Stereolithography

[email protected]
+ Before you begin

Energy is proportional to frequency

𝑐
𝜈= 𝑈 =ℎ∙𝜈
𝜆
+ Stereolithography
+ Stereolithography
+ What is SLA?
• Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) is a liquid-based
process which builds parts directly from CAD
software.
• SLA uses a low-power laser to harden photo-sensitive
resin and achieve polymerization.
• The Rapid Prototyping Stereolithography process was
developed by 3D Systems of Valencia, California,
USA, founded in 1986.
• The SLA rapid prototyping process was the first entry
into the rapid prototyping field during the 1980’s and
continues to be the most widely used technology.
+ The Process (general)
• The process begins with a 3D CAD file.
• The file is digitally sliced into a series of parallel horizontal cross-
sections which are then provided to a StereoLithography
Apparatus (SLA) one at a time.
• A radiation source draws the cross-section onto a bath of
photopolymer resin which solidifies the cross-section.
• The part is lowered a layer thickness into the bath and additional
resin is swept onto the surface (typically about 0.1 mm) .
• The radiation source then solidifies the next cross-section.
• This process is repeated until the part is complete.
• Once the model is complete, the platform rises out of the vat and
the excess resin is drained.
• The model is then removed from the platform, washed of excess
resin, and then placed in a curing light oven for a final curing.
PHOTOPOLYMERIZATION
+ Photopolymers

• Various types of radiation may be used to

cure commercial photopolymers, including:
– gamma rays;
– X-rays;
– electron beams;
– UV;
– Visible light
+ Types of photopolymerization

• In a photocurable resin you have:

– photoinitiators,
– reactive diluents,
– flexibilizers,
– stabilizers,
– and liquid monomers.
+ Types of photopolymer
+ Types of photopolymers

• Acrylates
– High reactivity
– Inaccuracy (shrinkage and curling)
– Oxygen inhibition
– Free-radical polymerization
+ Types of photopolymers
• Epoxy
– Slow “photo-speed”
– Brittleness
– Accuracy, harder, stronger
(lower dimensional changes)
– Not Oxygen inhibition
(lower photoinitiator
concentration)
– Sensitivity to humidity
– Cationic polymerization
+ Types of photopolymers
• SL resins commercially available today are
epoxides with some acrylate content
– Multifunctional monomers
– polyester acrylate (PEA), epoxy acrylates (EA),
urethane acrylates (UA), amino acrylates and
cycloaliphatic epoxies
– Interpentrating polymer network
+ Polymerization

Radical
polymerization

Cationic
polymerization
+ Photopolymerization

• Polymerization is exothermic,
• heats of reaction around 85 kJ/mol for
acrylate.
• Despite high heats of reaction, a catalyst is
necessary to initiate the reaction.
• A photoinitiator acts as the catalyst.
• Mixtures of different types of photoinitiators
may also be employed
+ Radical polymerization

• Polymerization terminates for:

– recombination,
– disproportionation,
– occlusion.
+ Radical polymerization

• Polymerization terminates for:

– recombination,
– disproportionation,
– occlusion.
+ Radical polymerization

• Reaction rate

• Average molecular weight

(kinetic average chain lenght)
STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
CONFIGURATIONS
+ Stereolithography configurations

• Vector scan
+ Stereolithography configurations

• Mask projection
+ Stereolithography configurations
+ Stereolithography configurations

• Two photon approach

VECTOR SCAN
+ Stereolithography –
vector or point-by-point scanning

Laser is focused/shaped through When cross section

optics. A computer controlled is complete, elevator
mirror directs laser to appropriate indexes to prepare
spot on photopolymer surface. for next layer.
Polymer solidifies wherever laser
hits it.
+ Stereolithography –
vector or point-by-point scanning
1. Laser traces current cross section onto surface of photocurable
liquid acrylate resin
2. Polymer solidifies when struck by the laser’s intense UV light
3. Elevator lowers hardened cross section below liquid surface
4. Laser prints the next cross section directly on top of previous
5. After entire 3D part is formed it is post-cured (UV light)

• Note:
– care must be taken to support any overhangs
– The SLA modeler uses a photopolymer, which has very low viscosity
until exposed to UV light. Unfortunately this photopolymer is toxic.
Warpage occurs.
+ SL machine

• Machine subsystems hierarchy

+ 3D System SLA 7000

Laser He-Cd
Lunghezza d’onda 0.325 um
Potenza 800 mW
Spessore minimo 0.025 mm
Volume vasca 253
Volume di lavoro 500 x 500 x 600 mm3
Velocità di scansione Max 9.52 m/s
Diametro Spot Da 0.23 a 0.84 mm
PROCESS PARAMETERS
+ Nomenclature
• Cd = cure depth = depth of resin cure as a result of laser
irradiation [mm]
• Dp = depth of penetration of laser into a resin until a reduction in
irradiance of 1/e is reached = key resin characteristic [mm]
• E = exposure, possibly as a function of spatial coordinates
[energy/unit area][mJ/mm2]
• Ec = critical exposure = exposure at which resin solidification
starts to occur [mJ/mm2]
• Emax = peak exposure of laser shining on the resin surface (center
of laser spot) [mJ/mm2]
• H(x,y,z) = irradiance (radiant power per unit area) at an arbitrary
point in the resin = time derivative of E(x,y,z) [W/mm2]
• PL = output power of laser [W]
• Vs = scan speed of laser [mm/s]
• W0 = radius of laser beam focused on the resin surface [mm]
+ Scan line of a Gaussian Laser
+ Scan line of a Gaussian laser

• Fundamental general exposure equation

+ Scan line of a gaussian laser

• Final shape
+ Scan line of a Gaussian Laser

• The line width is proportional to the beam

spot size.
• If a greater cure depth is desired, line width
must increase, all else remaining the same.
+ Working curve
+ Working curve
• The cure depth is proportional to the natural logarithm of
the maximum exposure on the centerline of a scanned
laser beam.
• A semilog plot of Cd vs. Emax should be a straight line. This
plot is known as the working curve for a given resin.
• The slope of the working curve is precisely Dp at the laser
wavelength being used to generate the working curve.
• The x-axis intercept of the working curve is Ec, the critical
exposure of the resin at that wavelength. Theoretically, the
cure depth is 0 at Ec, but this does indicate the gel point of
the resin.
• Since Dp and Ec are purely resin parameters, the slope and
intercept of the working curve are independent of laser
power.
• In practice, various Emax values can be generated easily by
varying the laser scan speed
+ Working curve
+ Materials: Somos 18120
+ Materials: Somos 18120
+ Materials cont:
• SLA Somos 7120 - A high speed general use resin that is heat and
humidty resistant.
• Somos 9120 - A robust accurate resin for functional parts. For more
information on this material please read the material
• Somos 9920 - A durable resin whose properties mimic polypropylene.
Offers superior chemical resistance, fatigue properties, and strong
memory retention.
• Somos 10120 WaterClear - A general purpose resin with mid range
mechanical properties. Transparent parts are possible if finished
properly.
• Somos 11120 WaterShed - Produces strong, tough, water-resistant
parts. Many of its mechanical properties mimic that of ABS plastic.
• Somos 14120 White - A low viscosity liquid photopolymer that produces
strong, tough, water-resistant parts.
• Somos ProtoTool - ProtoTool is a high density material that transcends
currently available stereolithography resins by offering superior modulus
and temperature resistance.
+ Time scales

• Laser travel 10-12s

• Photopolimer reaction 10-6s
• Exposure time 50-2000 10-6s
• Onset shrinkage 0.4-1 s
• Completion shrikage 4-10s
• Layer scanning 10-300 s
+ Scanning strategies

• Joining the current layer with the previous

one
• Residual stresses
• Extra energy (print through errors)
• Various scanning strategies
– WEAVE
– STARWEAVE
– ACES scan pattern
+ ACES scan pattern
MASK PROJECTION
+ Layer at a Time Solidification (Mask)

Mask is then placed under an

ultraviolet lamp

A glass mask is generated

Laser then shines through mask, solidifying the
entire layer in one “shot.” More rapid layer
formation, and thorough solidification.
+ Layer at a Time Solidification (DMD)
+ Photosolidification Layer at a Time
1. Cross section shape is “printed” onto a glass mask
2. Glass mask is positioned above photopolymer tank
3. Another rigid glass plate constrains liquid photopolymer from above
4. UV lamp shines through mask onto photopolymer- light only can pass
through clear part, polymer solidifies there, polymer in masked areas
remains liquid
5. Due to contact with glass plate, the cross linking capabilities of the
photopolymer are preserved- bonds better w/ next layer
6. New coat of photopolymer is applied
7. New mask is generated and positioned, and process repeats
8. 12-15 minute postcure is required

Note:
1. Much less warpage than SLA, but still uses photopolymers which are
toxic.
+ Exposure consideration
GENERAL CONSIDERATION
+ Cost
• Cost of materials:
– 200€ per liter
– A cube 20*20*20 cm3 approx 8 liters
• Post processing Requirements:
– Careful practices are required to work with the
resins.
– Frameworks must be removed from the finished
part.
– Alcohol baths then Ultraviolet ovens are used to
clean and cure the parts.
+ Pros

• Probably the most accurate functional prototyping

on the market.
– Layer thickness (from 20 to 150 μm)
– Minimum feature size 80 to 300 μm
– Smooth surface finish, high dimensional tolerance, and
finely detailed features (thin-walls, sharp corners, etc…)
• Large build volume
– Up to 50 x 50 x 60 cm3 (approx)

• Used in: Investment Casting, Wind Tunnels, and

Injection Molding as tooling
• Resins can be custom engineered to meet different
needs: higher-temps, speed, finish…
+ Cons
• Requires post-curing.
• Long-term curing can lead to warping.
• Parts are quite brittle and have a tacky surface.
• Support structures are typically required.
– Supports must be removed by hand
• Uncured material is toxic.
• Little material choice
• Costs
– Material
– trained operator
– Lab environment necessary (gasses!)
– Laser lasts 2000hrs, costs $20’000!
• Slow process
+ Link utili
• http://www.acucast.com/rapid_prototyping.htm
• http://www.milparts.net/sla.html
• http://www.protocam.com/html/materials-sla.html
• http://www.3dsystems.com
• http://www.dsm.com/products/somos/en_US/offer
ings/offerings-somos-proto-gen.html#
“Layerless 3D printing”

CARBON 3D
+ Carbon 3D
+ Carbon 3D
+ Carbon 3D
TWO PHOTON STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
+ Two photon stereolithography
+ Two photon stereolithography
+ Two photon stereolithography
SOLID GROUND CURING
+ Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
• Solid Ground Curing (SGC), is somewhat
similar to stereolithography (SLA)
• both use ultraviolet light to selectively
harden photosensitive polymers.
• SGC cures an entire layer at a time and use
another material as support
+ Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
1. Photosensitive resin is sprayed on the build platform.
2. The machine develops a photomask (like a stencil) of the layer
to be built.
3. This photomask is printed on a glass plate above the build
platform using an electrostatic process similar to that found in
photocopiers.
4. The mask is then exposed to UV light, which only passes
through the transparent portions of the mask to selectively
harden the shape of the current layer.
5. After the layer is cured, the machine vacuums up the excess
liquid resin and sprays wax in its place to support the model
during the build.
6. The top surface is milled flat, and then the process repeats to
build the next layer.
7. When the part is complete, it must be de-waxed by immersing it
in a solvent bath.
+ Solid Ground Curing
+ Solid Ground Curing
+ Solid Ground Curing
+ Solid Ground Curing
+ Solid Ground Curing

Shine UV Lamp Generate glass mask

through mask to
solidify photopolymer

Remove excess polymer, Coat with

and fill gaps with liquid wax. photopolymer
Chill to solidify wax.

Mill wax &

workpiece
+ SGC: pros and cons

• High capital and operational cost

• Large heavy equipment
• Good dimensional accuaracy
• Much less warpage than SLA
EXERCISES
+ Esercizi
D: Sulla base della seguente tabella, stimare la tecnologia più conveniente
per realizzare 50 dadi da gioco
*incluso costo operatore e tempo utilizzo macchina,
**incluso il costo della progettazione dell’oggetto, e della generazione di
eventuali file CAM; escluso costo acquisto macchina

Tecnologia Costo materiale Costo per pezzo Costo attrezzatura

(€/cm^3) (€)* (€)**
Fresatura CNC 0.1 15 40
SLA 1 10 10
FDM 0.1 5 5
SLS 2 15 20
Injection 0.01 0.05 15000
molding
 I seguenti screenshot si riferiscono alla fabbricazione di un cubo di 5 cm di lato in
+ ABS utilizzando la tecnologia FDM. L’estrusore ha un diametro di 0.4 mm.

Parametro Valore
Platform adhesion type (Brim) SI No
Layer thickness (mm)
Shell thickness (mm)
Fill density (%) 20% 5 70%
0
%
Top/bottom thickness (mm)
Print speed (mm/s)
Printing temperature (°C)
Filament diameter (mm)