EXPT. No.

: FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

DATE:

AIM: To determine the approximate focal length of a convex lens by plotting u-v graph.

MATERIALSREQUIRED: Convex lens, screen, light source, metre scale and stand.

FORMULA: From graph f = OB /2 or f= OC /2

PROCEDURE:

Determine approximately the focal length of the convex lens, which is the distance between
the lens and screen by focussing a distant object. Focus a distant object on the screen using
the convex lens so that a sharp, clear image is obtained.

Now keep the given lens at various distances from the light source and adjust the screen till
the image is the sharpest and the best.

Note down the different values of the object distance and the corresponding image
distance in a tabular column. Plot u-v graph, Taking u along x axis and v along y axis with
same scale for x, y axis. Draw a line making angle 45 degree with X-Axis. The point A where
the bisecting line meets the rectangular hyperbola has co-ordinates (2f, 2f). Half the value of
either co-ordinate will give the value of f. AB= AC = 2f. Or OB=OC= 2f . Hence f=OB/2

RESULT: Focal length of the convex lens By (u-v) graph method is found to be ----- cm

PRECAUTIONS:

The lens should be free from spherical aberration.

The lens should also be free from chromatic aberration.

The surface of the lens should be dry and free from moisture.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

The lens may have aberration.

The lens may have moisture

LHS : FIG, MODEL GRAPH, OBSERVATION, TABULATION and calculation

EXPT. No.: FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX MIRROR

DATE:

AIM: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Convex mirror, convex lens, screen, a light source and two lens
holders of same height.

FORMULA:

R = LS- LM

𝑅
𝑓=
2

LS- Lens screen distance cm, LM – Lens mirror distance cm , R- radius of curvature of the
convex mirror cm“,f” is the focal length of convex mirror cm

PROCEDURE:

Determine the approximate focal length of the convex lens by distant object method. Place
the lens in front of the light source at an object distance less than 2f (say1.5f) and adjust the
screen for a sharp inverted and enlarged image. Note the image distance as LS . Place the
convex mirror between the lens and the screen. Then adjust the convex mirror such that a
real and inverted image of the object is formed at the object itself. Here the light rays falling
on the mirror retrace their path. Measure the distance between lens and mirror as LM.

LS – LM gives the radius of curvature of the convex mirror from which focal length is
determined.Experiment is repeated for different object distances (all object distances are
less than 2f)

RESULT:The focal length of convex mirror=

PRECAUTIONS: The convex mirror should have a small aperture so as to be free from
aberration.

Record” LS” and “LM” only after setting the screen for a clear image.

SOURCES OF ERRORS: Mirror may have aberration

Not setting the screen for a clear image.

LHS: FIG, observation, tabulation, calculation
EXPT. No Angle of minimum deviation of a GLASS PRISM

DATE:

AIM: To find the angle minimum deviation of a prism by plotting the graph between “i” and
d.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Paper, board pins, bell pins prism, protractor, and scale.

Theory : As i increases d decreases initially and attains a minimum value D m after which, d
increases with further increase in i.

PROCEDURE:

A sheet of paper is fixed on a drawing board. The given prism’s outline is drawn on the
paper. A normal N1 is drawn on the side AB. An angle of incidence say 40 0 is chosen and the
incident ray PQ is drawn such that it makes angle 400 with the normal.

Pins are placed on this line such that the distance between the pins is atleast 4 cm. The
image is seen through the other refracting side AC of the prism.

Two more pins are fixed with a minimum gap of 4cm between them , such that these pins
appear to be in the same straight line with the images of the previously fixed pins .The pins
and the prism are removed and the points are joined to get the emergent ray. A normal N 2
is drawn on the side AC at the point where the emergent ray meets AC.

The incident ray and the emergent ray are extended and the angle between them is the
angle of deviation d. The experiment is repeated for various angles of incidence i and d is
noted for each angle of incidence. i -d Graph is plotted .It will be parabolic.

RESULT:

The angle of minimum deviation of prism is found to be ------

PRECAUTIONS:

1) While fixing the position of the pins there should not be parallax error.

2) Surface of the prism should be dry and free from moisture.

3) The angle of incidence must be greater than 35 0 and not more than 600

Sources Of Errors : 1) The pins may be fixed very close to each other.

2) Measurement of angles may be wrong.

LHS FIG,model graph ,observation and tabulation
EXPT NO: METRE BRIDGE

DATE:

AIM: To determine value of unknown resistance using a metre bridge

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Metre Bridge, battery eliminator, unknown resistance, resistance

box, galvanometer, key, connecting wire, high resistance and jockey.

FORMULA : X = rl /(100-l); where x = unknown resistance Ω

r = known resistance Ω, l – balancing length from end A cm

PROCEDURE:

 The connections are made as shown in figure.

 The battery is connected between the two terminals A and B and a galvanometer
between C and a jockey. A key is included in the circuit so that the current may be
passed when required.
 Unknown resistance X is connected in the left gap G1 and a suitable known
resistance r from a resistance box is introduced in the right gap G2. The
galvanometer is connected to a high resistance to avoid excessive deflection in it,
when the bridge is out of balance.
 By adjusting the dial of the resistance box, r is adjusted such that on pressing the
jockey on the bridge wire, galvanometer shows no deflection.
 When the null point has been almost obtained the shunt is removed.
 Balancing length is noted from end A of the wire.
 Repeat the observations by changing the value of r in the resistance box connected in
the gap G2 and record them. The unknown resistance is calculated using the formula
Result:
 The value of unknown resistance is found to be ---------

PRECAUTIONS:

 The metre bridge wire should have a uniform area of cross section.
 The current through the circuit should not produce heating effect which will cause
variation in the resistivity of the wire.
 There should not be any zero error in the galvanometer.
 The cell used in the circuit should have negligible internal resistance.
 Plug key must be open ,when not in use, to avoid the wire getting heated up.
 SOURCES OF ERROR : Galvanometer may have zero error.
 The cell used in the circuit might have high internal resistance .
 The balancing length may not be between 45cm - 55 cm.
LHS: circuit diagram, observation , tabulation and calculation
Circuit diagram same as metre bridge series but show one resistance in gap G1 and
name it as X

Observation: Emf of battery = -------V

Length of unknown resistance coil = ------ cm
Tabulation :
EXPT NO: METRE BRIDGE - Series

DATE:

AIM: To verify the law of resistance in series using a metre bridge.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Two resistances of different values, key, battery, connecting wire.

FORMULA:

 Series combination (Theoretical) X (series) = X1 + X2.

 Experimental X = r l/(100-l)
r—known resistance Ω,
l balancing length from end A cm,
X1, X2 two unknown resistances Ω

PROCEDURE: Make the connections as shown in figure. Connect the battery between two
terminals A and Band a galvanometer between C and jockey. Include only one unknown
resistance X1. Calculate the value of I and (100-I) by varying the resistance of resistance box.

 Now remove the unknown resistance X1 and connect the resistance X2. Make
connections as shown in figure. Calculate the value of l and (100-l) varying the
resistance in the resistance box.
 Now connect both X1 and X2 in series as shown in figure. Measure the effective
resistance by taking about three readings.

Result :Value of unknown resistance X1 = -----Ω

 Value of unknown resistance X2= -------Ω

 Value of resistance X (series) Theoretical = ------Ω
 Value of resistance X series experimental = ------Ω
 The experimentally calculated value of resistance in series is equal to the theoretical
value . Thus the law of series combination of resistance is verified.

PRECAUTIONS: The metre bridge wire should have a uniform area of cross section.

 The current through the circuit should not produce heating effect which will cause
variation in the resistivity of the wire.
 There should not be any zero error in the galvanometer.
 The cell used in the circuit should have negligible internal resistance.
 Plug key must be open ,when not in use, to avoid the wire getting heated up.
 SOURCES OF ERROR : Galvanometer may have zero error.
 The cell used in the circuit might have high internal resistance .
 The balancing length may not be between 45cm - 55 cm.
LHS: Circuit diagram, observation, tabulation, calculation
EXPT NO:DATE:

RESISTANCE OF A GALVANOMETER AND ITS FIGUREOF MERIT BY HALF DEFLECTION

METHOD

AIM: To calculate the resistance of a given galvanometer and its figure of merit by half
deflection method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A battery, galvanometer, single key-2 nos, four- dial resistance box-
2 nos, connecting wires.

FORMULA:

 Resistance of the galvanometer: - G=R2Ω.

𝐸
 Figure of merit of the galvanometer: - K= (𝑅1+𝐺)𝜃 amp/div.
E- Emf of the battery V,
R1 ,R2 Resistance in the 1st and 2nd resistance boxes Ω.
Theta – deflection pointed by the galvanometer div.

PROCEDURE:

 Connections are done as shown in the figure.

 Dial out a value R1 so that the galvanometer shows full deflection of 30 division.( The
single key K2 should be in its off state now).
 Include the key K2. The reading of the galvanometer shows zero. Dial out a suitable
value in R2 until 15 divisions are obtained on the galvanometer (half the value of the
original deflection).
 Repeat the experiment by using different values of R1 for which ϴ is 28 div, 26 div etc
and in each case record R2. Tabulate the observations as given.
 Calculate the resistance of the galvanometer in each case and the figure of merit of
the galvanometer.

RESULT:

 The resistance of the galvanometer is found to be ------ Ω

 The figure of merit of the galvanometer is found to be ------ A/div
Precautions : 1)All connections should be neat ,clean and tight.
2) Initailly a high resistance from the resistance box must be introduced so as to safe
guard galvanometer.
Sources of errors: 1) Screw of the instruments may be loose
2) Galvanometer divisions may not be of same size.
LHS: circuit diagram , observation, tabulation and calculation
Expt No: Date :
Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter
LHS: circuit diagram, observation. Tabulation, calculation
Expt No : Date : Travelling Microscope
LHS : fig, observation, tabulation, calculation :
ACTIVITY: ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT- TO LOCATE THE COMPONENTS CONNECTED WRONGLY

DATE:

AIM: To locate the components in the electrical circuit that are connected wrongly.

PROCEDURE:

Observe the given circuit. From the circuit, the components connected wrongly are
identified. The defective parts of the circuit are circled and the components are
reconnected, ensuring a current flow in the circuit across the resistor. After eliminating the
discrepancies a correct circuit diagram is drawn.

RESULT: The errors in the given circuit were identified and corrected.

The following errors were identified:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

LHS (Note fig 2 is corrected diagram)

ACTIVITY:DATE:

COMBINATION OF LENSES

AIM:To find the focal length of the combination of lens in contact and to select a specified
combination.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A set of convex lenses, lens stands, screen, a metre scale.

PROCEDURE:

I .Combination of two convex lens.

 The convex lens of focal length “f1” is loaded on lens stand and by distant object
method; a clear image is obtained on the screen. The distance between the lens and
screen gives the focal length “f1”.
 Observation is repeated for the second and third lens .
 The first two convex lenses are kept in contact, such that the most converging faces
the object and the observed focal length is noted
 the focal length of the combination is calculated using the
𝑓1𝑓2
formula 𝑓 = 𝑓1+𝑓2.
 The same is repeated for the second and third lens and finally for the first and third
combination.
 The suitable combination of required focal length is selected.

OBSERVATION:

COMBINATION OF CONVERGING LENSES :

 f1 = cm f2. = cm
𝑓1𝑓2
 Resultant focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓1+𝑓2 :

Focal length (by observation) =

RESULT:The focal lengths of the combination of the given sets of lenses are studied. The
required combination’s focal length is found to be
ACTIVITY: DATE:

EFFECT OF LIGHT ON LDR

AIM: To study the variation of resistance with intensity of light falling on it.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Light source, LDR, metre scale, galvanometer, D.C. source,
resistance box.

THEORY:

An LDR is Light Dependent Resistor. When an LDR is connected in a circuit resistance will
vary according to the intensity of the incident light falling on it normally. The illuminance of
the incident light is,

E= I/r2

PROCEDURE:

 Connections are made as shown in figure.

 Inserting the key closes the circuit. Dial a suitable resistance in the resistance box so
that the deflection in the galvanometer is 20 divisions.
 Place the light source at a distance of 10 cm from the LDR. The galvanometer shows
deflection. Note it down.
 Repeat the experiment for different values of the distance as 20 cm, 30 cm, 40 cm,
etc and note down the deflection of the galvanometer in each case.
 Plot the graph between galvanometer reading and r2. It is a rectangular hyperbola .

RESULT:As the distance of the light source is increased from LDR, intensity of luminescence
decreases.

As intensity of luminescence decreases, the resistance of LDR is increased.

Therefore, current output in the circuit is decreased.

SOURCES OF ERROR AND PRECAUTIONS:

The battery should have low resistance.

There should be no error in the galvanometer.

 HOUSE HOLD CIRCUIT
ACTIVITY:DATE:

AIM:To assemble a household circuit comprising of four bulbs, switch, a fuse a power
source.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:Four bulbs, switches, a fuse wire, two pin plugs, flexible red and
black PVC connecting wires, main switch.
THEORY:
Household circuit functions on main supply of 220 volts, frequency of 50 Hz and current
rating of 5A of domestic supply. In house- hold circuits all the appliances are connected in
parallel with a switch in series with each appliance in supply line. For further safety a
suitable value of main fuse is connected in series with A.C. main.
PROCEDURE:
Connect the end of bulb holder to red flexible wire through a switch in series and connect
the other end of the bulb holder with a black flexible wire.
Connect four bulbs and switch combination in parallel and red wire ends at one point and
black wire ends at the other.
Take two long PVC wires to as lead wires. Connect red wire end to lead wire l 1. It serves as
a live wire.
Connect the black wire end to the black wire lead l2. It will serve as neutral lead.
Connect fuse wire to lead l1. Connect two pin plug “P”, in two pin circuit.
Check the circuit and ensure the circuit is complete after testing.
Turn the switches on and off one by one.
OBSERVATION:
The bulb glows when switch is on and goes off when switch is switched off.
PRECAUTION:
The safety fuse should be suitably selected.

ADVANTAGES OF PARALLEL COMBINATION:-

a) Each appliance can function individually.

b) Each appliance can draw current depending on the load as p.d. is constant.

c) If one appliance stops working the others are unaffected.

DISADVANTAGES OF SERIES COMBINATION:-

a)The current decreases in the circuit as load increases.

b) If one appliance stops working the others cannot be used.

 c) P.d. is different for each appliance.

Activity : Assembling the components of a given circuit

Date ;
Activity N0 : Date: MULTIMETER
LHS FIG AND TABULATION