SCIENCE BOOKLET

2024

TEACHER: _____________________________

STUDENT: _____________________________

COURSE: ___________________
Science Program 2024

Unit 0
Scientific activity. Strategies of scientific work. The scientists. Women in science
(ESI).

Unit 1
Living things. Unity and diversity. Living things as open systems. Characteristics of
living things.Biological functions. The cell, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Eukaryotic
animal and plant cell. Multicellular organization. Classification, kingdoms.
Linnaeus.Dichotomous keys.

Unit 2
Nutrition, plants as autotrophic systems. Photosynthesis process. Other autotrophic
organisms. Animals as heterotrophic systems to ingestion. Fungi as heterotrophic
absorption systems.

Unit 3
Ecosystems. Trophic relationships. Food chains and networks. Circulations of matter
and energy.

Unit 4
Nutrition function in the human organism. Integration of involved, linkage with
cellular processes. Physical change in puberty- adolescence. Food, nutrients and a
healthy diet.

Unit 5
The Earth and the Universe. Geocentric and Heliocentric theory. Ptolemy,
Aristarchus, Hypatia, Galileo. Astronomy and astrology. Units. Solar systems scale
models. Movements. Mass and weight, differences.

Unit 6
The materials. matter and properties of materials. General and specific properties.
Boiling point, melting point and density, Archimedes. Aggregation states, corpuscular
model. Physical and chemical change. Mixtures, homogeneous and heterogeneous.
Separation and fractionation methods.

Unit 7
Structure of matter. The atoms and molecules. Democritus. The language of
Science: symbols and chemical formulas. Chemical elements: periodic table.
Mendeleev.Chemical formula. Simple and compound substances.
Unit 8
Hydrosphere. Properties and importance for life. Virtual water, water footprint. Use of
water, pollution.

Unit 9
Energy. Forms and exchanges of energy.Energy characteristics.

Unit 10
Energy exchanges. Temperature and heat. Heat transfer mechanisms. Wave
characteristics. Relationship between frequency, speed and wavelength.

Unit 11
Force and movement. Reference systems. Forces and their effects. Movement,
speed and velocity, acceleration. Friction.
All creatures great and small
The Earth is the only planet we know which is capable of supporting life.

1. How many living creatures can you find?

2. Check your answer in the word snake.

ha n t f lo s s f e r n f ungi
e le p we o
og ra em
fr nt
bu y tre
tte
r f lymon ke

3. Now put them into three different groups. Explain why you chose them.

28
 eyepiece

tube nosepiece

Look at these drops of water from arm

the pond. Can you see anything in
them? Some living things are so
objective
small they cannot be seen with the lenses
naked eye. They can only be seen
through a microscope.

cover slip coarse

focusing
knob

stage

iris fine
4. Match each task, a-f, to its diaphram focusing
corresponding part of the knob
microscope.
a. This magnifies the specimen
b. This increases the amount of light source base
light
c. This is where you put the
specimen Optical microscope
d. This is where you look through
e. This is where you change the
magnification
f. This is used for fine focusing

5. Look at the pond water through the microscope. What a surprise!

Use the code to write the vowels and discover the names of the microorganisms. Code: A__ E__ I__ O__ U__

__ __GL__N__ PR__T__Z__ __ B__CT__R__ __

29
 UNIT

31 Living things
What do you remember?
• Can you name any of these living things?
• Classify them into groups: plants, animals, vertebrates, invertebrates.
• What do all living things do?
• What is the animal kingdom?
• What kingdom do human beings belong to?

Content objectives Key language

In this unit, you will … Expressing facts
Living things feed, reproduce and interact.
• Define the characteristics of living things
• Describe cell structure and cell functions Making impersonal statements
Cells are organised into levels.
• Classify unicellular and multicellular living things
• Classify living things into five kingdoms Expressing purpose
Photosynthesis enables plants to obtain energy.
• Make slides to study cells
Water is used to transport substances.

30
1. What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth in all its Biodiversity varies tremendously throughout the
forms. Biodiversity is the result of a slow process world. It is influenced by climate zones and
called evolution. Evolution began with the first habitats. For example, more than half the world’s
life forms and still continues today. Species change, species live in tropical rain forests and coral reefs.
and adapt to the environment. Some countries have many different climate zones
Scientists believe there may be more than thirty and habitats. As a result, they have more biological
million species. Approximately two million species diversity. For example, Spain has more biological
have been classified. diversity than other European countries.

What factors can reduce biodiversity?

3
Whole species of living things become extinct
every day for these four factors:

Destruction
of habitats
caused by
deforestation,
the construction
of roads, Pollution of water, soil and the atmosphere, caused
dams, etc. by agricultural, industrial and urban development.

2 4
Uncontrolled
hunting and
fishing
endangers
many species: Introduction of
for example the exotic species
Iberian lynx can destroy
(Lynx pardinus) local species.
is in danger of For example,
extinction. the river crab.

Activities
Did you know that...? 1. True or false? Biodiversity refers to all living things.
Rain forests 2. Why does biodiversity vary throughout the world?
have the
3. Match each photo with a factor that reduces
greatest biodiversity.
biodiversity.
a. pollution
b. destruction of habitats
c. uncontrolled hunting
d. introduction of exotic species

31
2. What do all living things have in common?
All living things have a similar chemical
composition.
All living things also carry out three functions:
nutrition, interaction with the environment and
reproduction.
Nutrition refers to all the processes which enable
living things to obtain the energy and matter they
need to live.

Living things can be classified into two groups

depending on how they feed.
• Autotrophs produce the organic substances
which they need from inorganic substances.
They take substances like water, mineral salts
What function is this cheetah carrying out?
and carbon dioxide from the soil and the
atmosphere. To obtain these substances,
autotrophs need energy. They get energy from
sunlight through a process called
photosynthesis. Chlorophyl enables them to do
this. Plants, algae and some bacteria are
autotrophs.
• Heterotrophs feed on organic matter which is
already elaborated: for example, living things or
their remains. Animals, fungi, some bacteria and
all protozoa are heterotrophs.

Interaction with the environment: all the

processes which enable living things to react to
changes in their environment. For example: plants
Why are all the flowers following the Sun? What function are
grow towards the light; animals flee from they carrying out?
predators.

Reproduction: refers to all the processes which Activities

enable living things to create new living things.
There are two basic types: 4. Complete:
• Asexual reproduction involves one living Heterotrophs feed on ... .
thing. For example: a sponge can produce buds Autotrophs obtain ... .
which give rise to new sponges. Sexual reproduction involves ... .
• Sexual reproduction involves living things of Asexual reproduction involves ... .
different sexes. Each one provides a sex cell or
gamete. The two sex cells join to form the first 5. Test your partner. Ask questions:
cell of a new living thing, the zygote. Which processes enable living things to ...
... create new living things?
... adapt to their environment?
... obtain the energy they need?

32
3. What are living things made up of?
All living things are made up of chemical substances. Carbon (C), oxygen (O),
hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) make up about 95 % of all living matter.
Combinations of these elements form molecules of living matter called
biomolecules.
Living things are made up of two kinds of substances: inorganic and organic.

Inorganic substances
Inorganic substances do not contain carbon. They • Water is the most abundant substance in living
are present in living things and non-living things. things. Living things obtain water directly
The principle inorganic substances are: by drinking it, or indirectly from substances
• Mineral salts have various functions: they make that contain water. Plants obtain water
up different structures, like shells, bones and from the environment. Water is necessary for
teeth. They are present in internal fluids, like chemical reactions and to transport all other
tears, sweat and blood. substances.

Organic substances
Organic substances are unique to living things. Carbon is their
principal element. Organic substances present in living things are:

Biomolecules Example Use/Function

Activities
Glucides glucose to provide energy
cellulose to make structures 6. Compare organic and
Lipids fatty acids to provide energy inorganic substances:
cholesterol to make structures
… substances are …;
Proteins haemoglobin to transport oxygen … substances have …
antibodies to fight microorganisms that cause disease
keratin to make structures: hair, nails 7. Ask questions about
Nucleic DNA to control cell function and heredity organic and inorganic
acid RNA substances. For example:

How are (lipids) used by

Organic and inorganic substances are present in different amounts in living things?
plants and animals. They are used to …

Plants Animals 8. Use the pie charts to

water 74 % water 60 %
calculate, in grams, the
approximate value of each
group of biomolecules:
a. Weigh yourself, then
calculate the
biomolecules in your
body.
For example,
glucides
lipids lipids 0.6 % 100 kgs = 60 kg water
0.8 % proteins glucides 20 %
mineral mineral proteins b. a sunflower: 2.250 grams.
3.2 % 19 %
salts 3.2 % salts 3.4 % 16 %

33
4. What are cells?
Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are the structural
and functional units for all living things.
Did you know that...?
• All living things are made up of one or more cells.
• Cells carry out the functions of nutrition, interaction Robert Hooke
with their environment and reproduction. was the first
person to use
• Most cells are very small. For example, skin cells
the term cells.
are approximately one hundredth of a millimetre
In 1665, with this
in size.
microscope, he
• All cells come from other cells. observed cavities
in a thin slice of
cork, and called
What are the two basic types of cells? them cells.

nucleus

cytoplasm
cytoplasm
organelles

organelles
cell
cell membrane
genetic membrane
material

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. They have • Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, separated
no nuclear membrane. Genetic material is from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. They are Algae, protozoa, fungi, animals and plants have
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells. eukaryotic cells.
Bacteria are made up of prokaryotic cells.

How is a cell organised?

Activity
• The cell membrane covers the whole cell.
9. Read the chart, then make sentences
• Cytoplasm is the inside of the cell. It is a jelly-like to describe the cells: Eukaryotic cells are
substance. Many of the chemical reactions of the cell found in animals.
take place here. Organelles are small structures in the
cytoplasm. They are responsible for respiration, making Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
and storing nutrients, etc. cells cells
found in animals bacteria
• Genetic material controls and regulates how cells
work. This DNA contains the hereditary information size big small

that is passed from one cell to the daughter cell. DNA nucleus yes no
makes up the chromosomes. complexity complex simple

34
5. How do animal and plant cells differ?
Both animals and plants have eukaryotic cells, • Plant cells have unique organelles called
but there are some differences. chloroplasts which are responsible for
• Plant cells have a rigid cell wall which photosynthesis.
surrounds the plasmatic membrane. The cell • The nucleus of plant cells is usually found on
wall gives the cell its shape and strengthens it. one side. A vacuole takes up most of the space.
• Plant cells are usually polyhedral, but animal Animal cells also have vacuoles, but they are
cells are various shapes: round, square, star-like. smaller.

Animal cell Plant cell

Cell membrane. Like a
skin around the cell. It
keeps the cell together
and controls what passes
in and out.

Nucleus. Contains
genetic material.

Cytoplasm.
Contains
the organelles:
mitochondria,
vacuoles…

Vacuoles.
Like bags, surrounded
by membranes where
substances, mainly
water, accumulate.

Mitochondria.
Where energy Chloroplasts.
is obtained from These store a green
nutrients. pigment,
chlorophyll,
which absorbs
the Sun’s energy
Cell wall. to elaborate
A thick, rigid wall organic matter
made of cellulose. during photosynthesis.

Activities
10. Make a Venn diagram: show the similarities and differences
between animal and plant cells.
11. Draw and label an animal cell with all its parts.

35
Hands on
Making a hypothesis. Using a microscope to study cells

A hypothesis is a proposal. It is used as a basis Cellulose is a rigid substance that holds the cell
for reasoning. Scientists use experiments and parts together in a polyhedral shape.
observation to test the validity of a hypothesis. Resulting hypothesis: If you observe cells through
Hypotheses show the relationship between two a microscope that are polyhedral in shape and joined
or more facts. For example: we know that cell walls together by thick walls, you know they are plant cells.
in plant cells are made of cellulose.

Making a specimen of plant cells 1

1. Take a moss plant specimen and use tweezers to remove

a phyllode.
2. Place the phyllode on a slide. Add a drop of water.
3. Place the cover slip on the specimen, look through 2 3
the microscope and draw the specimen.
Use different magnifications.
At higher magnifications you may be able
to see and count the chloroplasts. phyllodes

Making a specimen of animal cells

1 2
1. To obtain cells, rub the inside of your cheek gently with
a clean cotton bud.
2. Spread the cells on a slide and add a drop of water.
3. Stain the cells with methyl green or a similar dye.
4. Put the cover slip on, look through the 3

microscope and draw the specimen. 4

Check your hypothesis

Notice that the plant cells have a polyhedral shape.
The animal cells are irregular, and they are not joined together.

Activities
12. Label each plant cell indicating its magnification.
13. Imagine that your hypothesis were incorrect. What result would make this obvious?
14. Imagine you have an unidentified sample. Hypothesis: If this is a living thing, it will be made up of cells.
Is this hypothesis correct? Can you use it to differentiate between living and non-living things?
What would you do to classify the sample as living or non-living?

36
6. How do living things differ?
Living things can be classified into two different
groups: unicellular and multicellular. Activities
• Unicellular living things have only one cell. 15. Describe one of the specialised cells.
They sometimes form colonies. Unicellular living Your partner identifies it. For example:
things feed, interact with the environment and A: It has no nucleus. B: A red blood cell.
reproduce. Example: paramecia. 16. What is the difference between tissues, organs
• Multicellular living things have many different and systems?
cells. Example: plants and animals. Example: ... are made up of...

Multicellular organisation muscle cell

Cells
Cells in multicellular living things are organised
in levels. The cells work together to carry out
the vital functions. Tissue
muscle
• Cells are specialised: they have specific tissue
functions. Each type has a unique shape and
structure.
Organ
• Tissues are groups of cells with the same muscle
function. Example: muscle cells form muscle
tissue.
• Organs are groups of various tissues which act
together. Example: a muscle is an organ made
up of muscle tissue, nerve tissue, connective
tissue and blood tissue. Muscular
system
• Systems are made up of several organs.
Example: the digestive system includes the
stomach, the intestines, etc.
muscular
system

Form and function of cells

Specialised Cells

Sperm cells Red blood cells Neuron or Nerve cells Root hair cells
have a tail (flagellum) consist mainly of are like wires with are long and thin so they can
so they can swim haemoglobin to a lot of extensions absorb water and mineral
toward the ovum transport oxygen so they can conduct salts from the soil
and capture messages

37
7. What are the five kingdoms?
Scientists use criteria for classification to organise living things into groups.
Classification enables them to compare different living things.
Scientist classify all living things into five kingdoms by three main criteria:
type of cells, how the cells are grouped, and nutrition.

Monera Kingdom Protoctist Kingdom Fungi Kingdom

Contains unicellular, prokaryotic Contains unicellular and multicellular Contains unicellular and multicellular
organisms. They may be autotrophic or living things. They are all eukaryotes. living things. They are eukaryotes.
heterotrophic. They have no tissues. They may be They have no tissues. They are
Bacteria and cyanobacteria. autotrophic or heterotrophic. heterotrophic.
Protozoa, algae. Yeasts, moulds, mushrooms.

Plant Kingdom Animal Kingdom

Contains multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues. Contains multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues. They
They are autotrophic. are heterotrophic.
Mosses, ferns, flowering plants. Animals: may be invertebrate or vertebrate.

Activity Kingdom Type of cells Tissues Autotrophic / Heterotrophic

Moneran Prokaryotic
17. Copy and complete the
table to describe Protoctist No tissues
the five kingdoms. Fungi Eukaryotic Heterotrophic
Plant
Animal They have tissues

38
8. How are living things classified?
Living things can
CLASSIFICATION YOU BECAUSE YOU...
be differentiated
by the way they feed,
reproduce, interact Kingdom Animal Are a heterotroph, cells form tissues
with their enviroment,
etc. They are classified Phylum Chordate Have a spinal chord
into different groups.
The main group is the Sub phylum Veterbrate Are a chordate with a backbone
kingdom. Each
kingdom is then Class Mammal Have warm blood; babies drink mother’s milk
divided into
subgroups. Order Primate Your thumbs and fingers work together
This is how you are
classified. Family Hominid Walk upright

Genus Homo Talk, have a long childhood

Species Homo sapiens Are intelligent, have little body hair ...

9. What is a species? Activities

A species is the first level of classification for living things. A species 18. Make a list of animals that
is a set of living things which are physically similar. They reproduce show sexual dimorphism.
and usually have fertile descendants. 19. Describe the differences
between the male and
Animals from the same species have similar appearances. female of some animals.
However, there can be differences in structure, size and colouring
between the male and the female. This difference is called
dimorphism.

female
donkey horse - mare

mule

When a donkey and a mare mate, the

result is a mule. Mules are sterile
because donkeys (Equus asinus), and
The lion and lioness are examples A male peacock uses its colourful tail horses (Equus caballus) belong to
of dimorphism. to attract the female. different species.

39
Activities
20. Study the illustrations. Which represent living 25. Study the cell diagrams. Match each with
things? Which characteristics support your a name and description.
decision?

D A
A B C

F
E
H B

21. Classify these living things as autotrophic or

heterotrophic.
C
A B C

D E F D

22. Copy and complete the chart.

1. They are long and thin in order to absorb water
Biomolecule Function and mineral salts from the soil.
Glucides
2. They are shaped like wires with a lot of
Lipids extensions. They conduct messages around
Proteins the body.

3. They have a tale (flagellum) which enables them

23. Draw an animal cell with the most important to swim towards the ovum.
organelles. What structures would transform it into
a typical plant cell? Draw them. 4. They have no nucleus so they have room to
Include: mitochondria, cytoplasm, cell membrane transport oxygen in the haemoglobin.

– Sperm cell – Neuron

24. Test your classmates. Ask questions about the five
kingdoms. – Red blood cell – Root hair cell

autotrophs / eukaryotes? 26. Complete the table on sexual dimorphism.

Which are made up of no tissues?
kingdoms have unicellular and multicellar Animal Group Male Female
living things? lion mammal long mane no mane

40
What should you know? 3
Common • They are born and they die.
character- • They have a similar chemical composition.
istics • They are made up of cells.
of living • They have three vital functions: nutrition, interaction with
things the environment, and reproduction.

They are made up of two kinds of substances:

• Inorganic substances. Not exclusive to living things: water
Composition and mineral salts.
• Organic substances. Exclusive to living things: glucides,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Cells consist of:

• A plasmatic membrane which surrounds the cell.
• Cytoplasm or internal matter. It contains the organelles
(mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.).
• Genetic material. This controls cell functions.
LIVING THINGS

There are various kinds of cells:

Cells • Prokaryotic. With no nucleus and no nuclear membrane.
• Eukaryotic. With a nucleus and a nuclear membrane.
Animal and plant eukaryotic cells are different.
Living things may be:
• Unicellular. Consisting of one cell.
• Multicellular. Consisting of many cells forming tissues,
organs and systems.

Living things are classified into kingdom, phylum,

subphylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
There are five kingdoms:
• Monera Kingdom: unicellular, prokaryotic living things.
They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Protoctist Kingdom: unicellular and multicellular living
Classification
things. They are eukaryotes and have no tissues. They may
and
be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
biodiversity
• Fungi Kingdom: unicellular and multicellular beings. They
are eukaryotes and have no tissues. They are heterotrophic.
• Plant Kingdom: multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues
and they are autotrophic.
• Animal Kingdom: multicellular eukaryotes. They have
tissues and they are heterotrophic.

Projects
INVESTIGATE: an organisation trying to save the biodiversity of the planet. Give examples of actions taken.

WEB TASK: Learn how you can protect the biodiversity.

41
 UNIT

4 Invertebrates
What do you remember?
• What characteristics make the giant squid an invertebrate?
• Do you know any invertebrates with …
– a soft, porous body?
– an elongated body with rings?
Did you know that...?
The giant squid is the largest
– a soft body covered by a shell?
known invertebrate: 20 m
– an external skeleton? long, 1,000 kg. Its tentacles
are more than 15 m long.
It lives deep in the ocean:
400 to 1,500 m below the surface.

Content objectives Key language

In this unit, you will … Making generalisations
Most sponges live in the sea.
• Recognise the main characteristics of
Some molluscs have no shell.
invertebrates
• Classify invertebrates into groups Making impersonal statements
Their bodies are divided into segments.
• Describe invertebrate life functions
They are made up of one or two valves.
• Make a model of an invertebrate that can float
Expressing contrast
• Differentiate between bilateral and radial
Some are carnivores, but others are herbivores.
symmetry

42
4. What functions do leaves,
UNIT 2
stems and roots have? topside

Plants have three main organs: leaves, stems and roots.

blade

Leaves underside
Photosynthesis takes place in leaves. The leaves take in petiole

and expel gases from the atmosphere. They eliminate

excess water in the form of water vapour. This process is apical stomata
called transpiration. bud

The main part of a leaf is called the blade. A leaf has a

topside and an underside. A petiole joins the leaf to the
leaves
stem. Gases and water vapour enter the leaf and are
expelled through small pores. These pores, stomata, are
found on the underside of the leaf. node

Stems
Plant stems are usually above ground. The stem keeps the
plant upright and supports it. It also carries substances to
other parts of the plant. Some stems, for example, the
potato, accumulate reserves of water and food.
stem
Leaves and branches are joined to the stem at nodes. The main root

part of the stem between the nodes is called the

secundary
internode. Stems grow upwards from the apical bud. roots
Lateral branches grow out of axilliary buds along the
stem.

Roots root
cap
Plant roots have two functions: to fix the plant to the
root
ground, and absorb water and minerals. Some roots, for hairs
example, carrots and beetroots, accumulate food reserves. root
cap
The root surface is covered with many tiny hairs
which absorb the water and minerals. Each root ends
in a root cap.

Did you know that...? Activities

When the Venus Flytrap plant 4. Where do vegetables
detects an insect, its leaves come from? Make a poster
close quickly to trap the insect showing the vegetables you
inside. eat. Classify them as: leaf,
stem, root, rhizome, etc.
5. Draw a plant. Label
the main parts.
Venus flytrap

66
Hands on
Observation and classification of leaves

What is a classification system?

A classification system is an organised way of grouping
objects into similar categories. Scientists use criteria
(rules) to sort the objects into categories. needle shape not needle
Each category in the classification is labelled. An shape
effective system has multiple levels of increasing detail.

Creating a leaf classification system Group A

There are an enormous variety of shapes and sizes
not parallel parallel
of leaves in the plant kingdom. veins
veins
In pairs or groups, use these steps to create your own
classification system.

1. Collect samples. Group B

Collect as many different samples of leaves as

possible. Remember, pine needles are leaves! simple leaves compound leaves

2. Establish criteria for classifying the samples.

a. Separate the leaf samples into two different
groups. You must use discriminating and
objective criteria so everybody will decide the two smooth not smooth opposite alternate
different groups, without personal opinions. edge edge arrangement arrangement
Look at the diagram to help you.
b. Now choose new criteria to separate these
groups into two more groups.
c. Repeat this process again with the new groups,
until all the leaf samples in a particular group
have similar characteristics.

Group C Group D Group E Group F

3. Create a key to explain the classification.

a. Write down your selection criteria. For example: Group A: leaves shaped like needles.
The key can then be used to classify new leaf samples.
b. Test your classification system and key. Ask a classmate to add a new leaf sample to
a group. If this is done correctly, you know your classification works.

Activities A

6. Using your key, classify leaves A and B, into groups.

7. How might you change your criteria for classification B
if you were sorting leaves for a Maths class?

67
 sunlight

7. What is plant nutrition?

Plants are autotrophic: they produce their own food. carbon
They use their leaves, stems and roots to carry dioxide
out these processes:
• Absorption. Plants absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil through their roots. When mineral
salts dissolve in the water, raw sap is produced.
oxygen
• Transportation. The raw sap travels up
the conductor vessels from the roots
to the stem and leaves. elaborated sap
raw sap is distributed
• Transpiration. Excess water is expelled through water travels up
vapour
the stomata as water vapour. As a result, raw sap
goes up into the leaves.
• Photosynthesis. Raw sap is transformed
in the leaves into elaborated sap: a mixture
of water and organic substances. It contains
sugars. Sunlight provides the energy needed
for this process. During photosynthesis,
the plant absorbs carbon dioxide through
its leaves. The leaves then expel oxygen
through the stomata.
Finally, the elaborated sap is distributed throughout Water and mineral salts
the plant cells by the conductor vessels.
• Respiration. Plants breathe. During respiration, plant leaves Activities
take in oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide.
12. Draw a diagram of a plant.
Indicate the phases of
carbon carbon nutrition for each part.
oxygen dioxide oxygen dioxide
13. Observe these drawings.
F F F
in respiration out F respiration a. What does each drawing
in out
represent? Day or night?
b. Do plants breathe and carry
out photosynthesis all day?
Explain your answers.

O2 A

CO2
carbon
dioxide oxygen O2 B
CO2
F
F photosynthesis

Daytime: respiration and photosynthesis Nighttime: plants breathe but do NOT CO2
take place simultaneously. Plants carry out photosynthesis. O2
breathe AND carry out photosynthesis.

70
8. What are fungi like? cap

Fungi generally grow in the soil in dark,

damp places. ring
gills

The main characteristics of all fungi are:

• They can be unicellular or
multicellular. However, multicellular
fungi do not produce different types of
tissues.
• The cells are eukaryotic. They have a
true nucleus and a rigid cell wall. They spores
stalk
are similar to plants, but have no mycellium
cellulose.
• They are heterotrophic: they do not hyphae
produce their own food. There are two
types: saprotrophs and parasites.
– Saprotrophs break down food from
dead, organic materials.
– Parasites feed on other living beings.
They cause diseases in plants and
human beings.
Toadstool
• The body is made up of hyphae which
are microscopic filaments. The hyphae
group together to form the mycelium, Activities
which grows underground.
14. Compare fungi and plants. How are they different?
• Fungi reproduce by spores. When the
How are they the same?
spores are dispersed, they form new
hyphae which grow into new fungi. 15. Talk about fungi:

Which fungi are… …edible? …useful?

Three groups of fungi …parasites? …multi-cellular? …poisonous?

Fungi can be classified into three main 16. Research mushrooms and toadstools. Make a poster.
groups.

Yeasts. Some are parasites. Others are Moulds. Multicellular. Some are parasites. Mushrooms. Multicellular. Some are
useful. Yeast is useful for making bread, Others feed on organic matter and edible. Others are poisonous.
beer, wine. decompose it: bread mould, fruit mould.

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UNIT 3
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UNIT 4
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UNIT 4
1. What is the Universe like?
Scientists developed two different theories to explain what
the Universe was like. Activities
1. Find ten words in the word search.

M P L A N E T S
I G R L A A S A
L U A T S R P T
K N E L T T A E
Y S E N A H C L
W O H B R X E L
• Geocentric theory • Heliocentric theory
In 1542, Nicolas A T M S U N Y I
2nd century BC: Ptolomy Y M O O N L G T
proposed that the Earth was Copernicus proposed
that the Sun was at the K E S W C P A E
the centre of the Universe.
That is, the Sun, Moon and centre of the Universe.
planets orbited the Earth. 2. Imagine an alien friend from
another galaxy wants to write to
In 1610, Galileo Galilei invented the telescope, and proved the you. Write your galactic address.
Heliocentric theory: the planets and stars revolve around the Sun.
What makes up the Universe?
The Universe is all the matter, energy and space that exists.
The Universe is made up of galaxies which contain stars. Stars can have planetary systems
made up of planets and satellites. Galaxies are separated by vast spaces.

Galaxies are a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held together by the
gravitational attraction between the components. They appear in groups called
galaxy clusters. Scientists think the vast spaces between the galaxies are empty.
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to the Local Group galaxy cluster.

Stars form when clouds of gases are pulled together by gravitational forces. They
are so hot inside that they emit heat and light. A galaxy can have up to five hundred
thousand million stars. An enormous cloud of gas and dust, a nebula, surrounds
the stars.

Planets are bodies which orbit some stars. They do not emit light; they receive light
from the star. They make up planetary systems. Our planetary system is the Solar
System. It is made up of eight planets and one star, the Sun, as well as moons,
comets and asteroids. The Solar System is located on a spiral arm of the Milky Way.

Natural satellites orbit some planets. The Earth’s natural satellite is the Moon.

9
2. How big is the Universe?
The Earth seems huge, but, in reality, it is small
compared to the Sun. The Sun is only one Activities
of the millions of stars in the Milky Way. 3. Express the distance of Mercury, Mars and Pluto
To imagine the size of the Universe, from the Sun in kilometres.
use these comparisons with everyday objects.
• Imagine the Sun is the size of a pea.
• The closest star is another pea, five hundred
and forty kilometres away from the first pea.
• The Earth is like a particle of dust situated
Mars Mercury Pluto
two metres away from the first pea.
4. Research the term light-year. Why is it used in
• The Milky Way contains one hundred thousand astronomy?
million peas which form a circle with a radius
of seven million kilometres.

What units of measurement

do astronomers use? Did you know that...?
• Astronomical unit (AU). This is the distance Time to reach
Source of light
the Earth
from the Earth to the Sun. Approximately
150 million kilometres. Compare the distance the Sun 8 mins. 20 sec
of these planets from the Sun: Centauri, the
4 light-years
nearest star
– Mercury: 0.4 AU
Betelgeuse 500 light-years
– Mars: 1.5 AU
– Pluto: 39.4 AU
• Light-year. This is the distance light travels in
one year. Light travels 300,000 km The radius of the Sun is 109 times
greater than the radius of the Earth.
in one second or
9.5 trillion km
in one year.

10
3. What makes up the Solar System?
The Solar System was formed approximately The planets in the Solar System
five thousand million years ago from the gas and
Distance from Period of Period of
dust of a nebula. Planet
Sun (AU) rotation revolution
Our Solar System is made up of the Sun, eight Mercury 0.39 58.65 days 88 days
planets with their satellites, dwarf planets and
Venus 0.72 243 days 224.6 days
small solar system bodies. The Sun is the central
body. Earth 1.00 23 h 56 mins 365.25 days

• The Sun consists mainly of two gases: Mars 1.52 24 h 37 mins 1.88 years
hydrogen and helium. It is the closest star Jupiter 5.20 9 h 55 mins 11.86 years
to Earth.
Saturn 9.54 10 h 40 mins 29.46 years
• Planets are spherical bodies which revolve
around the Sun. They all move in elliptical Uranus 19.19 17 h 14 mins 84.07 years
orbits, held by the gravitational force of the Neptune 30.06 16 h 7 mins 164.82 years
Sun. Planets are much larger than other
celestial bodies which orbit the Sun.
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are made up Activities
mainly of rock. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and 5. Which planet …
Neptune are made up mainly of gases. • takes the longest to orbit the Sun?
• Dwarf planets are spherical bodies which orbit • is the fastest to orbit the sun?
the Sun. They are smaller than planets. • has the longest days?
• Small solar system bodies are other celestial • has the shortest days?
bodies which orbit the Sun. They include 6. Why is a “day” on Venus longer than its “year”?
asteroids, comets and satellites. Satellites
7. What is an orbit?
orbit planets and consist of rock.
8. What do you call the imaginary plane of the
Earth’s orbit?
How do the planets move?
Celestial bodies like the Earth, have two types of movement:
Rotation. Celestial bodies spin or rotate Revolution. Celestial Orbit. A curved path which
on an invisible axis. This invisible line is bodies revolve around a celestial body follows in its
called the rotational axis. other celestial bodies. revolution around another celestial
body. The orbit of the Earth
around the Sun is an ellipse.

ecliptic plane

rotational axis of
the Moon
rotational axis

terre
strial
orbit

lunar orbit

11
 Mercury Venus Earth Mars
Diameter: 4,880 km Diameter: 12,104 km Diameter: 12,740 km Diameter: 6,794 km

4. Which are the inner planets?

The inner planets are the four planets closest to the Sun: Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Mars.

The Earth is the only planet that has life on it. The other In 2004, the robots Spirit and Opportunity landed on
planets are too hot or too cold. Mars. They investigated the possible existence of water.

INNER PLANETS
Did you know that...? Terrestrial or rocky planets: the crust and mantle are
made of rock. The core is metallic
Pluto, Ceres and Eris are Mercury Venus Earth Mars
dwarf planets. Pluto used to Diameter (Earth = 1) 0.382 0.949 1 0.532
be considered a planet. In Diameter (km) 4,880 12,104 12,740 6,794
2006, the International Union Average surface
of Astronomers reclassified it 2180 to 430 ºC 465 ºC 289 to 58 ºC 282 to 0 ºC
temperature (ºC)
as a dwarf planet. Atmosphere none CO2 N2+O2 CO2
Satellites 0 0 1 2
Rings no no no no
the smallest rotates in the only
Interesting very thin
and closest to opposite planet
characteristics atmosphere
Ceres the Sun direction with life

CO2 5 carbon dioxide N2 1 O2 = nitrogen1 oxygen

12
 Jupiter Saturn Uranus
Diameter: 142,984 km Diameter: 120,536 km Diameter: 51,118 km

5. Which are the outer planets?

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the four outer planets.
They are called gas giants because they consist mainly of gases.

Neptune
Diameter: 49,492 km

Saturn’s rings are made up of small particles, mostly ice.

OUTER PLANETS
Activities
Gas giants: they consist mainly of gases
9. Which planet …
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
• has the most satellites?
11.209 9.44 4.007 3.883
142,984 120,536 51,118 49,492
• is closest to the Sun?
• supports life?
2150 ºC 2170 ºC 2200 ºC 2210 ºC
• is the largest in the
H21He H21He H21He H21He Solar System?
63 59 27 13 • spins on its axis in the
yes yes yes yes opposite direction?

largest planet, rotational axis is greatest distance 10. If you live on Venus, will
system of rings
most satellites almost horizontal from the Sun the Sun rise in the East
and set in the West?
H2 5 hydrogen He 5 helium

13
Pluto
Mercury Earth
Mars
comet
Neptune

Saturn
Jupiter Venus

Uranus

Asteroid belt

The Solar System. Observe the elliptic paths of the planets’ orbits around the Sun. Notice that the orbit of Pluto, a dwarf planet,
is more inclined.

6. What are small Solar System bodies?

There are two main types: asteroids and comets. They orbit the Sun.

• Asteroids are rocky objects which are irregular in shape. They can
be several hundred kilometres in diameter, but most are only
a few metres wide. Asteroids orbit around the Sun. Most of them
are between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This area is called
the asteroid belt.

• Comets are small bodies that travel around the Sun in highly
elliptical orbits. They are irregular in shape. The nucleus is made
up of a mass of ice, dust and gas. When comets travel close
to the Sun, some of the ice evaporates, creating the long,
bright tails of the comets.

Activities
11. Compare the main characteristics of the inner and outer planets.
Halley’s comet has a bright tail. It was
12. Describe an inner or outer planet. Your partner will identify it. named after the English scientist
Edmund Halley. He was the first
is smaller / larger than
This inner planet the Earth. scientist to calculate the orbit of this
is the largest / smallest.
This outer planet … satellites. comet. Halley’s comet will next be
has (no)
visible from Earth in 2061.
carbon dioxide.
The atmosphere is made up of helium.
…

14
Activities
15. Label each diagram with the name of … 21. Talk about astronomical distances with a partner.
a. a theory of the universe How far away is … from …?
b. the person who proposed the theory. It is … km / … light-years away.

a b Astronomic distances from the Earth

Object Distance
space station 300 km
weather satellite 36,000 km
the Moon 384,000 km
the Sun 150,000,000 km
Pluto 6,000,000,000 km
Alpha Centauri 4 light-years
16. Make a drawing of the Solar System and label it: the
Sun, the inner planets, the outer planets, Pluto and
the asteroid belt. 22. Research the latest astronomic discoveries. Report
your findings to the class.
17. Make a timetable of your daily activities on these
planets. Give an approximate duration for each. 23. This drawing shows the positions of a comet
• Earth. Rotation: 24 hours in orbit.
• Mercury. Rotation: 58.65 Earth days When a comet gets close to the Sun, why does it
• Jupiter. Rotation: 9.841 Earth hours develop a tail? Why does an asteroid not?

Duration on …
Activities Earth Mercury Jupiter

18. What two types of movement do all planets have?

Describe them.

19. Describe the composition, temperature and

movement of the Sun.

20. Make an illustrated list of the planets. Write them in

order: start with the closest one to the Sun.

a b c 24. Draw a diagram of the Solar System seen from

above. Include the rotation and revolution
movements of each planet.

25. Copy and complete to situate the Moon in the

Universe:
The Moon is a satellite of … which belongs to the
d planetary system called … . The star of this planetary
systems is … . It belongs to a galaxy called … .
e
This galaxy is part of the galaxy cluster called … .
f g h

16
What should you know? 1
• Geocentric theory: the Earth is the centre of the
Universe. The Sun, Moon, stars and planets revolve
Early around the Earth.
concepts • Heliocentric theory: the Sun is the centre of the
Universe. The Earth, planets and stars revolve
around the Sun.

• Galaxies are grouped together in galaxy clusters.

• Galaxies contain thousands of millions of stars.
Components • Stars are massive spherical bodies of gases. Some
stars have planetary systems with planets,
satellites, asteroids and comets.
THE UNIVERSE

• Astronomical unit (AU): the distance between the Earth and the Sun, about
Units of
150 million kilometres.
measurement
• Light-year. The distance that light travels in one year: about 9.5 trillion kilometres.

The Solar System is the planetary system of our Sun.

It consists of:
• The Sun: a medium-sized star in the Milky Way galaxy.
• Planets:
Inner: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
All are rocky.
The Solar
Outer: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. All are gaseous.
System
• Dwarf planets: Pluto, Ceres, Eris
• Natural satellites: celestial bodies which revolve around planets and dwarf planets.
• Small Solar System bodies
Asteroids: small rocky bodies which orbit the Sun. Some form belts. The asteroid
belt: a band of asteroids between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Comets: masses of
ice and rock found beyond the orbit of Pluto.

Projects
INVESTIGATE: Could Mars support life?
First, list the factors that make life possible on Earth.
Then, investigate this website: http//solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars
WEB TASK: Do you want to visit Mercury, Jupiter or Mars?

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1. What is matter?
Everything that takes up space and has mass is matter. Air is matter
Therefore, everything around us is matter.
• General properties. These are the properties common A
to all matter: mass, volume, weight and density.
• Specific properties. These are the characteristics that
differentiate one kind of matter from another. They are
colour, shape, size, texture, hardness, etc. They can be
used to identify and describe matter.

Balance two inflated balloons on a cane. (A) Then,

burst one of the balloons. The balloons are no longer
balanced. (B) This happens because the inflated
The books you read and the pencils you write with are matter. balloon contains air, so it has greater mass than the
The water you drink and the air you breathe are matter. burst balloon. Air has mass and occupies space,
therefore it is matter.

The International System of Measurements

To measure matter, many types of units can be used.
To compare measurements, however, everyone needs to
Did you know that...?
use the same units. In the past, people used their
The most common system is the International hands to measure an object,
System of Units. There are seven base units. All other units or steps to measure the
are a combination of these base units. length of a field.
• Base units are used to measure length, mass, time etc.
These units are the metre, the kilogram and
the second, etc.
Activities
Some base units
1. What are the general properties of all
Length Mass Time Temperature
matter?
Unit metre kilogram second kelvin
2. You can’t see air. Explain why is it
Symbol m kg s K matter.
3. How long is this book? And how
• Derived units are obtained from a combination of the wide? Which unit of measurement
base units. They are used to measure surface area, would you use in the International
volume, speed and density, etc. These units are the System of Units?
square metre, cubic metre, metre per second, etc.

131
2. What is length?
Multiples and submultiples of a metre
Length is the distance between two points.
Unit and symbol Equivalent
Length is a base unit. In the International System of Units,
length is measured in metres. millimetre (mm) 1,000 mm  1 mk
centimetre (cm) 100 cm  1 m

Did you know that...? metre (m) 1m

kilometre (km) 1,000 m  1 km
This bar made of platinum and iridium was used as
the International Prototype to define the metre as
the international unit of length. It is displayed in the
Multiples and submultiples
International Bureau of Weights and of a square metre
Measures, Paris.
Unit name Equivalent
square millimetre
(mm2) 1,000,000 mm2  1m2

3. What is surface area? square centimetre

(cm2) 10,000 cm2  1 m2

square metre (m2) 1m2

Surface area is the space occupied by the length and width of
square kilometre
a body. It is a derived unit from length. 1,000,000 m2  1km2
(km2)
In the International System of Units, surface is measured in
square metres (m2).
F

How is surface area measured?

To calculate the surface area of:

• Regular shaped objects.

height

Use the mathematical

equation corresponding
to the shape.
G

G base F
• Circular objects. Use 
base length  height
Surface area  multiplied by the square
2
of the radius:  r2.

Radius
G F
• Irregular-shaped objects.
Divide the irregular shape into
regular ones, and calculate the
area of each one. Then, add
these areas together to
calculate the total (estimation). Surface area   r 2

132
4. What is volume?
Volume
of the object
The volume of a solid is the amount of space it
occupies. It is a derived unit from length.
Volume is measured in cubic metres (m3).

F
To measure the volume of:

G
• Regular geometric solids. Use the corresponding
mathematical formula. For example, to find the
volume of a box, multiply the base (length x width)
by the height.
• Irregular-shaped solids. Use a measuring cylinder
to measure the volume. Submerge the body in
Measuring the volume of an irregular object
water, then measure the amount of water displaced.
• Liquids. Use a measuring cylinder to measure
the volume.
Initial volume

F
Volume of
• Gases. Fill a measuring cylinder with water. Place it the gas
Final volume

G
upside down in a dish of water. Mark the water level
in the cylinder: initial volume. Blow air through a
tube into the cylinder. The air displaces some water.
Mark the new water level: final volume. The
difference between the two levels is the volume of
gas added to the cylinder.

Capacity Measuring the volume of a gas

The volume of a liquid can be calculated by measuring Multiples and submultiples of a litre
the capacity of its container.
Unit and symbol Equivalence in litres
Capacity is the amount of liquid a container can hold Litre (L) 1L
when it is full. For example, a bowl can hold more
Decilitre (dL) 0.1 L
water than a cup. Capacity is measured in litres (L).
Centilitre (cL) 0.01 L
Millilitre (mL) 0.001 L

Equivalences between volume and capacity

Volume Capacity
1 m3 1,000 L
1 dm3 1L
1 cm3 1 mL
1 mm3 0.001 mL

Activities
4. What is the capacity of a container
with a volume of 3.4 cm3?
5. How many 250 mL bottles do you need
to fill a tank with a capacity of 10 L?
Perfume is sold in small bottles because it is very expensive.

133
5. What is mass?
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. Mass is a base unit. Mass
is measured in kilograms (kg). Scales are used to measure mass.
Multiples and submultiples of a kilogram

Unit and symbol Equivalence in kilograms

ton (t) 1,000 kg
kilogram (kg) 1 kg
gram (g) 1kg  1,000 g
decigram (dg) 1g 10 dg
centigram (cg) 1g  100 cg
milligram (mg) 1 g  1,000 mg

This prototype of the kilogram is in the

International Bureau of Weights and
Measures in Paris. The kilogram is a
unit of mass.

A B C

Traditional scales compare mass with a standard weight. To do this, place the body to be weighed in a
saucer (A). Add weights to the other saucer (B) until they are balanced (C).

Activities
6. A gold chain was weighed using the following weights:
– one 100 g weight – two 1 g weights – one 500 mg weight
Can you calculate the mass of the chain in grams and milligrams?
7. A box of biscuits weighing 1 kg costs 3 €.
A box weighing 250 g costs 1 €.
Read and calculate:
The 1 kg box of biscuits is times bigger than the 250 g box.
How much money do you save if you buy the big box? This electronic scale can measure
mass to one hundredth of a gram.

134
6. What is density?
Density is the relationship between the mass and the volume
of a body, that is, how concentrated the mass is in a specific volume.
Density is measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3.
Iron has a higher density than wood. These two blocks, one of iron,
and one of wood, have the same volume. The block of iron has
more mass, or amount of matter, so it is harder to move. The block
of iron feels heavy for its size.

The mass of one litre of oil is 900 g.

hard to move easy to move

→ → → →

The relationship between mass and volume:

• The greater the mass is, the greater the density.
• The greater the volume is, the smaller the density.
Density is a specific property of matter. It helps differentiate one The mass of one litre of water is 1,000 g.
substance from another.

mass
Density 
volume
Did you know that...?
Oil floats on water because it
Generally speaking, solids have a higher density than liquids. is less dense.
Liquids have a higher density than gases. For example, air weighs For the same
very little because it has little mass: it feels light for its size. volume of oil and
water, water has
more matter than
Activities oil. This is the
property of density.
8. Which of the substances in the table on the right float on water?
Why do the others sink?
Densities of some substances
9. These two bodies have the 10. These two bodies have the
Substance Density (g/cm3)
same mass: the crosses same volume, but different
represent particles of mass. mass. Water 1.0
Which of them has the Which body has the highest Oil 0.9
highest density? Explain. density?
Petrol 0.7

x x
Lead 11.3
x x x x
x
x
x
x
x x x
Iron 7.9
x
A B C D Mercury 13.5

135
7. What are temperature and time?
What is temperature?
Temperature is used to measure the thermal
state of a body. This measurement is related to
the body’s internal state.

Temperature is related to the amount of heat a

body gives off or absorbs. A hot body will
heat a cold one until they are both the
same temperature.

Thermometers are used to measure the

temperature of bodies.
In the International System of Units, the kelvin
(K) is the unit for temperature. Another unit,
degrees Celsius (°C) is used frequently. Some
countries, (especially the United States of
America) use another measurement,
Fahrenheit (ºF). Here are some equivalents:
Penguins are much warmer
Temperature scales kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit than the place they live in.
Their feathers stop them
degree degree
Unit (symbol) kelvin (K) losing heat.
Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F)
Boiling point of water 373.15 100 212
Melting point of ice 273.15 0 32
Absolute zero 0. 273.15 459.67

Temperature does not depend on the

amount of matter. For example, imagine that Did you know that...?
the temperature of the water in a glass is
The following units are also used to measure time:
60 ºC. If you pour half of the water into one
glass and half in another, the temperature in 60 seconds = 1 minute (min)
each one will still be 60 ºC. 1 hour (h) = 60 minutes
1 day (d) = 24 hours
What is time? 7 days = 1 week
Everyone is aware of the passing of time. 365 days = 1 year (366 days in a leap year)
Even without a watch, it is easy to tell when 100 years = 1 century
this class is going to end. The position of the
Moon or the Sun indicates if it will soon be
daytime or nighttime. Activities
Time is used to measure the passing of events. 11. Convert these temperatures into degrees Celsius.
In the International System of Units, time is (ºC +273 = K)
measured in seconds (s). a. 285 K b. 290 K c. 254 K
12. How many things can you list related to measuring
time? Don’t forget “school timetable”.

136
Hands on
Analysing results. Using graphs.
A graph can be used to analyse the data from an Graphs show how one base quantity varies
experiment. A graph also shows the relationship in comparison with another. For example,
between two variables. the temperature of a mass of water will
increase when it is heated.
thermometer To see how the temperature
increases, heat a glass with 500 Time (min) Temperature (°C)
mL of water. Measure the 00 018
temperature every
01 018
2 minutes.
water 03 032
05 046
07 060
09 074
11 088
13 100
15 100

Follow these steps to draw the graph:

100
1. Draw the coordinate axes on squared paper.
– Write the time scale on the horizontal 80
Temperature (°C)

axis (min).
– Write the temperature scale on the 60
vertical axis (ºC).
40
2. Mark the points on the graph. Mark
points on the graph where the time values 20
intersect with the temperature values.

3. Draw a line to join all the points. 0

0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Use a ruler to make the line straight.
Time (min)

Activities
13. Describe the graph. Why do you think the line begins and ends horizontally?
14. Do the same experiment with 300 mL of water.
a. Stir the water so the temperature is the same in all parts of the glass.
b. Measure the temperature of the water every two minutes.
c. Make a table and draw a graph.
d. Compare the two graphs. Are there any differences?
e. Does the amount of water affect the time it takes to heat up?

137
Activities
15. Measure the surface of a piece of paper 24. Look at the picture. Which of the two substances
and give the result using the correct units of is denser? Why?
measurement.

16. Which multiples and submultiples of the metre would

you use to calculate the following measurements?
a. The distance between two towns. B
b. The diameter of the head of a nail. A
c. The length of your pen.
d. The length of the classroom.

17. Research on the Internet different types of calendar.

Which calendar do you use in your country?
25. A 3 L container of olive oil has a mass of 2.7 kg.
18. Copy and complete the following table using the
Calculate the density of olive oil.
formula to calculate density.

Density 26. Oil spills occur when the cargo from an oil tanker
Substance Mass (kg) Volume (m2) pours into the ocean due to an accident, for
(kg/m3)
Cedar wood 57,000 100 570 example, Prestige, in 2002. Taking into account that
Water
the density of oil is less than that of sea water, will
1 1,000
the oil float or sink? What consequences do oil
Lead 22,600 2
spills have on the environment?
Gold 3 19,300
Mercury 54,400 4 27. What base quantities are also general properties
Aluminum 5,400 2 of matter?
96º alcohol 1 800
28. Research the history of the different ways to
measure temperature. Where do the names
19. Give the following measurements in centimetres.
Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin come from?
a. 320 mm b. 3.5 m c. 2 km
29. Copy and complete the table:
20. If you mix water with oil, it separates into two
layers. Which liquid floats on top? Temper- Surface
Length Mass Time Volume
ature area
Remember: the density of water is 1 g/cm3, and the
density of oil is 0.9 g/cm3. Unit
Symbol
21. The density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3. If a nail made of
ºC K
iron has a mass of 20 g, what is its volume?

22. Measure the surface area of a piece of paper. Give

your answer using the International System of Units.

23. A school wants to build a new sports field. It needs

to include:
– a football pitch measuring 100 m x 100 m
– a basketball court measuring 18 m x 15 m
– a tennis court measuring 23.77 m x 8.23 m
How many square metres are needed for the sports field?

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What should you know? 12

Matter is anything that has mass and volume.

The properties of matter are:
• General properties, common to all matter:
Properties
– Mass – Volume
• Specific properties: those which differentiate one
substance from another.

Base quantities are all independent. They are

measured in base units.
• Length is the distance between two points.
The unit for length in the International System
of Units is the metre (m).
• Mass is the amount of matter in a body.
Base The unit for mass in the International System
quantities of Units is the kilogram (kg).
MATTER

• Temperature is the thermal state of a body.

The unit for temperature in the International
System of Units is the kelvin (K).
• Time measures the passing of events.
The unit for time in the International System
of Units is the second (s).

Mathematical combinations of base units are called

derived units.
• Surface area is the extension of a body in two
dimensions. The unit for surface area in the
International System of Units is the square
Derived
metre (m2).
quantities
• Volume is the space occupied by a body.
The unit for volume is the cubic metre (m3).
• Density is the relationship between the mass and
the volume of a body. The unit for density is the
kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3).

Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think up an experiment to prove the hypothesis: A digital watch measures
time more accurately than an hour glass.
Describe: a. The equipment you used. b. Procedures. c. Conclusions.
WEB TASK: How warm is 50 degrees Fahrenheit? How big is a 30 inch TV screen?

139
 UNIT

13
6 Everything is matter
What do you remember?
• What are icebergs and glaciers made of?
• What state of matter is ice?
• Can water exist in more than one state?
• Is sea water made up of one substance or several?
• What is fresh water made of?

Content objectives Key language

In this unit you will … Describing a process
When a liquid is heated, it boils.
• Differentiate changes of state of matter
When a solid is heated, the particles gain energy.
• Recognise the conditions in which changes
occur Making generalisations
Most common substances are mixtures.
• Differentiate pure substances and mixtures Most plastics are made from petroleum.
• Evaluate the need for recycling waste Describing
• Draw conclusions from examining the A pure substance has only one component.
components of a mixture A compound contains two or more elements.

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1. Which are the states of matter?
Matter can exist in three physical states: solid, liquid and gas.
Matter normally exists in one state in nature. However, water can
exist naturally in all three states: ice, water and water vapour.

Solids have a fixed shape Liquids have no fixed shape. Gases have no fixed shape.
if no pressure is exerted. They adapt to a container. They occupy all available space.

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Hold shape Shape of container Shape of container
Volume – Fixed volume – Fixed volume – Volume of container
* except for water – Solids expand – Liquids expand – Gases expand to
if heated, or contract if cooled* if heated or contract if cooled. occupy all available space.

Fluidity – Solids cannot flow. – Can flow. They spread if not – Can flow. They spread if not
in a container. in a container.

Density – Usually have a high density: – Quite high density: – Low density: few particles
many particles a lot of particles in a small in a large volume
in a small volume volume

Compressibility – Difficult to compress – Quite difficult to compress – Easy to compress

The states of matter according

Activities
to particle theory
1. In which of the states of matter are the particles
• Matter is made up of tiny particles. closest together? Why is it very difficult to compress
Between them are empty spaces. solids and liquids?
• The particles within matter are in constant 2. Describe how the particles move in solids, liquids
motion. and gases.
• Temperature affects the speed of particles. 3. Why do solids generally have a higher density than
liquids, and liquids a higher density than gases?
• There are forces which attract the particles.

Solids Liquids Gases

The particles are very The particles are close together, The particles are far apart and
close together, held by held by weak forces move quickly in all
strong forces of of attraction. directions. The
attraction. They have some particles have no
They vibrate freedom of force of attraction.
but do not movement. They collide
change They can flow with each other.
position. and slide easily.

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3. What are mixtures?
Most common substances are mixtures. For example, the
air in the atmosphere is a mixture of various gases.
Mixtures that appear uniform are called homogeneous.
Mixtures where more than one part is distinguishable are
called heterogeneous.
Granite is a heterogeneous mixture. It is
composed of minerals that are clearly
Heterogeneous mixtures distinguishable (each colour is a different
In some mixtures, the components are clearly mineral).
distinguishable. For example, most rocks contain a mixture
of different minerals.

Homogeneous mixtures Steel is a homogeneous mixture.

It is made from iron and carbon.
In homogeneous mixtures, you cannot distinguish each
component with the naked eye. They have a uniform
composition. For example, sea water, air, and vinegar. Activities
6. Copy and complete the chart. Add
What is a solution? more examples.
A solution is any homogeneous mixture. Solutions are Homogeneous /
usually liquid mixtures, that is, liquids with solid Mixture Components
Heterogeneous
substances, such as water with sugar. The sugar is dissolved air nitrogen, oxygen, argon homogeneous
evenly throughout the liquid. The simplest solutions
steel iron and carbon
consist of two components: a solvent and a solute.
granite various minerals
However, solutions can be solid, liquid or gaseous:
– Solids within solids: alloys are special solutions: 7. Look in your kitchen for mixtures and
all their components are solids. For example, steel (iron label them homogeneous or
mixed with carbon). heterogeneous:
– Liquid within liquid: alcohol dissolved in water. mayonnaise, tomato sauce, paper,
pineapple juice, honey, a drink of
– Solid within liquid: salt dissolved in water.
coffee, coke, chicken soup, fruit
– Gas within liquid: CO2 dissolved in fizzy drinks. yogurt.
– Gas within gas: air (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, etc.)

Solute.
The dissolved
Solvent. The liquid substance
part (often water)
Solution

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4. What are pure substances?
hydrogen oxygen
A pure substance has only one component. It has a
homogeneous look. It has unique properties that
characterise it, for example, its density. These properties
distinguish it from every other substance.
Pure substances in nature can be either chemical
compounds or elements.
• Chemical compounds. A chemical compound
consists of two or more elements joined up. The
atoms are from different elements. Compounds
have a fixed composition: water is always made up
of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
It can be expressed as H2O.
• Chemical elements. A chemical element cannot be
water broken down into simpler substances. About ninety
Water is a compound. It is made up of two parts chemical elements can be found in nature.
hydrogen to one part oxygen. Twice as much hydrogen Hydrogen and oxygen are chemical elements.
as oxygen is obtained when water is broken down.

5. What are physical and chemical changes?

A physical change does not change the composition of the substance. In a chemical change, where there is
a chemical reaction, the substance is changed to a new kind of substance.

Activities
8. What are the differences
between pure substances
and homogeneous mixtures.
How are they similar?
9. Classify these things:
homogeneous or
heterogeneous mixtures,
Physical change. If you cut Chemical change. When rust or pure substances:
paper into tiny pieces, each appears on a piece of iron, a new a. sand and water
piece is still paper. When water substance has been formed: iron b. oxygen
changes into ice or vapour, it is oxide. When paper is burned, you c. iron
still water. can no longer see the pieces of d. water
paper. A new substance has been e. milk and chocolate powder
formed: ash.

144
Hands on
Checking a hypothesis. Separating mixtures
Using the filtration method
The filtration method is good for separating an
insoluble solid from a liquid. (An insoluble substance
does not dissolve in water.)
You are going to separate a mixture of water and
sand using this method.
The liquid passes through the filter, but the solid
particles cannot go through.
Materials
– water – a beaker
– a funnel – some filter paper
– a container for the mixture of water and sand

1. Put the funnel into the beaker. Place the filter

paper in the funnel.
2. Pour the mixture into the filter paper.
3. Remove the sand that has stayed behind in the
filter paper.

Using the decanting method

The decanting method is useful for separating
a heterogeneous mixture of two liquids that have
a different density.
You are going to separate a mixture of water and oil
using this method.
Materials
– water – oil – spoon
– a container for the mixture of water and oil

1. Leave the mixture to rest until the particles of the

liquid with the least density (oil) settle on top of
the particles with the highest density (water).
2. Use a spoon to separate the liquid that is at the
top of the beaker.

Activities
10. Does sand dissolve in water? 11. Copy and complete the text.
Is a mixture of sand and water homogeneous or Sand dissolve in water. When you mix
heterogeneous? sand and water you get a mixture.
Sugar in water to form a solution.
A solution is a mixture.

145
6. What are synthetic materials?
Synthetic materials do not exist in nature. They are obtained from
natural substances which are transformed by chemical processes. Activities
12. What materials would
Synthetic materials are used to manufacture many products in you use to make the
modern, industrialised societies because of their special properties. following products?
Some of the most popular synthetic materials are: a. a boat
Plastic. Most plastics are made from petroleum. There are many b. a modern office
different kinds, used to make a multitude of things. building
c. parts of an aeroplane
Glass is made from silica.
d. a strong container to
Fibreglass is made from extremely fine fibres of glass, woven hold water
together. e. a cable for
Fibre optic is a fibre made of glass or plastic. It is a long, fine tube telephones
which light travels along. Say why in each case.
Carbon fibre is made up of mainly carbon atoms. It is an extremely 13. What properties of
thin fibre. Each fibre is incredibly strong. The fibres are woven carbon fibre make it ideal
together to create a very resistant material. for making a bicycle?

Some properties of synthetic materials

Material Plastic Glass Fibreglass Fibre optics Carbon fibre

Properties – impermeable – fragile, but hard – flexible and – excellent – light

– light, flexible – does not rust strong conductor of light – resistant
– resistant – lets light through – does not rust – does not rust – elastic
– does not rust – does not rust

Used for multiple uses multiple uses boats, car bodies cables for cars, bikes, tennis
telephones, rackets, aeroplanes
computers

Carbon fibre is strong but elastic. Equipment for water sports is often Fibre optics can conduct vast quantities
It has many uses in aviation made of fibre glass of light or information at very high speed

146
7. Why is recycling important?
Every year, modern societies generate more and more Solid waste: example
rubbish. Urban solid waste is unwanted solid and organic matter 30 % paper 25 % textiles 10 %
semi-solid materials from homes, commerce and
industry.
This waste can be harmful to the environment. Some
of it is toxic. It needs to be treated or recycled.

What can you do to help?

You can reduce solid waste in the home, and recycle
some of it. Recycled materials can be transformed
plastics 7 % glass 10 %
into new raw materials.
metals 8 % other 10 %

DO Activities
Reuse materials: plastic bags, writing paper. 14. Copy and complete the table about waste
in your home.
Recycle paper, glass, tins and plastic.
Organic Toxic Recyclable
Take old medicines, paints and batteries to
vegetables medicines bottles
collection dumps. Use rechargable batteries. leaves paints newspapers
DON’T 15. Make a Do / Don’t poster about how to help
Buy things with a lot of unnecessary packaging. reduce solid urban waste.
16. Investigate how urban solid waste is removed
Dump rubbish on the beach or in the countryside.
in your own area.

What happens to recycled waste?

transport
waste collection

gl
as
s
pa
pe
domestic m r
et waste
consumption al
pl collection
as
tic
co
m
po
st
rubbish
dump

ss
ce
raw materials
pro
ng
cli
cy
re

processing
and toxic waste incineration
manufacturing

147
Activities
17. Read and classify: solid, liquid or gas. 22. Could you make a solution of the following
a. oxygen d. hydrogen g. salt substances? Say why or why not in each case.
b. water e. oil h. iron -cornflakes and milk -water and oil
c. granite f. steam -butter and salt -water and ink

18. Identify: element, compound, mixture. 23. Can mixtures be compounds? Why or why not?
Hint: A chemical compound consists of two or more
A B C
elements joined up.

24. Copy and complete the following phrases.

a. The change from solid to liquid is called…
19. Copy and complete the table with the properties of b. The change from gas to liquid is called…
the three different states. c. The change from liquid to gas is called…
d. The change from liquid to solid is called…
Flows / does
Shape Volume
not flow 25. Indicate the solvent, the solute and the solution in
this drawing.
Solids
A C
Liquids
B
Gases

20. Give reasons for your classification in activity 17.

1. It flows easily.
2. It is easy to compress. 26. All substances can be found in any one of the three
3. It cannot be compressed. states of matter, if the conditions are right.
4. It has no fixed shape. a. Is it is possible to find iron in a liquid state on Earth?
5. It has a fixed shape. b. Is it possible to find water in a gaseous state?
6. It has a fixed volume and shape.
7. It takes the shape of its container. 27. Draw how you think particles of air are organised
8. It can spread out into a space. inside a container. Represent the air particles with
Example: a-4. Oxygen is a gas: it has no fixed shape. dots. Then, draw the particles again after half the
air has been removed.
21. Classify the changes: physical or chemical.
Give a reason. 28. Cartons are made with several layers of cardboard
and polyethylene. The polyethylene is in contact
a. Paper is burned and changes into ashes. with the liquid. It is a light plastic that does not let
b. A rusty piece of metal. in air, humidity or bacteria. Cardboard makes the
c. Clothes drying in the Sun. container harder.
d. Lava cools down and solidifies. a. Why is polyethylene a good material to store food?
e. Water is broken down into hydrogen
b. What would happen if the container were made
and oxygen.
only of cardboard?

chemical is the same.

29. If you wash up a glass and leave it to dry, what has
It’s a change because the substance happened to the water on the glass? Would it dry
physical changes.
faster in a cold room or a warm one? Why? What is
the name of this process?

148
What should you know? 13
Matter can exist in three different physical states:
• Solid: Fixed shape and volume. High density.
• Liquid: No fixed shape. Fixed volume. It can flow.
Quite high density.
• Gas: No fixed shape. No fixed volume. It can flow
and be compressed. Low density.
Physical A substance can change from one state into another.
states
Liquid
F

va
on

po
si

ris
co
n
fu

tio

at
nd

io
ca

en

n
ifi

sa
lid

tio
so

n
sublimation
F
G

F
Solid G Gas
regressive sublimation
EVERYTHING IS MATTER

• Matter is made up of tiny particles, surrounded by

empty spaces.
Particle • The particles within matter are in constant motion.
theory • There are forces which attract the particles.
Particle theory describes changes from one state into
another.

Matter can be classified by its appearance as:

• Heterogeneous: the appearance is not uniform. The
components can be distinguished.
• Homogeneous: appearance is uniform. The
components cannot be distinguished.
Mixtures
Most common substances are mixtures.
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more
substances, made up of:
• a solvent: the most abundant component.
• a solute: the least abundant part of a solution.

There are two types:

Pure
• Chemical compounds: Can be broken down chemically into simpler substances.
substances
• Elements: Cannot be broken down into simpler substances

Projects
INVESTIGATE: Research other methods for separating mixtures. Display the results in a poster.
Use diagrams and explanations.
WEB TASK: What is the fourth state of matter? Investigate.

149