. Mais non seulement ces grands
hommes n'ont rien créé dans le sens propre du mot, qui veut dire:
de rien faire quelque chose; mais encore ils ont dû, pour former leur
talent ou pour le tenir en haleine, imiter leurs devanciers et les
imiter presque sans cesse, volontairement ou à leur insu.
Raphaël, le plus grand des peintres, a été le plus appliqué à
imiter[489]: imitation de son maître, laquelle a laissé dans son style
des traces qui ne se sont jamais effacées; imitation de l'antique et
des maîtres qui l'avaient précédé, mais en se dégageant par degrés
des langes dont il les avait trouvés enveloppés; imitation de ses
contemporains et des écoles étrangères, telles que l'Allemand Albert
Dürer, le Titien, Michel-Ange, etc.
Rubens a imité sans cesse, mais de telle sorte qu'il est difficile de...
[490].
Imitateurs. On peut dire de Raphaël, de Rubens, qu'ils ont beaucoup
imité, et l'on ne peut sans injure les qualifier d'imitateurs. On dira
plus justement qu'ils ont eu beaucoup d'imitateurs, plus occupés à
calquer leur style dans de médiocres ouvrages, qu'à développer chez
eux un style qui leur fût propre. Les peintres qui se sont formés en
imitant leurs ouvrages, mais qui ont calqué le style de ces grands
hommes dans leurs ouvrages propres et qui n'en ont reproduit que
de faibles parties[491] par défaut d'originalité...
[489] Dans son étude sur Raphaël, Delacroix avait déjà énoncé et
développé cette idée qui lui semblait féconde en points de vue
intéressants: «Beaucoup de critiques, dit-il, seront peut-être
tentés de lui reprocher (à Raphaël) ce qui me semble, à moi, la
marque la plus sûre du plus incomparable talent, je veux parler de
l'adresse avec laquelle il sut imiter, et du parti prodigieux qu'il tira,
non pas seulement des anciens ouvrages, mais de ceux de ses
émules et de ses contemporain.»
[490] Inachevé dans le manuscrit.
[491] Dans cette même étude sur Raphaël, le maître ajoutait à
propos des imitateurs: «Il y a plusieurs manières d'imiter: chez les
uns, c'est une nécessité de leur nature indigente qui les précipite
à la suite des beaux ouvrages. Ils croient y rallumer leur flamme
sans chaleur, et appellent cela y puiser de l'inspiration... Chez les
autres, l'imitation est comme une condition indispensable du
succès. C'est elle qui s'exerce dans les écoles sous les yeux et
sous la direction d'un même maître. Réussir, c'est approcher le
plus possible de ce type unique. Imiter la nature est bien le
prétexte, mais la palme appartient seulement à celui qui l'a vue
des mêmes yeux et l'a rendue de la même manière que le maître.
Ce n'est pas là l'imitation chez Raphaël. On peut dire que son
originalité ne paraît jamais plus vive que dans les idées qu'il
emprunte. Tout ce qu'il touche, il le relève, et le fait vivre d'une
vie nouvelle. C'est bien lui qui semble alors reprendre ce qui lui
appartient, et féconder des germes stériles qui n'attendaient que
sa main pour donner leurs vrais fruits.» (Revue de Paris, t. II,
1830.)
9 septembre.—Les cousins sont arrivés dans la nuit.
Promenade le matin avec le cousin dans la plaine riante où sont ses
pièces. J'y ai dessiné.
Je trouve dans Bayle: «Notez que les dogmes des philosophes
païens étaient si mal liés et si mal combinés.....» (Thalès.)
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