Lecture №6. Networks and telecommunications.

Plan:
1.End devices, data transfer devices, transmission medium. Types of networks. 2.Stack
protocols: TCP/IP, OSI. IP addressing. Local and wide area networks.Wire and wireless network
technologies.
3. DHCP protocol. Technologies of connection to the Internet.
4.Telecommunication technologies.

Aim of the lecture: to develop a solid grasp of network by introducing the basic concepts.
Having studied this session, you will be able to get an idea about:

Describe what a computer network is

Define the basic terminology: Nodes, Clients, Servers, and Hub with their roles in a
computer network
Classify the networks according to the scale
Describe what LAN, MAN, and WAN are
Classify the networks according to the topology
Identify the basic hardware used in networking computers
Describe what Internet, Intranet, and Extranet

1.End devices, data transfer devices, transmission medium. Types of networks.

What is a Computer Network? Two or more independent computers connected together
through a communication media form a computer network. The computers are connected in
a network to exchange information and data. The computers connected in a network can also
use resources of other computers such as software packages and peripherals like modems,
printers, backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. Networks are built with a mix of computer
hardware and computer software. Further, you do not need the same software package
installed on your machine, if your network has that software installed on one of the
machines on the network. In this sense, computer networks are clear means for sharing
resources. This makes the use of computer technology cost effective. Following Figure 9
shows a typical network with four computers.

Figure 9: Typical computer network

Basic hardware and terminology in networks

If you explore more on computer networks, you will come across with a huge list of
terminology associated with networks. Let us look at the basic terminology used in the subject of
computer networks in brief. It is worth to note here that all networks are made up of basic
hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes.
Node. Any device attached to the network capable of communicating with other network
devices is called a Node. A node can be a computer or some other device, such as a printer.
Every node has a unique network address, sometimes called a Data Link Control (DLC) address
or Media Access Control (MAC) address.
 Client. A device or application that uses the services provided by a server is called a Client
in the network. A client may be a PC or a workstation on a network using services provided from
the network file server, or it may be that part of an application program that runs on the
workstation supported by additional software running on the server. One of the most familiar
clients is the Web browser.
Server. Any computer that makes access to files, printing, communications, and other
services available to users of the network is called a Server in the network. In large networks, a
dedicated server runs a special network operating system; in smaller installations, a non-
dedicated server may run a personal computer operating system with peer-to-peer networking
software running on top.
A server typically has a more advanced processor, more memory, a larger cache, and more
disk storage than a single-user workstation. A server may also have several processors rather
than just one and may be dedicated to a specific support function such as printing, e-mail, or
communications. Many servers also have large power supplies, UPS (uninterruptible power
supply) support, and fault-tolerant features, such as RAID technology. On the Internet, a server
responds to requests from a client, usually a Web browser.

Following Figure 10 shows the client and server in a network.

Figure 10: Client and Server

Hub. A device used to extend a network so that additional workstations can be attached. In
some star networks, a hub is the central controlling device. Hubs typically provide from 4 to 24
connections, allowing anything from 2 to 24 devices to communicate with one another.
Following Figure 11 shows the use of a hub in a Star network (You will learn what a star
network is in the latter part of this session) while the Figure shows an enlarged view of an 8-port
hub.

Figure 11: Hub in a Star network Figure 12: 8-port Hub

IP Address.An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification (logical

address) that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet
Protocol for communication between its nodes. Although IP addresses are stored as binary
numbers, they are often displayed in more human-readable notations, such as 192.168.100.1(for
IPv4). The role of the IP address has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we
seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power
level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without
degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable which
runs longer than 100 meters.
Bridges.A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer
2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn
which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and
an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all
ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.
Routers. A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using
information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best next router for each
packet. Routers work at the Network Layer of the OSI model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP.

2.Stack protocols: TCP/IP, OSI. IP addressing. Local and wide area networks.Wire
and wireless network technologies.

Classifications of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be classified by considering following different aspects as the basis.

- The scale
- The connection method
- The functional relationship (Network Architectures)
- The network topology

The given below classifies the computer networks according to the above different basis.

The basis Different categories

Scale
Personal Area Network (PAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN).
Connection
method Optical fiber
Ethernet
Wireless LAN
Home PNA

Functional Active Networking

Relationship
(Architecture) Client-server networking
Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architectures
 Network
topology Bus network topology
(Arrangement
of
components) Star network topology
Ring network topology
Mesh network topology
Tree or Hierarchical topology

Table 5: Classifications of Computer Networks

Classification of computer networks by scale

According to the Table 5 above, the networks can be classified into six classes abbreviated
as PAN, LAN, MAN and GAN.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network that will be useful in communicating
computerizes devices such as telephones and PDAs. Mostly, the PAN is communicated through
wireless network technologies such as Wireless USB, Bluetooth, Z-Wave, and IrDA. You may
use PANs to communicate among the personal devices or you may connect even to higher level
networks or to the internet.

Figure 11: Personal Area Network

Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small geographic area, like a
home, office, or group of buildings. Ex: a school (See Figure 11 below). The defining
characteristics of LANs, in contrast to Wide Area Networks (WANs), include their much higher
data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication
lines. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of
computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and
media has resulted in worldwide propagation of LANs throughout business and educational
organizations. The Figure 12 below shows a LAN consisting of six computers/work stations.
 Figure 12: Local Area Network (LAN) Figure 13: LAN in a School

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network is defined as a group of computers and network devices connected
across large physical areas such as states or countries. Computers connected to a Wide Area
Network are often connected through the telephone system. They can also be connected through
leased lines or satellites. One may define a WAN as a collection of several LANs as depicted in
Figure 14 below.

The largest WAN in existence is the Internet. (You will learn about Internet in a coming
section).

Figure 14: Wide Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is a network that interconnect users with computer resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by a local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered
by wide area network (WAN). Further a MAN is a network that connects two or more Local
Area Networks or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries
of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan area. See Figures 15,16 below for a typical set up of
a MAN.

Figure 15: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Figure 16: LAN, MAN, and WAN

 Classifications of networks based on the topology

Network Topology is the schematic description how the arrangement of the network is
including the nodes, connecting lines, and other devices. As per the above Table 5, the main
network topologies are listed below.
- Bus
- Star
- Ring
- Mesh
- Tree/Hierarchical
Deep discussions on the topologies are beyond the level of this course unit. However, brief
descriptions on each topology and images of them are given below.
Bus Topology
Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common
backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone, functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device
wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto
the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.

Figure 17: Bus topology

Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection
point called a "hub node" that may be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically
connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in
any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire
LAN. (If the hub fails, however the entire network also fails.)
Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise").
A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
 Figure 18: Star topology

Figure 19: Ring topology

To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology.
Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel
in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As
shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect
only indirectly to others.

Figure 20: Mesh topology

Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form,
only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the root of a tree of
devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better
than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star
(limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

Figure 21: Tree topology

The Internet
As you are already aware, the Internet is the largest WAN in existence (See Figure 21
below). It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range
of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World
Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.
With the dramatic rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a
communications highway for millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted to military
and academic institutions, but now it is a full-fledged conduit for any and all forms of
information and commerce. Internet websites now provide personal, educational, political and
economic resources to every corner of the planet.

Figure 21: Internet: the largest WAN in existence

The Intranet and Extranet

The Intranet. You are already aware what the Internet is. Accordingly, the internet which is
a worldwide system can be accessed by any person or by any organization. Since it is a vast
public communication tool, some organizations were willing to maintain their own local network
which supports their employees or the members. The Intranets were developed as a solution to
the above requirement. However, the intranet also has almost all the services provided by the
Internet, but it is a private system. The access of an intranet is restricted to the authorized
members or people within the organization such that the authorized members need to log on with
a secure password.
More comprehensively, intranets are private networks based on Internet Technologies that
are located behind an organization‟s firewall. A Firewall is a set of technologies designed to
protect a private network from users on a public network. Some intranets provide access to the
Internet through a special server called a Proxy Server, designed to cache (to store for quick re-
use) frequently requested information to keep that information readily available. This type of
proxy server also provides tools for tracking and controlling access to networks.
An intranet can cover a LAN where only staff in the same building or region can use it. Or it
can run over a WAN where staff (authorized people) from around the world can log in.
What Intranets do
Intranets usually start by publishing web pages about the organization‟s events, health and
safety policies, and staff newsletters. Popular applications follow, such as forms to reclaim
expenses or request holidays. All these help eliminate paperwork and speed up workflows of the
organization.
 As more features are added, this intranet can become essential to the operation of an
organization. It becomes a portal that provides access to all the things workers need.
A typical intranet may provide the services such as E-mail, File transfer, Real time chat, web
pages, video and audio streaming services. Each service requires at least one server to provide
the service. For example, the intranet of the Open University of Sri Lanka maintains two main
servers; a web server for the OUSL web site and a Moodle server for the service of delivery of
on-line courses.
Advantages of an Intranet
 Commercial or confidential data is kept secured within the organization.
 E-mails remain private and may also be encrypted.
 High bandwidth. No connection limits unlike the Internet
 Reliable. The organization will have dedicated IT personnel to keep things running
smoothly.
 Information specificity tailored to the organization or staff‟s needs can be published.
The Extranet
We can consider an Extranet as an extension to the Intranets what we described above.
Because, the extranets are again private networks that contains information related to the
company and accessible only for the members of the company BUT allowed for outside
individuals as well who have obtained the authority to access. Therefore, an extranet is partially
accessible to authorized outsiders.
An extranet can be configured (set up) either using a direct leased line linking all intranets or
by using a secured separate link created across the participants as a VPN (Virtual Private
Network). The latter method is more cost effective than the firs method.
Advantages of Extranets
- A cost effective method to share and trade information and all other data effectively at
any time to the authorized people (internal and external) such as the customers, partners,
investors, suppliers who are included within the built up extranet.

- A platform for companies to conduct business-to-business deals. Can assist in

strengthening relationships between two or more organizations.

- Useful when the staff of the company works outside the office, from their homes, or sales
sites so that they can still be in with the company network with the access permission.

4.DHCP protocol. Technologies of connection to the Internet.

Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP is a protocol used to assign an IP
address to a computer or device that has been connected to a network automatically. Routers,
switches, or servers that use DHCP to assign addresses to other computers can make setup and
management easier for the network administrator.
On a home network, DHCP can be setup by purchasing a home router, wireless router, or
switch with NAT/DHCP and connecting each computer to it. If the network has a firewall, ports
67 and 68 need to be open for devices to function properly.
Configuring a DHCP Server
To configure a DHCP server, you must create the dhcpd.conf configuration file in the
/etc/ directory. A sample file can be found at /usr/share/doc/dhcp-
<version>/dhcpd.conf.sample.
DHCP also uses the file /var/lib/dhcpd/dhcpd.leases to store the client lease
database. Refer to Section 20.2.2, “Lease Database” for more information.
 Configuration File
The first step in configuring a DHCP server is to create the configuration file that stores the
network information for the clients.Use this file to declare options and global options for client
systems.
The configuration file can contain extra tabs or blank lines for easier formatting. Keywords
are case-insensitive and lines beginning with a hash mark (#) are considered comments.
Two DNS update schemes are currently implemented — the ad-hoc DNS update mode and
the interim DHCP-DNS interaction draft update mode. If and when these two are accepted as
part of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standards process, there will be a third mode
— the standard DNS update method. You must configure the DNS server for compatibility with
these schemes. Version 3.0b2pl11 and previous versions used the ad-hoc mode; however, it has
been deprecated. To keep the same behavior, add the following line to the top of the
configuration file:
ddns-update-style ad-hoc;
To use the recommended mode, add the following line to the top of the configuration file:
ddns-update-style interim;
Refer to the dhcpd.conf man page for details about the different modes.
There are two types of statements in the configuration file:
● Parameters — State how to perform a task, whether to perform a task, or what network
configuration options to send to the client.
● Declarations — Describe the topology of the network, describe the clients, provide
addresses for the clients, or apply a group of parameters to a group of declarations.
The parameters that start with the keyword option are reffered to as options. These options
control DHCP options; whereas, parameters configure values that are not optional or control how
the DHCP server behaves.
Parameters (including options) declared before a section enclosed in curly brackets ({ }) are
considered global parameters. Global parameters apply to all the sections below it.
Important
If the configuration file is changed, the changes do not take effect until the DHCP daemon is
restarted with the command service dhcpd restart.
Tip
Instead of changing a DHCP configuration file and restarting the service each time, using
the omshell command provides an interactive way to connect to, query, and change the
configuration of a DHCP server. By using omshell, all changes can be made while the server
is running. For more information on omshell, refer to the omshell man page.
Additionally, a subnet can be declared, a subnet declaration must be included for every
subnet in the network. If it is not, the DHCP server fails to start.
In this example, there are global options for every DHCP client in the subnet and a range
declared. Clients are assigned an IP address within the range.
Lease Database
On the DHCP server, the file /var/lib/dhcpd/dhcpd.leases stores the DHCP
client lease database. Do not change this file. DHCP lease information for each recently assigned
IP address is automatically stored in the lease database. The information includes the length of
the lease, to whom the IP address has been assigned, the start and end dates for the lease, and the
MAC address of the network interface card that was used to retrieve the lease.
All times in the lease database are in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), not local time.
The lease database is recreated from time to time so that it is not too large. First, all known
leases are saved in a temporary lease database. The dhcpd.leases file is renamed
dhcpd.leases~ and the temporary lease database is written to dhcpd.leases.
 The DHCP daemon could be killed or the system could crash after the lease database has
been renamed to the backup file but before the new file has been written. If this happens, the
dhcpd.leases file does not exist, but it is required to start the service. Do not create a new
lease file. If you do, all old leases are lost which causes many problems. The correct solution is
to rename the dhcpd.leases~ backup file to dhcpd.leases and then start the daemon.
Starting and Stopping the Server
Important
When the DHCP server is started for the first time, it fails unless the dhcpd.leases file
exists. Use the command touch /var/lib/dhcpd/dhcpd.leases to create the file if it
does not exist.
If the same server is also running BIND as a DNS server, this step is not necessary, as
starting the named service automatically checks for a dhcpd.leases file.
To start the DHCP service, use the command /sbin/service dhcpd start. To stop
the DHCP server, use the command /sbin/service dhcpd stop.
If more than one network interface is attached to the system, but the DHCP server should
only be started on one of the interfaces, configure the DHCP server to start only on that device.
In /etc/sysconfig/dhcpd, add the name of the interface to the list of DHCPDARGS:
# Command line options here
DHCPDARGS=eth0
This is useful for a firewall machine with two network cards. One network card can be
configured as a DHCP client to retrieve an IP address to the Internet. The other network card can
be used as a DHCP server for the internal network behind the firewall. Specifying only the
network card connected to the internal network makes the system more secure because users can
not connect to the daemon via the Internet.
Other command line options that can be specified in /etc/sysconfig/dhcpd include:
● -p <portnum> — Specifies the UDP port number on which dhcpd should listen. The
default is port 67. The DHCP server transmits responses to the DHCP clients at a port number
one greater than the UDP port specified. For example, if the default port 67 is used, the server
listens on port 67 for requests and responses to the client on port 68. If a port is specified here
and the DHCP relay agent is used, the same port on which the DHCP relay agent should listen
must be specified.
● -f — Runs the daemon as a foreground process. This is mostly used for debugging.
● -d — Logs the DHCP server daemon to the standard error descriptor. This is mostly
used for debugging. If this is not specified, the log is written to /var/log/messages.
● -cf <filename> — Specifies the location of the configuration file. The default
location is /etc/dhcpd.conf.
● -lf <filename> — Specifies the location of the lease database file. If a lease
database file already exists, it is very important that the same file be used every time the DHCP
server is started. It is strongly recommended that this option only be used for debugging
purposes on non-production machines. The default location is
/var/lib/dhcpd/dhcpd.leases.
● -q — Do not print the entire copyright message when starting the daemon.

4.Telecommunication technologies.
Some of the factors that determine teleworking are: quality of IT infrastructure, good
computer literacy, type of work that can be done from any place with a computer equipped with
necessary programs, employees with a professional attitude towards work, organization of work
adapted to this operation mode, etc.
Some advantages of teleworking:
● reduced utility costs and employees transportation reimbursement
● reduced time for traveling to and from work
● adapting working conditions to personal habits-flexibility
● possibility of working in the convenience of a person’s home (or other places that are not
an office),
● lower stress level, provided there is a good organization and coordination , i.e. the flow of
information between employees is unconstrained
● an excellent solution for people with disabilities or longterm illness, parents, or those who
enjoy traveling

Some disadvantages of teleworking:

● physical isolation - lack of direct social contact with colleagues
● not suitable for everyone - requires a certain dose of self-control and motivation
● less opportunity for advancement due to lack of traditional vertical hierarchy in the
company, however horizontal hierarchy is created, where no one is above anyone, but everyone
has their own duties and obligations
● less emphasis on teamwork in the traditional sense, since tasks are done independently,
physically isolated from others. It requires a heightened focus, due to lack of physical contact
among team members, and emphasizes teamwork in terms of communication, information
exchange. Each team member depends on others to perform their tasks. For example, a
programmer from Australia works in a team with developers from Croatia, Ireland and America,
on a software development for a company from Asia. In most cases a coordinator travels and
his/her function is coordination among the parent company, client and programmers.
Coordinators, whether by visit or otherwise, have client's demands, organizes teams of
programmers, distributes tasks and reports to company headquarters. Each programmer is
assigned his own programming task and they are all responsible for the program's functionality
overall. They must coordinate in order to achieve full program functionality.
It is evident that they can work in a team, regardless of the place of work, provided that they
have excellent communication and exchange of information, good organization and professional
attitude towards work.

Questions:
1. Why do we need to connect computers?
2. What is a computer network?
3. Briefly describe the following network components.
4. a. Client b. Server c. Hub d. Router

5. What are the differences between a Hub and a Switch?

6. What is the use of a MODEM?
7. Briefly describe the following categories of networks.
8. a. PAN b. LAN c. WAN d. MAN
9. Briefly explain the classifications of networks according to the topology.
10. What is meant by Internet and Intranet? Why it is important to use intranet than
internet?
11. What is the most suitable connection method for the following;
a. Computers within a laboratory.
b. Connect two computer laboratories.
 12. List the advantages of having an Extranet for a company.

References
1. June J. Parsons and Dan Oja, New Perspectives on Computer Concepts 16th Edition -
Comprehensive, Thomson Course Technology, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc Cambridge,
MA, COPYRIGHT © 2014.
2. Lorenzo Cantoni (University of Lugano, Switzerland) James A. Danowski (University of
Illinois at Chicago, IL, USA) Communication and Technology, 576 pages.
3. Craig Van Slyke Information Communication Technologies: Concepts, Methodologies,
Tools, and Applications (6 Volumes). ISBN13: 9781599049496, 2008, Pages: 4288
4. Utelbaeva A.K.,Utelbaeva A.K. Study guide for lectures on discipline “Computer
science”, Shimkent 2008, 84 pages.