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 Contents vii

5.4 Functionalization of p-type silicon semiconductor

substrates ....................................................................................127
5.5 Novel applications in micro/nanoelectromechanical
technology ..................................................................................130
5.6 Concluding remarks and future prospects .................................135
References.................................................................................. 136
CHAPTER 6 Application of nanomaterials in textile coatings
and finishes............................................................... 139
Patricia I. Dolez
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................139
6.2 Improving chemical/biological properties .................................142
6.3 Improving physicochemical properties......................................146
6.4 Improving thermal properties.....................................................149
6.5 Improving mechanical properties ..............................................151
6.6 Improving optical properties......................................................154
6.7 Improving electrical properties ..................................................156
6.8 Future trends...............................................................................158
6.9 Conclusions ................................................................................160
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 161
References.................................................................................. 161
CHAPTER 7 Structural, mechanical, and tribological
characteristics of diamond-like carbon
coatings..................................................................... 171
Abdul Wasy Zia, Zhifeng Zhou and Lawrence
Kwok-Yan Li
7.1 Diamond-like carbon coatings ...................................................171
7.2 Doped diamond-like carbon nanocomposite coatings...............172
7.3 Preparation of Cr-doped diamond-like carbon
nanocomposite coatings .............................................................174
7.4 Structural properties of Cr-doped diamond-like carbon
nanocomposite coatings .............................................................174
7.4.1 Elemental composition studies ....................................... 174
7.4.2 Atomic structure analysis................................................ 175
7.4.3 Coating thickness and residual stress measurement ..........180
7.5 Mechanical properties of Cr-doped diamond-like carbon
nanocomposite coatings .............................................................182
7.6 Tribological performance of Cr-doped diamond-like
carbon nanocomposite coatings .................................................185
7.7 Concluding remarks ...................................................................187
References.................................................................................. 189
viii Contents

CHAPTER 8 Anticorrosion and antiwear ...................................... 195

Pradip Kar
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................195
8.2 Requirement for anticorrosion and antiwear coatings...............196
8.3 Analysis of performances of coatings .......................................199
8.3.1 For anticorrosion ............................................................. 200
8.3.2 For antiwear .................................................................... 201
8.4 Coating methods.........................................................................201
8.4.1 For anticorrosion applications ........................................ 202
8.4.2 Coating methods for antiwear applications .................... 203
8.5 Working mechanism ..................................................................206
8.5.1 Anticorrosion mechanism ............................................... 207
8.5.2 Antiwear mechanisms ..................................................... 210
8.6 Coatings for anticorrosion applications .....................................212
8.6.1 Epoxy-based coatings ..................................................... 213
8.6.2 Polyurethane-based coatings........................................... 218
8.6.3 Polyacrylic-based coatings.............................................. 219
8.6.4 Polyvinyl alcohol
based coatings ................................. 221
8.6.5 Others .............................................................................. 222
8.7 Coatings for antiwear applications ............................................225
8.8 Concluding remarks ...................................................................226
References.................................................................................. 228
CHAPTER 9 Hard and superhard nanostructured and
nanocomposite coatings........................................... 237
Alexander D. Pogrebnjak
9.1 Classification of hard materials .................................................238
9.1.1 Nanocomposite coatings with improved hardness ......... 240
9.1.2 Phase composition and thermal properties of
nanocomposite coatings .................................................. 241
9.2 Methods of deposition of hard and superhard coatings ............244
9.2.1 Deposition of nanocomposite coatings based on
Zr, Ti, Hf, V, and Nb metals .......................................... 244
9.2.2 Methods of deposition of high-entropy alloys ............... 244
9.2.3 Growth and characterization of nitride coating
based on high-entropy alloys .......................................... 246
9.3 Binary, triple, and ternary hard and superhard coatings
and their general properties........................................................248
9.3.1 Effect of thermal annealing in vacuum and in
air on nanograin sizes in hard and superhard
coatings Zr
Ti
Si
N ................................................... 248
 Contents ix

9.3.2 General trends and differences of nanocomposite

coatings based on Zr, Ti, Hf, V, Nb metals and
their combinations........................................................... 256
9.3.3 Structural and physical properties of nanostructured
Ti
Hf
N(Fe) coatings................................................... 264
9.3.4 Hard nanocomposite Ti
Si
N/(Cr3C2)75
(NiCr)25
base coatings ................................................................... 266
9.3.5 General characteristics and properties of nanostructured
Ti
N
Cr/Ni
Cr
B
Si
Fe-based coatings.................... 268
9.3.6 Hard nanocomposite coatings with enhanced
toughness ......................................................................... 278
9.3.7 Trends of further development of hard
nanocomposite coatings .................................................. 281
9.4 Hard coatings based on nitrides of high-entropy alloys............282
9.4.1 Structure and properties of nanostructured nitride
coatings based on Ti
Hf
Zr
V
Nb alloys ................ 282
9.4.2 Formation of biphase state in nitride coatings
based on Ti
Al
Zr
Nb
Y alloys fabricated
by vacuum-arc evaporation............................................. 303
9.4.3 Influence of gas pressure on the formation of
the two-phase superhard nanocomposite
nitride coatings based on Ti
Zr
Nb
Al
Y
Cr
alloys ............................................................................... 306
9.5 Functionally graded coatings based on
high-entropy alloys.....................................................................310
9.5.1 Mechanisms of hardening of high-entropy alloys
and coatings on their basis.............................................. 310
9.5.2 Literature review of high-entropy alloys and
coatings............................................................................ 311
9.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................325
References.................................................................................. 326
Further reading .......................................................................... 337

CHAPTER 10 Radically curable nano-based coatings .................. 339

Phuong Nguyen Tri and Thien Vuong Nguyen
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................339
10.2 Ultraviolet-curable resin.............................................................341
10.2.1 Photoinitiated radical curable resins............................. 341
10.2.2 Photoinitiated cationic polymerization
resin system................................................................... 348
10.2.3 Some typical photoinitiated cationic curable resin
systems .......................................................................... 352
x Contents

10.3 Factors effecting to the photopolymerization............................354

10.3.1 The nature and concentration of monomers and
oligomers ....................................................................... 354
10.3.2 Nature and concentration of photoinitiators................. 355
10.3.3 Effect of oxygen............................................................ 356
10.3.4 Effect of light intensity and coating thickness............. 357
10.4 Preparative methods of ultraviolet-curable coatings .................357
10.5 Morphology and properties of nano-based
ultraviolet-curable coating .........................................................358
10.5.1 Morphology ................................................................... 358
10.5.2 Properties....................................................................... 358
10.5.3 Effect of nanofillers on the mechanical
properties of coatings.................................................... 360
10.5.4 Self-cleaning activity of nano-based
ultraviolet-curable coating ............................................ 361
10.5.5 Antibacterial activity of nano-based
ultraviolet-curable coating ............................................ 362
10.6 Application of nano-based ultraviolet-cured coatings...............363
10.7 Conclusion and remarks.............................................................365
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 366
References.................................................................................. 366
CHAPTER 11 Unveiling nanoconducting polymers and
composites for corrosion protection........................ 373
Neha Kanwar Rawat and Sharif Ahmad
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................373
11.1.1 Significance................................................................... 374
11.1.2 Doping and charge transport......................................... 375
11.2 Applications................................................................................377
11.3 Corrosion protection by conducting polymers and their
nanocomposites ..........................................................................377
11.3.1 Mechanism of corrosion protection.............................. 378
11.4 Synthesis of frequently used conducting polymers in
anticorrosion protection..............................................................381
11.4.1 Synthesis of polyaniline and their derivatives ............. 381
11.4.2 Synthesis of polypyrrole and their derivatives............. 386
11.4.3 Synthesis of PTh and their derivatives......................... 388
11.5 Conducting polymer
based protective coatings.......................389
11.5.1 Conducting polymer
based composites and
nanocomposites ............................................................. 390
11.5.2 Nanostructured conducting polymers ........................... 391
 Contents xi

11.6 Future challenges and perspectives............................................392

Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 393
References.................................................................................. 393
CHAPTER 12 Nanostructured superhydrophobic coatings
for solar panel applications ..................................... 397
Abhilasha Mishra, Neha Bhatt and A.K. Bajpai
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................397
12.2 Techniques used for superhydrophobic and antireflective
coatings.......................................................................................404
12.2.1 Chemical vapor deposition ........................................... 404
12.2.2 Physical vapor deposition ............................................. 405
12.2.3 Sol
gel method ............................................................ 406
12.3 Characterization of surfaces.......................................................413
12.3.1 Wettability..................................................................... 413
12.3.2 Surface texture, composition, and morphology ........... 415
12.3.3 Optical properties.......................................................... 417
12.3.4 Hardness and scratch-resistant test ............................... 417
12.3.5 Thermal analysis ........................................................... 417
12.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................418
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 418
References.................................................................................. 418
CHAPTER 13 Smart anticorrosive coatings containing corrosion
inhibitor
loaded halloysite nanotubes ................... 425
Khairina Azmi Zahidah, Saeid Kakooei,
Mokhtar Che Ismail, Hamed Mohebbi, Ali Hassani
Joshaghani, Mostafa Ghasemi and Kee Kok Eng
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................425
13.2 Loading process of inhibitors into nanocontainers....................426
13.3 Coating preparation and corrosion test......................................429
13.3.1 Coating preparation....................................................... 429
13.3.2 Electrochemical testing................................................. 429
13.3.3 Immersion test............................................................... 437
13.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................444
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 444
References.................................................................................. 444

Index ......................................................................................................................449
This page intentionally left blank
List of Contributors
Sharif Ahmad
Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India
Sh. Ammar
Department of Physics, Center for Ionics University of Malaya, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
A.K. Bajpai
Bose Memorial Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Government
Autonomous Science College, Jabalpur, India
Neha Bhatt
Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun,
India
M. Federica De Riccardis
ENEA-Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable
Economic Development, Brindisi Research Centre, Italy
Patricia I. Dolez
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Kee Kok Eng
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre for
Corrosion Research, Petronas University of Technology, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
Mostafa Ghasemi
Deparment of Petroleum Engineering, Petronas University of Technology, Seri
Iskandar, Malaysia
Mokhtar Che Ismail
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre for
Corrosion Research, Petronas University of Technology, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
Ali Hassani Joshaghani
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran
Saeid Kakooei
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre for
Corrosion Research, Petronas University of Technology, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
Pradip Kar
Department of Chemistry, Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi, India
Xuan Tuan Le
MiQro Innovation Collaborative Centre (C2MI), Bromont, QC, Canada; Teledyne
Dalsa, Bromont, QC, Canada

xiii
xiv List of Contributors

Lawrence Kwok-Yan Li
Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong
Kong SAR
Mohammad Nadeem Lone
Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Central University of
Kashmir, Ganderbal, India
Abhilasha Mishra
Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun,
India
Hamed Mohebbi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre for
Corrosion Research, Petronas University of Technology, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
Thien Vuong Nguyen
Institute for Tropical Technology, VAST, Hanoi, Vietnam; Faculty of Materials
Science and Energy, Graduate University of Science and Technology, VAST,
Hanoi, Vietnam
Tuan Anh Nguyen
Institute for Tropical Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
Phuong Nguyen Tri
Department of Chemistry, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada;
Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam
Claudiane M. Ouellet Plamondon
Department of Construction Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure,
University of Québec, Montréal, QC, Canada
Alexander D. Pogrebnjak
Department of Nanoelectronics, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine; Center
of Advanced Development “Veritas”, D. Serikbayev East Kazakhstan State
Technical University, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Republic of Kazakhstan
K. Ramesh
Department of Physics, Center for Ionics University of Malaya, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
S. Ramesh
Department of Physics, Center for Ionics University of Malaya, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Neha Kanwar Rawat
Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India; Department of Chemistry, Haryana Education Services,
Faridabad, Haryana, India
 List of Contributors xv

Marilena Re
ENEA-Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable
Economic Development, Brindisi Research Centre, Italy
Sami Rtimi
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
Irshad A. Wani
Department of Chemistry, Government Degree College, Anantnag, Jammu and
Kashmir, India
I.A. Wonnie Ma
Department of Physics, Center for Ionics University of Malaya, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Khairina Azmi Zahidah
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre for
Corrosion Research, Petronas University of Technology, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia
Gul Zeb
MiQro Innovation Collaborative Centre (C2MI), Bromont, QC, Canada
Zhifeng Zhou
Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong
Kong SAR
Abdul Wasy Zia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong
Kong SAR
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER

Nanomaterials-based
coatings: an introduction

Phuong Nguyen Tri1,2, Tuan Anh Nguyen3, Sami Rtimi4 and

1
Claudiane M. Ouellet Plamondon5
1
Department of Chemistry, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada 2Institute of Research
and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam 3Institute for Tropical Technology,
Hanoi, Vietnam 4Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
5
Department of Construction Engineering, E´cole de Technologie Supe´rieure, University of
Que´bec, Montre´al, QC, Canada

CHAPTER OUTLINE
References ................................................................................................................. 3
Further Reading .......................................................................................................... 7

The incorporation of nanostructured materials in the coatings enhances product

properties such as abrasion, chemical and corrosion resistance, antireflection,
wear resistance, flame retardants, permeability, electrical properties, mechanical
properties, and also surface properties. For example, carbides, nitrides, borides,
and oxides of transition metals of group III and IV elements were commonly
incorporated in a thermoset resin to prepare hard and superhard coating by using
plasma-assisted techniques. The addition of layered structure material, such as
nanoclay and double layered oxides, helps increasing the gas permeability of the
coating, while the thermal resistance can be improved by using carbonaceous
materials such as black carbon, nanotube, carbon fiber, or graphene-based materi-
als. Some photocatalytic additives such as TiO2 and ZnO were added in the for-
mulation of coating to improve its photocatalytic behavior [1]. The surface
treatment can lead to superhydrophobic coating for various applications. These
coatings contained water-repellent agents based on silane or perfluorinated com-
pounds [2]. Some metal nanoparticles such as silver oxide were added in the
coating to improve its antibacterial activity. In the case of anticorrosives and
self-healing coatings a specific type of nanofiller is often incorporated in their for-
mulation, denoted as nanocontainer. Nanocontainer is of a nanosized volume
and contains the active substances (inhibitor-loaded nanocontainer and healing
agent
loaded nanocontainer). As designed, the nanocontainer could prevent the
direct contact between these active agents and coating matrix. As the nanofillers,
nanocontainers were well dispersed in the coating matrix; then they can release
Nanomaterials-based Coatings. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815884-5.00001-6
© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 Nanomaterials-based coatings: an introduction

these healing agents under critical conditions, such as mechanical rapture, chang-
ing pH, and light change [3]. Nanocontainers included the halloysite clay nano-
tubes [4
6], zirconia nanospheres [7], nanosilica [8
10], nanoceria [11,12], and
supramolecular nanocontainers [13,14].
For organic matrix the so-called polymer-based nanocomposite, both thermo-
set, elastomer and thermoplastics are reported for using in the preparation of
nanocomposite coating such as epoxy [15
20], polyurethane [21,22], chitosan
[23,24], polyethylene glycol [25
28], polyvinylidene fluoride [29], polyaniline
[30
32], polypyrrole [33
36], polystyrene [37], polyamic acid and polyimide
[38], rubber-modified polybenzoxazine [39], polymers containing reactive tri-
methoxysilyl [40], pullulan [41], fluoroacrylic polymer [42,43], ethylene tetra-
fluoroethylene [44], poly(N-vinyl carbazole) [45], polycarbonate [46], fluorinated
polysiloxane [47], polyester [48], polyacrylic [49], polyvinyl alcohol [50], polydi-
methylsiloxane [51], polyamide [52], polyacrylate [16], and UV-curable polymers
[53]. For inorganic matrix, metal matrix composites containing a second phase
have been widely investigated [54
57].
Regarding the preparative methods, there are many techniques to accomplish
the atomistic/molecular deposition on a given substrate such as sol
gel, cold
spray, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition processes, solution
dispersion, dip coating, and other less popular methods, including self-assembly
[58], layer-by-layer assembly [59], localized laser heating, solid-state displace-
ment reactions, ball impact deposition [60
62], and atomic layer deposition
[63
65]. The choice of a suitable method depends on end-used applications.
Each method exhibits some advantages and also drawbacks. For example, the
sol
gel method is suitable to obtain high-quality films up to micron thickness
and is a complementary of the physical deposition techniques. This method exhi-
bits several drawbacks involving crackability and thickness limits. Regarding cold
spray method, this technique allows fabrication of coatings at the lower tempera-
tures than melting points of the sprayed materials and thus avoids the deteriora-
tion phenomenon of the materials, such as oxidation and decomposition as well
as a phase transition during the process.
Nanocomposite coatings can be found in various applications, such as anticor-
rosion, antiwear, superhydrophobic applications, self-cleaning, antifouling/anti-
bacterial application, and electronics [65] (Fig. 1.1).
The nanocomposite coating today not only serves as a protection for the mate-
rials but also plays other roles due to the presence of multifunctional nanofillers.
Two most popular examples can be cited: antibacterial coatings and sustainable
energy
based coatings. In the first case the nanofillers-based silver nanoparticles
and their related products are very promising for biological coatings with high
antibacterial activity. In the second case, with the increase of risks and challenges
in traditional energy resources, the research on the sustainable energy conversion
will be expected to explode, in terms of both theory and experiment, and the
nanocomposite coating will not stand out of this trend. A typical example of this
kind of material relates to self-cleaning or “easy-to-clean” coatings on buildings,
protective substrates, and glass, which can help save energy and water in facilities
 References 3

FIGURE 1.1
Schematic illustration of main applications of nanomaterials-based coatings.

cleaning. Insulation of nanocomposite coatings helps to save the energy loss by

saving billions of dollars for maintaining homes in winter, especially in North
America where the winter is cool and long.
This book presents this introduction chapter, followed by two other chapters
on preparative methods and polymer-based coatings. The second part presents the
last promising applications of nanomaterials-based coatings in anticorrosion, anti-
wear, antibacterial, antifungal, self-leaning, superhydrophobic, superhard, super-
heat resistance, solar reflective, photocatalytic, and radar-absorbing coatings.

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[19] P.P. Vijayan, Y.M. Hany El-Gawady, M.A.S.A. Al-Maadeed, Halloysite nanotube as
multifunctional component in epoxy protective coating, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55
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11192.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
rakkaiksi käyneistä uskoista, vaikka parempi tieto niitä jo näyttää
vääriksi. Siitä tuo epäröiminen. Vahva vakaumus uuden
oikeisuudesta voi vasta syntyä, kun sitä on tarkoin selitetty ja usealta
puolen valaistu.

[168] Muutamilla vertauskohdilla koettaa Sokrates selittää, että

valtiomiehen toimi edellyttää useita valmistusasteita ja että —
päinvastoin kuin Athenassa oli tapana — valtiomieheksi aikovaa olisi
tarpeellinen tutkia, saadakseen selville hänen tietonsa, taitonsa ja
edelliset aikaansaannoksensa.

[169] en to pitho tèn kerameian (manthánein): sananlasku

varottaa ryhtymästä suuriin toimiin, ennenkuin pystyy pieniin. Vrt.
Laches 187 A. — Savenvalanto oli Athenassa korkealle kehjennyt,
joten sananlasku sen alalta oli kylläkin likeltä saatavissa.

[170] Selittävien vertausten jälkeen alkaa tästä varsinaisen asian

esitys: valtiomiehen tärkeä tehtävä ja mitä se omaajaltaan vaatii. —
Sokrates tekee monta kysymystä peräkkäin ja pysähtyy jokaisen
jälkeen, odottaen vastausta.

[171] Valtion varoista maksettiin kansalaisille Perikleen

toimeenpanosta misthós stratiotikós (soturin ja tuomarin palkka),
sitten myös m. ekklesiastikós ja theorikós (kansankeräjissä- ja
teaaterissa-kävijän palkka). Niukkaa kitkutusta lie kyllä ollut tuo
elanto valtion kukkaron turvissa, mutta haitallisesti se kuitenkin
vaikutti kansalaisiin: se edisti velttoutta, kun palkkasotureilla päästiin
itse suorittamasta asevelvollisuutta; yhä enemmin ahnasteltiin
varsinkin noita teaaterirahoja, jopa niin, ettei valtiolle enää tahtonut
riittää rahaa sotatarpeihin. — "Plato quum iudicaret eos, qui rebus
civilibus praeessent, neque auram popularem captare neque privatas
utilitates spectare debere, mirum profecto non est, quod tam severe
de Pericle iudicavit. Etenim inde ab eo tempore, quo is rempublicam
administravit, Athenienses valde corruptos esse historia satis
testatur. Nam adeo in segnitiem torporemque soluti sunt, ut nil nisi
dies festos apparatusque ludorum magnificos curarent; tam loquaces
exstiterunt, oste eis ouden heteron eúkairoin hae legein ti kai
akoúein kainóteron. Unde etiam conciones populares magno studio
frequentabant, non tam ut verum audirent, quam ut verborun
suavitate delectarentur. Quid quod a pristina morum simplicitate et
frugalitate adeo desciverunt, ut inter scorta iuvenes, alea viri et
senes comissationibus omnes vitam transigerent." (Stallbaum.)

[172] Athenassa oli eräs kansanvaltaa vihaava puolue, joka ihaili

Lakedaimonia kelpo valtion mallina ja toivoi sieltä valon koittoa
kotimaallensa, Lakonistat eli Lakomaanit. He matkivat ulko-oloissaan
lakonilaista tapain ankaruutta, kasvattivat viiksiä, pitivät lyhyttä
viittaa yllänsä, voimistelivat ankarasti y.m. Karaistakseen itsiään
harjoittelivat he innokkaasti nyrkkitaistelua, taisivatpa toisinaan lyödä
toisiltaan korvatkin säpäleiksi, josta saivat pilkkanimen
"rauskakorvat". Kallikles pistelee Sokratesta, vaikka syyttä, heidän
liittoon kuuluvaksi.

[173] Sokrates puhuu katkeralla ivalla. Jos he todella Perikleen

toimesta olisivat tulleet paremmiksi, olisi kaiketi heidän tuomionsa
täytynyt olla oikea; mutta jos se oli väärä, todistaa se että he P:n
aikana olivat huononneet.

[174] Peloponnesolaissodan toisena vuonna, kun Spartalaiset

hävittivät maata ja rutto teki tuhoja Athenassa, purkautui kansan
kiukku häntä vastaan, niin että hän, jouduttuaan syytöksen alaiseksi,
tuomittiin rahasakkoihin. (Thukyd. II 59, 65.) Platon on tässä
tietävinään, että tuomion syynä oli julkisten varojen kavallus. Ei
kukaan muu tiedä siitä mitään.

[175] Oik. "kesyjä". Ei mikään Hom:n paikka sanone sitä suoraan.

Sinneppäin puhuu kuitenkin Od. VI, 120. IX, 175. Tässä onkin
etupäässä vain käsite dikaioi erotettava agrioi'sta.

[176] Kimon, joka suosi liittoa Spartan kanssa, oli saanut toimeen
avun lähetyksen Spartalle 3:nessa messeniläissodassa. Mutta kun
Spartalaiset pilkaten palauttivat athenalaiset apurinsa Ithomen luota,
sai Kimonin vastustaja Perikles hänet ostrakismilla maasta ajetuksi v.
461. Rangaistuksen oli oikeastaan määrä kestää 10 vuotta, mutta jo
v. 457 kutsuttiin Kimon takaisin saman Perikleen toimesta.

[177] Themistokles lähti v. 471 Argokseen. Mutta kun Spartalaiset

syyttivät häntä osalliseksi Pausaniaan kavallukseen eli persialais-
ystävyydestä, vältti hän tutkinnon pakenemalla Persian kuninkaan
luo. — Parosta vastaan tekemänsä onnistumattoman retken johdosta
joutui Miltiades syytteeseen "kansan pettämisestä" ja tuomittiin
kuolemaan; prytaanin ehdotuksesta kuolontuomio lievitettiin sitte
50:n talentin sakoiksi.

[178] Erotusta hallitsevain ja palvelevain taidetten, oikeain

taidetten ja ammattitaitojen välillä (tékne] on kummankin nimitys),
johon jo kajottiin luvussa XIX seur., selitetään tässä tarkemmin.

[179] Olivat siihen aikaan mainioita herkkusuiden kesken.

Mitkaikos oli kotoisin Siciliasta, jossa keittotaito jo varhain kehittyi
korkealle, varsinkin Syrakusan rikkaassa, hekumallisessa
kaupungissa. Hänen kirjansa nimi oli opsartytiká. Leipurit leipoivat
myös torttuja. Muuten oli nisuleipä juhlaleipää; arkioloissa syöttiin
tavallisesti ohrarievää.
 [180] Kall. närkästyikin todella, kun Sokr. todisti hänen
valtiotaidossa taitamattomaksi. S. ryhtyy nyt näyttämään, että
kansan intohimojen tyydyttäminen ilman siveellistä pohjaa kyllä
saattaa luoda valtiolle ulkonaisen loiston ja valtiomiehille mainetta,
mutta että sen surkastumisen syynä on juuri tuollainen näennäinen
vaurastus.

[181] Sokrateen mielipide, että etevä valtiomies ei koskaan kukistu

asemaltaan ja että valtiomies kukistumallaan todistaa vain omaa
kyvyttömyyttään eikä voi syystä nurkua kansansa kiittämättömyyttä,
tuntuu jyrkkyydessään paradoksilta eikä voi olla muuta kuin osaksi
totta. Onhan monenkin etevän valtiomiehen täytynyt väistyä
näyttämöltä, jolla ei enää suotu hänelle tehtävää.

[182] Kumpikin ottaa tehdäkseen käsittelynsä alaista paremmaksi,

opettaa sille hyvettä: valtiomies lupaa kasvattaa kansaa l. valtiota
kokonaisenaan, sofista yksilöä. Kummankin työ jää menestymättä,
jos heiltä puuttuu kyky. Hyveenopettajan kelvottomuutta todistaa
paraiten hänen oma nurkumisensa oppilaittensa pahuudesta.

[182 b] os alethós demegorein on samalla vastaus Kall:n

moitteeseen alussa lukua XXXVIII: os alethós demegóros on.

[183] Kallikles, samoin kuin ihailtunsa Gorgias, halveksuu sofistoja,

vaikka heidän alansa, retoriikka, onkin miltei samaa "puuta ja
maata" kuin sofistiikka, ja Kall. periaatteiltaan on täysi sofista.

[184] Helleenejä yleensä loukkasi sofistain tapa ottaa palkkaa

opetuksestaan eikä Sokrateskaan voi olla sitä moittimatta. Heidän
mielestään tuo tapa edellytti liian halpaa käsitystä tieteestä ja
hyveestä — ikäänkuin se olisi osto- eli kauppatavaraa.
 [185] Urheilua opetettaissa — pilailee Sokrates — saattaa olla
kohdallaan että palkka maksetaan sikäli kuin oppi saadaan; sillä mitä
ketterämmäksi ja nopeammaksi oppilas harjaantuu, sitä suurempi on
vaara, että oppilas jonakin päivänä juoksee tiehensä jättäen
opettajansa maksamatta; mutta sofistan on laita päinvastoin: mitä
paremmin hän tehtävänsä täyttää, kasvattaen oppilaansa viisaaksi ja
hyväksi, sitä vähemmin on pelkoa siitä, että tämä pettää
opettajansa.

[186] areté politiké, jota sofistat lupasivat opettaaa, käsitti sekä

oman talon että valtion hallitusta.

[187] Ei vielä panna vastakkain noita kahta elämää, valtiollista ja

filosoofista, vaan toistaiseksi kysytään vain, kumpaan valtiolliseen
toimitapaan olisi ryhdyttävä, otaksuen että Kallikles kehottaa
jompaankumpaan. Oikea vastaus kuuluisi: nykyoloissa ei
kumpaankaan, sillä toinen on epäsiveellinen, toinen nykyään
mahdoton. Ainoa keino on koettaa edistää yksityisten parannusta ja
siten vaikuttaa koko valtioon välillisesti.

[188] Mysialaiset olivat kovin halveksitut. Myson esksatos oli

puheenparsi = kaikkein kurjin. Cic. pro Flacco: "quid in graeco
sermone tam tritum atque celebratum est, quam si quis despicatui
ducitur, ut Mysorum ultimus esse dicatur?" Kallikles tarkoittaa siis:
Nimitettäköön sinua vaikka kaikkein kurjimmaksikin, mutta sun tulee
kuitenkin niin toimia, sillä muuten —

[189] Sokrates ennustaa tulevan surullisen kohtalonsa ja

koskettelee siis osaksi samoja asioita kuin "Puolustuspuheessaan"
(kts. K.G. Aminoffin suomennosta Helsing. 1898); eräs kohta tässä
— lääkäri lasten käräjissä keitturin ollessa syyttäjänä mukaileekin
ivallaan Sokrateen oikeusjuttua, etenkin sitä kohtaa siinä, kuin häntä
syytettiin nuorison viettelijäksi.

[190] lógos ja mýthos ovat vastakohtia: edellinen esittää todellisia

tapahtumia, on tosi-tarina; jälkimäinen on satu, joka kertoo kuvaus-
aistin keksimiä seikkoja ja seikkailuksia. Sokrates tahtoo sanoa että
tarinan verhossa tässä esitellään vakava totuus. Tämän tarinan
muoto onkin jalo, kieliasu yksinkertaisen arvokas, melkein
juhlallinen. Puhevaihtelon keveä huolimattomuus on jäänyt pois ja
sijaan tullut juhlallisen tyyni eepillinen esitys.

[191] Kts. II. XV, 187 seurr.

[192] Homeros ei puhu vielä näistä saarista, vaan jumalien

lemmikit siirretään elävinä "Elysion kentälle" onnelliseen elämään.
Vasta Hesiodos tietää "Autuasten saarista", jonne kuoltuaan
pääsevät eräät ihmiset, sankarit ja urhot. Toisten täytyy pahuutensa
palkaksi mennä Hadekseen. Vähitellen kehkiää tämä usko,
Pindaroksen y.m. vaikutuksesta, niin, että kaikki hurskaat kuoltuaan
siirretään Autuasten saarille, samalla kun Tartaros on kaikkien
pahojen säilytyspaikka.

[193] Syy tuomarien erehdykseen on kaksinainen: objektiivinen,

mikäli tuomittava henkilö ei esiinny paljaana, semmoisenaan, ja
subjektiivinen, mikäli tuomarien oma älyämiskyky on vajava.
Kummallakin on haittana ruumiillisuus eli, myytillisesti puhuen, he
ovat verhotut. Verhoon sen laajimmassa merkinnössä kuuluu kaikki
ulkonainen, minkä mukaan ihmistä täällä maan päällä arvostellaan,
kaunis muoto, korkea asema, rikkaus y.m. Mutta aistillisuus on
oikean arvostelun ja totuuden tiedon tiellä. Vasta sen riisuttuaan
ihminen ilmenee tosi-olennossaan, niinkuin toisaalta sielu, vasta
aistillisuuden kahleista kirvoitettuna, puhtaalla ajatuksellaan,
ikäänkuin sisällisellä silmällä, välittömästi näkee totuuden.

[194] Platonin Prometheus, joka sopusoinnussa Jumalan kanssa

toteuttaa kaitselmuksen ikiaatteita, on aivan toisenmoinen kuin
Aiskhyloksen titaani, joka toimittaakseen ihmisille edistyskeinoja ja
tehdäkseen heidän elämänsä iloisemmaksi, uskallaiksen taisteluun
jumaliakin vastaan ja on tajuntaan heränneen, sivistystä kaipaavan
ihmiskunnan edustajana. Attikan kultissa esiintyy Prometheus
Hephaistoksen ja Pallaksen rinnalla ihmiskunnan hyväntekijänä, jona
hänellä on nimi pyrphóros.

[195] Tarkoitetaan Asfodelos-niittyä, josta Homeros puhuu esim.

Od. XI, 539. XXIV, 13. — "Tien-haarasta" vrt. Virg. Aen. VI, 540 seur.
— Minos, Kretan kuningas, oli viisas lainsäätäjä; Rhadamanthys ja
Aiakos olivat viisaita, hurskaita ja oikeamielisiä. Minos sopi Aasian
tuomariksi siitä paikallisesta syystä, että hän kanta-isänsä Phoinikian
valtiaan Agenorin kautta oli Aasiasta kotoisin. Muuten hän sekä
Rhadamanthys mainitaan Europa nymfan pojiksi.

[196] Kokemuksesta ja filosofiasta saatujen täydentäväin

edellysten perästä johdetaan tarinasta päätelmä koskien sielun ja
vainajien olotilaa toisessa elämässä.

[197] ezis käsittää samalla alkunaisen luonnon, luontaisen olennon

(physis) ja sen kehityskohdat l. "kokemat" ilot ja surut, hyvät ja
pahat (= therapeúmata kai pathaemata), on siis: luontaislaatu,
ololaatu.

[198] Ihmisen sieluntila kuoleman jälkeen sukeutuu tulokseksi

hänen kehityksestään maan päällä, jopa tavallaan vastaten ruumiin
kehitystä. Kehitys voi käydä hyvän tai pahan suuntaan, olla
siveellinen tai epäsiveellinen. Kun sielu kehittyy olentonsa
mukaisesti, sukeuu siitä hyveet ja kehitys on siveellinen. Sokrates
esittää tässä kolme eri päämuotoa sielun epäsiveellisestä
ilmimuodosta: 1) Koska siveellisyyden olento on oikeus, ilmenee
etupäässä vääryys, vilppi ynnä sen rumin laji, väärävala, jotka
raastavat sielun haavoja täyteen. 2) Siveellisyyden luontainen kehitys
edellyttää totuuden-rakkautta ja totuuden tietoa; vaan tämän
kehitystä häiritsee valhe, joka vääntää sielun kieroksi, pois
totuudesta vinoon. 3) Voidakseen toimia ulospäin, täytyy sielun
noudattaa määräsuhtaa; jos siltä puuttuu tämä suhtamieli l. kohtuus
(sophrosýne), vaivaa sitä suhdattomuus, kuriton kohtuuttomuus
(akolasia), joka, sen mukaan mikä sillä kulloinkin on esineenä,
ilmenee vallanhimona, hekumana, ylpeytenä, yleensä himojen
irrallisuutena, joka hämmentää sielun eri osain sopusuhdan ja
rumentaa sen muodon.

[199] Niinkuin eivät teot (joita tuomarien ei tarvitse tunteakkaan),

vaan niistä sukeutunut sielun laatu määrää rangaistuksen, niin
tämän päätarkoitus Platonin mukaan ei ole pahain töiden kosto, vaan
rikollisen siveellinen parannus. Pelko pakottaa vakavasti miettimään,
tämä taas panee paremman tiedon sielussa vireille, kun pahan
olento hedelmästään oikein tuntuvasti ilmenee sille. Muutamat sielut
on kuitenkin pahuus jo niin tuiki turmellut — ja sielun olennon
vihollisena sen täytyy sitä turmella, — etteivät ne enää
manalassakaan voi kääntyä totuuden tielle ja parantua. Mutta nekin
varottavalla esimerkillään edistävät toisten parannusta. — Muuten
Platonin oppi manalanrangaistuksesta edellyttää sielunvaellus-oppia,
jota hän muissa teoksissaan esittää.

[200] Kts. Odys. XI, 576-600. Thersiteestä Il. II, 211-277.

 [201] sophrosýne-hyve velvoittaa ihmistä etupäässä huolehtimaan
oman sielunsa pelastusta, kieltämättä silti tekemästä hyvää
toisillekkin. Mutta polypragmonein on päinvastoin levotonta touhua
ja häärinää, joka sopimattomasti sekaantuu toisten tehtäviin ja
oikeuksiin.

[202] Virkasauvaa, julkisen vallan merkkiä, pitivät julistaja, tietäjä,

pappi, kilpataiston-järjestäjä, tuomari y.m.

[203] Od. XI, 569.

[204] agóna käytetty kahdamielisesti, merkiten: 1) kilpataistelua

palkintoineen, jommoiseen koko elämää voi verrata; 2) käräjiä ja
vainajain käräjiä eli viimeistä tuomiota, josta paraikaa on puhe.

[205] Aiakos, Zeus jumalan ja Aigina nymfin poika. — "Seisot

siellä, tyrmistyneenä — —" sanan sanasta, kaksi paraasta saa
Kallikles takaisin soimaukseensa luvussa XLI.

[206] Kaksi eri elinsuuntaa, toinen ulkonäön, toinen tosiolennon

mukainen.

[A] Kun tähän asti on esitetty taiteiden (tieteiden) ja valetaiteiden

(empiiristen taitojen) välisiä suhteita ja päätteeksi niistä yleensä
sanotaan: "Näin ne, kuten olen sanonut (kts. XIX luv. alkupuolta),
eroavat toisistaan j.n.e." niin on muutamia oudoksuttanut käänne:
"mutta kun ne myös ovat liki toisiaan, niin sofista ja pihetaiturit
j.n.e." Sentähden on paikkaa epäilty pilautuneeksi ja koetettu
parannella: sophistai kai rétores omsit apogr. Vindob. 32, delev.
Schleiermacher. dikastai k. rétores olim Ast. (M. Schanz). Mutta
eihän siinä mitään outoa ole, jos taidetten ja harjaantumisten sijaan
asetetaan niiden edustajat, etupäässä tässä sofistat ja reetorit,
koska juuri on erotettava keskenään sofistiikka ja retoriikka, jotta
jälkimäisen käsite täysin selviäisi.

[B] o loste Pole: pieni letkaus Poloksen ja aikaisempain sofistain

näennäiselle tyylille. Vrt P:n tyylikästä lausuntoa II:n luvun lopussa.

[C] Toisen käsityksen mukaan (lukuparsi agathón te einai) kuuluisi

tämä lause: Eiköhän siis sinulle taaskin ilmene, että suuri valta on
siinä, kun jonkun toimiessa mielensä mukaan, siihen liittyy toiminnan
hyödyttäväisyys, ja että tämä on hyvää; ja se se juuri onkin tuo suuri
valta?

[D] P:n ensi lause on ivaa. Toisesta lauseesta puhuu hän jo täyttä
totta.

[E] "Näethän" — kuvaa, millä hartaalla innolla Pol. y.m.

ihmettelivät tai kadehtivat tuota rohkeaa valtiasta. S:n leikillinen
vastaus hieman jähdyttää intoa.

[F] se = todistamistapa l. todistamistavan määrääminen; "kuten jo

sanoin" kts. XXVII:n loppupuolta.

[G] didónai diken merkitsee tosin sananjohdon mukaan

oikeudenmukaista rankaisua, mutta Sokrates nähtävästi ei katso sen
merkityksen enää olevan yleiselle tajunnalle selvän. Siksi hän
nimenomaan huomauttaa, että did. dik.. = kolázesthai dikaios.
Pääpaino on sanalla dikaios. Sitten vasta voi hän rakentaa
johtopäätelmän:

1. to didónai diken esti dikaion,

2. ta dikaia esti kalá:

 3. to didonai diken esti kalón.

[H] "Se on siis ikävintä — —": aniarós ja anía samoin kuin algeinós
ja algedón (tuskallinen, tuska) osottavat lýpen ulkonaista puolta,
rankaisun tuottamaa tuskaa. Kts. myöh. "jota nuhdellaan…" Vrt.
Apolog. 26 A.

[I] Kun Polos oli myöntänyt, että lain ja tavan mukaan pidetään
rumempana ja pahempana tehdä vääryyttä kuin sitä kärsiä, oli Sokr.
— niin Kall. väittää — siitä päättänyt P:n myöntäneen asian niin
olevan luonnon mukaan s.o. itsessään. — Luontainen oikeus on
Kall:n mielestä korkeampi ja alkuperäisempi kuin säädetty laki, jota
vain "heikot ihmiset ja suuri joukko laativat".

[J] Cap. XXIV.

[K] Sanapila: Pyrilampeen pojan nimi Démos merkitsee myös

"kansa".

[L] Tässä viitataan XIX luvussa olevaan perusteluun;

"tuomarintoimia" vastaa siellä käytettyä sanaa "lainkäyttöä".
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