Active transport is:

The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration
to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration

• Energy is needed because particles are being moved against a concentration

gradient, in the opposite direction from which they would naturally move (by
diffusion)

• Active transport across the cell membrane involves protein carrier

molecules embedded in the cell membrane

Active transport across the cell membrane - the molecules here are being transported
against the concentration gradient, from a region of lower concentration (outside the cell)
to a region of higher concentration (inside the cell)

___________________________________________________________________________

4.1 Biological Molecules

• Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into three categories: carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids

• These all contain carbon and so are described as organic molecules

Proteins

• Proteins are formed from long chains of amino acids

• There are 20 different amino acids

• When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed

• Amino acids can be arranged in any order, resulting in hundreds of thousands of

different proteins

o Examples of proteins include enzymes, haemoglobin, ligaments and keratin

Test for glucose (a reducing sugar)

• Add Benedict's solution to the sample solution in a test tube

• Heat in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes
• Take the test tube out of the water bath and observe the colour
• A positive test will show a colour change from blue to orange / brick red

Test for starch using iodine

• We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample

• Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample

• A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown to blue-black

Protein food test

• Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample

• A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple

Food Test Results Table

 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts

Enzymes

• Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of a
chemical reaction without being changed or used up in the reaction

• They are biological because they are made in living cells

• Enzymes are necessary to all living organisms as they maintain reaction speeds of
all metabolic reactions at a rate that can sustain life

o For example, if we did not produce digestive enzymes, it would take around
2 - 3 weeks to digest one meal; with enzymes, it takes around 4 hours

o Often the products of one reaction are the reactants for another (and so on)

The mechanism of enzyme action

• Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate(s) as the active site of the enzyme,
where the substrate attaches, is a complementary shape to the substrate

• When the substrate moves into the enzyme’s active site they become known as
the enzyme-substrate complex

Factors Affecting Enzyme Action: Temperature

• Enzymes are proteins and have a specific shape, determined by the amino
acids that make the enzyme and held in place by bonds

• This is extremely important around the active site as the specific shape is what
ensures the substrate will fit into the active site and enable the reaction to proceed

• Enzymes work fastest at their ‘optimum temperature’

o In the human body, the optimum temperature is 37⁰C

• Heating to high temperatures (beyond the optimum) will break the bonds that hold
the enzyme together and it will lose its shape

o This is known as denaturation

Photosynthesis Theory

• Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which energy from sunlight is

transferred to the chloroplasts in green plants

o Energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment found

inside chloroplasts

o Green plants use this energy to make the carbohydrate glucose from the
raw materials carbon dioxide and water

o At the same time, oxygen is made and released as a waste product

• Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture

carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light

The products of photosynthesis

• Plants use the glucose they make as a source of energy in respiration

• They can also use it to

o Produce starch for storage

o Synthesise lipids for an energy source in seeds

o To form cellulose to make cell walls

o Produce amino acids (used to make proteins) when combined with nitrogen
and other mineral ions absorbed by roots
• Photosynthesis can be summarised in a word equation as shown below:
 Leaf Structure

• Plant leaves have complex structures with layers of different tissues containing
specially adapted cells

• The table below describes the different structures in a leaf and their functions

Leaf Structures Table

The Xylem & Phloem

• Plants contain two types of transport vessel:

o Xylem vessels – transport water and minerals (pronounced: zi-lem) from the
roots to the stem and leaves

o Phloem vessels – transport food materials (mainly sucrose and amino acids)
made by the plant from photosynthesising leaves to non-photosynthesising
regions in the roots and stem (pronounced: flow-em)

• These vessels are arranged throughout the root, stem and leaves in groups
called vascular bundles
 Transpiration
• Water travels up xylem from the roots into the leaves of the plant to replace the
water that has been lost due to transpiration

• Transpiration is defined as the loss of water vapour from plant leaves by

evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion
of water vapour through the stomata

• Xylem is adapted in many ways:

o A substance called lignin is deposited in the cell walls which causes the
xylem cells to die

o These cells then become hollow (as they lose all their organelles and
cytoplasm) and join end-to-end to form a continuous tube for water and
mineral ions to travel through from the roots

o Lignin strengthens the plant to help it withstand the pressure of the water
movement

• Movement in xylem only takes place in one direction - from roots to leaves (unlike
phloem where movement takes place in different directions)
Transpiration in plants

• Transpiration has several functions in plants:

o transporting mineral ions

o providing water to keep cells turgid in order to support the structure of the
plant

o providing water to leaf cells for photosynthesis

o keeping the leaves cool (the conversion of water (liquid) into water vapour
(gas) as it leaves the cells and enters the airspace requires heat energy. The
using up of heat to convert water into water vapour helps to cool the plant
down

CHEMISTRY

Classify an Element, Compound or Mixture Table

The Structure of the Atom

• Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms

• Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons

• Their size is so tiny that we can't really compare their masses in conventional units
such as kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used

• One relative atomic mass unit is equal to one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

• All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom and since
these are ratios, the relative atomic mass has no units

• Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of
hydrogen would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of carbon

• The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are shown below:

The Mass & Charge of Subatomic Particles Table

Formation of Ions

• An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by

the loss or gain of electrons

• This loss or gain of electrons takes place to obtain a full outer shell of electrons

• The electronic structure of ions of elements in groups 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 will be the

same as that of a noble gas - such as helium, neon, and argon
 • Negative ions are called anions and form when atoms gain electrons, meaning they
have more electrons than protons

• Positive ions are called cations and form when atoms lose electrons, meaning they
have more protons than electrons

• All metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions

• All non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged ions

Giant Ionic Lattices

• Ionic compounds are made of charged particles called ions which form a giant lattice
structure

• Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence
of strong electrostatic forces acting between the oppositely charged ions
 • These forces act in all directions and a lot of energy is required to overcome them

Strong electrostatic forces act in all directions in an ionic solid such as sodium chloride

• Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature and are non-volatile

• They are usually water soluble as both ionic compounds and water
are polar substances

Ionic compounds are soluble in water because the ions are easily hydrated by polar water
molecules

Simple Molecular Structures

• Simple molecular structures have covalent bonds joining the atoms together, but
intermolecular forces that act between neighbouring molecules

• They have low melting and boiling points as there are only weak
intermolecular forces acting between the molecules

• These forces are very weak when compared to the covalent bonds and so most
small molecules are either gases or liquids at room temperature

o Often the liquids are volatile

• As the molecules increase in size the intermolecular forces also increase as there are
more electrons available

• This causes the melting and boiling points to increase

Covalent bonds are strong but intermolecular forces are weak

Conductivity & Covalent Compounds

• They are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or electrons to carry
the charge

• Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are
thus insulators

• Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring,
rubber and wood

The plastic coating around electrical wires is made from covalent substances that do not
allow a flow of charge

Electrolysis: Basics

• When an electric current is passed through a molten ionic compound the compound
decomposes or breaks down

• The process also occurs for aqueous solutions of ionic compounds

• Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity hence they do not undergo

electrolysis

• Ionic compounds in the solid state cannot conduct electricity either since they
have no free ions that can move and carry the charge

Particles in ionic compounds are in fixed position in the solid state but can move around
when molten or in solution
Key terms

• Electrode is a rod of metal or graphite through which an electric current flows into
or out of an electrolyte

• Electrolyte is the ionic compound in molten or dissolved solution that conducts the
electricity

• Anode is the positive electrode of an electrolysis cell

• Anion is a negatively charged ion which is attracted to the anode

• Cathode is the negative electrode of an electrolysis cell

• Cation is a positively charged ion which is attracted to the cathode

The basic set-up of an electrolysis cell

Positive electrode (anode)

• Non-metal ions (other than hydrogen) are attracted to the positive electrode

• Non-metal ions will lose electrons to form the non-metal

• The product formed depends on which ion loses electrons more readily, with the
more reactive ion remaining in solution

Negative electrode (cathode)

• H+ and metal ions attracted to the negative electrode but only one will gain
electrons

• Either hydrogen or metal will be produced

• If the metal is above hydrogen in reactivity series, then hydrogen will be produced
and bubbling will be seen at the cathode

The electrolysis of molten binary ionic compounds

• A binary ionic compound is one consisting of just two elements joined together by
ionic bonding
 • When these compounds undergo electrolysis they always produce their
corresponding elements

• To predict the products made at each electrode, first identify the ions

• The positive ion will migrate towards the cathode and the negative ion will migrate
towards the anode

• Therefore, the cathode product will always be the metal, and the product formed at
the anode will always be the non-metal

Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions

Heat Exchange in Reactions

• Chemical reactions occur so that elements can achieve a more stable energy state by
gaining a full outer shell of electrons

• This is done by chemical bonding (we have already seen ionic and covalent bonding)
where old bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed)

• This process involves the transfer of thermal energy into and out of reaction
mixtures

• The terms used to describe this are the system (what happens in the chemical
reaction) and the surroundings (anything other than the chemicals reacting)

• The energy within the system comes from the chemical bonds themselves which
could be considered as tiny stores of chemical energy

Exothermic Reactions

• In exothermic reactions thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings so the

temperature of the surroundings increases

• This energy is transferred from the chemical energy store of the chemical system to
the surroundings and so the energy of the system falls - this means that the energy
change is negative

• The overall transfer is from the system to the surroundings

• Combustion, oxidation, and neutralisation reactions are typical exothermic reactions

• Hand warmers used in the wintertime are based on the release of heat from an
exothermic reaction

• Self-heating cans of food and drinks such as coffee and hot chocolate also use
exothermic reactions in the bases of the containers
Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy outwards from an exothermic reaction

Endothermic Reactions

• In endothermic reactions thermal energy is taken in from the surroundings so the

temperature of the surroundings decreases

• This energy is transferred to the chemical energy store of the chemical system and
so the energy of the system increases - this means the energy change is positive

• The overall transfer is from the surroundings to the system

• These types of reactions are much less common than the exothermic reactions

• Electrolysis, thermal decomposition reactions and the first stages of photosynthesis

are typical endothermic reactions

• Sports injury treatments often use cold packs based on endothermic reactions to
take heat away from a recently injured area to prevent swelling

Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy from the surroundings into an endothermic
reaction

Reaction Pathway Diagrams

• Reaction pathway diagrams (a.k.a energy level diagrams) are graphical

representations of the relative energies of the reactants and products in chemical
reactions

• The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the
reaction pathway (a bit like time) is shown on the x-axis

• The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents
the overall energy change of a reaction.

o This is usually a sketch but can be drawn to scale if data is provided

• Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic (overall

reaction arrow is downwards pointing, showing that the system has lost energy) or
endothermic (overall reaction arrow is upwards pointing, showing that the system
has gained energy)

• The initial increase in energy represents the activation energy (Ea), which is the
minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to react

• The greater the initial rise, the more energy that is required to get the reaction going
e.g. more heat needed
 • You can identify a reaction pathway diagram for an exothermic reaction as the
energy of the product is lower than the reactants (as thermal energy has been
transferred to the surroundings)

• You can identify a reaction pathway diagram for an endothermic reaction as the
energy of the product is higher than the reactants (as thermal energy has been
taken in from the surroundings)

Reaction pathway diagram of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction

Rates of Reaction Factors

• Factors that can affect the rate of a reaction are:

o The concentration of the reactants in solution or the pressure of reacting

gases

o Surface area of solid reactants

o The temperature of the reaction

o The presence of a catalyst

• Changes in these factors directly influence the rate of a reaction

• It is of economic interest to have a higher rate of reaction as this implies a higher

rate of production and hence a more efficient and sustainable process

The effect of using a catalyst

• Catalysts are substances which speed up the rate of a reaction without themselves
being altered or consumed in the reaction
• The mass of a catalyst at the beginning and end of a reaction is the same and they
do not form part of the equation
 Oxidation & Reduction
Redox reactions

• Oxidation and reduction take place together at the same time in the same reaction
• These are called redox reactions
• Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is added to an element or a compound
• Reduction is a reaction in which oxygen is removed from an element or compound

Example: Identifying the loss and gain of oxygen in an equation

zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon monoxide

ZnO + C → Zn + CO

o In this reaction, the zinc oxide has been reduced since it has lost oxygen
o The carbon atom has been oxidised since it has gained oxygen

Names using oxidation numbers

• Transition elements can bond in different ways by forming ions with different
charges
• When naming, the charge on the ion is shown by using a Roman numeral after the
element's name
o e.g. iron can form ions with a 2+ charge, called iron(II) ions or a 3+ charge,
called iron(III) ions
• The Roman numeral is the oxidation number of the element
• When iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide, the formula depends on the
oxidation state of the iron ions
o The compound where iron has a 2+ charge has the formula FeO and is called
iron(II) oxide
o The compound where iron has a 3+ charge has the formula Fe2O3 and is
called iron(III) oxide

Properties of Acids
• Acids have pH values of below 7, have a sour taste (when edible) and are corrosive

• Acids are substances that can neutralise a base, forming a salt and water

• When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)

• The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic

Example: Hydrochloric Acid

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Typical reactions of acids

Acids and metals

• Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids.

• When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

• The name of the salt is related to the name of the acid used, as it depends on
the anion within the acid.

• Examples of the names of salts from specific acids and metals are:

Acids with bases

• Metal oxides and metal hydroxides (alkalis) can act as bases

• When they react with acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs

• In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, salt and water are produced

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

• Examples of reactions between acids and bases:

Acids with metal carbonates

• Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon
dioxide and water:

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

• Examples of reactions between acids and carbonates:

Indicators

• Two colour indicators are used to distinguish between acids and alkalis

• Many plants contain substances that can act as indicators and the most common
one is litmus which is extracted from lichens

• Synthetic indicators are organic compounds that are sensitive to changes in acidity
and appear different colours in acids and alkalis

• Thymolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators frequently used in

acid-alkali titrations

Two Colour Indicators Table

• Synthetic indicators are used to show the endpoint in titrations as they have a very
sharp change of colour when an acid has been neutralised by alkali and vice-versa

• Litmus is not suitable for titrations as the colour change is not sharp and it goes
through a purple transition colour in neutral solutions making it difficult to
determine an endpoint

• Litmus is very useful as an indicator paper and comes in red and blue versions, for
dipping into solutions or testing gases

Classifying Oxides
• Oxides are compounds made from one or more atoms of oxygen combined with one
other element

• Examples of oxides include: MgO, ZnO, K2O, CO2, SO2, H2O

• Oxides can be classified based on their acid-base characteristics

Acid and basic oxides

• Acidic and basic oxides have different properties and values of pH

• The difference in their pH stems from whether they are bonded to a metal or a non-
metal element

• The metallic character of the element influences the acidic or basic behaviour of the
molecule

Acidic oxides

• Acidic oxides are formed when a non-metal element combines with oxygen

• They react with bases to form a salt and water

• When dissolved in water they produce an acidic solution with a low pH

 • Common examples include CO2, SO2, NO2 and SiO2

Basic oxides

• Basic oxides are formed when a metal element combines with oxygen

• They react with acids to form a salt and water

• When dissolved in water they produce a basic solution with a high pH

• Common examples include CuO and CaO

Preparing Soluble Salts

Salts

• A salt is a compound that is formed when the hydrogen atom in an acid is replaced
by a metal

• For example if we replace the H in HCl with a potassium atom, then the salt
potassium chloride is formed, KCl

• Salts are an important branch of chemistry due to the varied and important uses of
this class of compounds

• These uses include fertilisers, batteries, cleaning products, healthcare products and
fungicides

Naming salts

• The name of salt has two parts

• The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate used in the
reaction

• The second part comes from the acid

• The name of the salt can be determined by looking at the reactants

• For example hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain
the chloride ion, Cl-

• Other examples:

o Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride

o Zinc oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce zinc sulfate

Preparing salts

• Some salts can be extracted by mining but others need to be prepared in the
laboratory

• The method used depends on the solubility of the salt being prepared
Preparing soluble salts

Method A: adding acid to a solid metal, insoluble base or insoluble carbonate

Diagram showing the preparation of soluble salts

Method:

• Add dilute acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame

• Add the insoluble metal, base or carbonate, a little at a time, to the warm dilute acid
and stir until the base is in excess (i.e. until the base stops disappearing and a
suspension of the base forms in the acid)

• Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base

• Heat the solution to evaporate water and to make the solution saturated. Check the
solution is saturated by dipping a cold, glass rod into the solution and seeing if
crystals form on the end

• Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize

• Decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry or blot to dry with filter paper
Example: preparation of pure, hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals using method A

Acid = dilute sulfuric acid

Insoluble base = copper(II) oxide

Method:

• Add dilute sulfuric acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame

• Add copper(II) oxide (insoluble base), a little at a time to the warm dilute sulfuric
acid and stir until the copper (II) oxide is in excess (stops disappearing)

• Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess copper(II) oxide

• Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize

• Decant excess solution

• Blot crystals dry with filter paper

Equation of reaction:

copper(II) oxide + sulfuric acid → copper(II) sulphate + water

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Method B: reacting a dilute acid and alkali (soluble base)

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to prepare a salt by titration

Method:
 • Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of
indicator (thymolphthalein or methyl orange)

• Add the acid into the burette

• Record the starting volume of acid in the burette

• Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator
changes to the appropriate colour

• Record the final volume of acid in the burette

• Calculate the volume of acid added

o Final volume of acid - initial volume of acid

• Add this same volume of acid to the same volume of alkali without the indicator

• Heat the resulting solution in an evaporating basin to partially evaporate, leaving a

saturated solution (crystals just forming on the sides of the basin or on a glass rod
dipped in and then removed)

• Leave to crystallise, decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

Preparing Insoluble Salts

• Insoluble salts can be prepared using a precipitation reaction

• The solid salt obtained is the precipitate, thus in order to successfully use this
method the solid salt being formed must be insoluble in water, and the reactants
must be soluble

Using two soluble reactants

Diagram showing the filtration of the mixture to remove the

precipitate

Method:

• Dissolve soluble salts in water and mix together using a stirring rod
in a beaker

• Filter to remove precipitate from mixture

• Wash the residue with distilled water to remove traces of other

solutions

• Leave in an oven to dry

Example: Preparation of pure, dry lead(II) sulfate crystals using a

precipitation reaction
Soluble Salt 1 = lead(II) nitrate

Soluble Salt 2 = potassium sulfate

Method:

• Dissolve lead(II) nitrate and potassium sulfate in water and mix together using a
stirring rod in a beaker

• Filter to remove precipitate from mixture

• Wash precipitate with distilled water to remove traces of potassium nitrate solution

• Leave in an oven to dry

Equation of reaction:

lead(II) nitrate + potassium sulfate → lead(II) sulfate + potassium nitrate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

PHYSICS
Thermal Expansion
• When materials are heated, they expand
• This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or vibrate)
faster, which causes them to knock into each other and push each other apart

When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more, pushing each other apart

Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up by the molecules that increases. The
molecules themselves remain the same size.

• Thermal expansion occurs in solids, liquids and gases

• When temperature is increased (at constant pressure);

o Solids will tend to expand the least
o Gases expand the most
o Liquids fall in between the two
 Thermal Expansion in Terms of Particles
• Molecules do not expand, but the space in between them does
o When solids, liquids and gases are heated:

Thermal Conduction in Solids

• Conduction is the main method of thermal energy transfer in solids
• Conduction occurs when:

Two solids of different temperatures come in contact with one another, thermal
energy is transferred from the hotter object to the cooler object

• Metals are the best thermal conductors

o This is because they have a high number of free electrons

Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other

• Conduction can occur through two mechanisms:

o Atomic vibrations
o Free electron collisions
• When a substance is heated, the atoms, or ions, start to move around (vibrate)
more
o The atoms at the hotter end of the solid will vibrate more than the atoms at
the cooler end
o As they do so they bump into each other, transferring energy from atom to
atom
o These collisions transfer internal energy until thermal equilibrium is
achieved throughout the substance
o This occurs in all solids, metals and non-metals alike
 Thermal Conduction in Liquids & Gases
• For thermal conduction to occur the particles need to be close together so that
when they vibrate the vibrations are passed along
• This does not happen easily in fluids
o In liquids particles are close, but slide past each other
o In gases particles are widely spread apart and will not 'nudge' each other
• Both types of fluid, liquids and gases, are poor conductors of heat

Convection
• Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases
o Convection only occurs in fluids
o Convection cannot happen in solids
Density & Convection
Descriptions of convection currents always need to refer to changes in temperature
causing changes in density
o The temperature may fall or rise, both can create a convection
current
• When a liquid (or gas) is heated (for example by a radiator near the floor):
o The molecules push each other apart, making the liquid/gas expand
o This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings
o The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas
moves in to take its place
o Eventually the hot liquid/gas cools, contracts and sinks back down
again
o The resulting motion is called a convection current

When a liquid or gas is heated, it becomes less dense and rises

• When a liquid (or gas) is cooled (for example by an A.C. unit high up on a
wall):
o The molecules move together, making the liquid/gas contract
 o This makes the cold liquid/gas more dense than the surroundings
o The cold liquid/gas falls, so that warmer liquid or gas can move into
the space created
o The warmer liquid or gas gets cooled and also contracts and falls
down
o The resulting motion is called a convection current
Demonstrating Convection Currents
• A simple demonstration of convection in liquids involves taking a beaker of
water and placing a few crystals of potassium permanganate in it, to one
side, as shown in the diagram above
• When the water is heated at that side, the potassium permanganate will
dissolve in the heated water and rise along with the warmed water, revealing
the convection current

Diagram showing an experiment with potassium permanganate to demonstrate

convection