Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review article

Nonlinear hydrodynamics of floating offshore wind turbines: A review

Xinmeng Zeng a , Yanlin Shao b , Xingya Feng c , Kun Xu a , Ruijia Jin d , Huajun Li a ,∗
a
College of Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
b
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
c
Department of Ocean Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
d
National Engineering Laboratory for Port Hydraulic Construction Technology, Tianjin Research Institute for Water Transport Engineering, Tianjin, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) is a highly sophisticated system that involves multiphysical dynamics
Floating offshore wind turbine that includes hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, structural dynamics, servo dynamics, and mooring dynamics.
Nonlinear hydrodynamics Hydrodynamics is one of the most critical aspects directly related to the stabilization and safety of FOWTs.
Hydroelastic response
As the turbine capacity keeps growing and the target depth of the water becomes deeper, the nonlinear
Numerical tools
hydrodynamic effect becomes more significant, especially under extreme conditions that occur more frequently
Low-frequency resonance
Viscous drag load
in recent years. In this paper, theoretical challenges and state-of-the-art research progress regarding the
nonlinear hydrodynamic problems related to FOWTs and their stationkeeping systems are introduced from
both numerical and physical point of view. Nonlinear wave characteristics and nonlinear hydrodynamics of
wave–structure interactions are addressed with different theories ranging from linear, weakly nonlinear to
fully nonlinear. A number of nonlinear phenomenon such as low-frequency resonance, transient impacts,
hydroelastic coupling, current effects and shallow water effect are discussed. Theoretical inconsistency due
to large horizontal motions and challenges in accounting for the viscous drag loads in the state-of-the-art
engineering tools are addressed. Future perspectives are finally brought up.

1. Introduction energy capacity was recorded globally in 2021, despite the COVID-
19 pandemic. This is an indication of the incredible resilience and
The impending energy shortage could become an inescapable chal- prosperous trajectory of the global wind industry. Wind turbines are
lenge for humanity in the coming years. Depletion of fossil energy classified into two main categories: onshore and offshore, determined
reserves and the greenhouse gas pollution resulting from fossil fuel by their installation locations. Offshore wind turbines can obtain better
combustion have contributed to a range of climate issues [1]. Re- wind sources than onshore wind turbines owing to larger speed and less
newable energy, characterized by its environmentally friendly and turbulence. Furthermore, wide offshore areas and proximity to regions
low-carbon attributes, derives from naturally replenishing processes. with high electrical consumption have resulted in the broad prospect
This transformation enhances the energy landscape, safeguards ecolog- of offshore wind industry.
ical environments, aids in addressing climate change, and promotes The offshore wind market has experienced a booming development
sustainable economic and social development [2,3]. Numerous nations in 2021, with 21.1 GW of new capacity commissioned, of which China
have enacted policies aimed at curtailing carbon emissions. China, for contributed 80% [9]. According to GWEC predictions, a new commis-
instance, has introduced an emission peak and carbon-neutral policy to sion of 31.4 GW can be reached by 2026. In recent years, the majority
ensure timely reductions in carbon emissions. of installed offshore wind turbines are bottom-fixed with foundations,
There are a number of renewable energy sources, such as wind [4, such as monopiles [10,11] and suction buckets, near the shore whose
5], solar [6], wave, and hydro energy. Moreover, their proliferation can water depth is below 30 meters [12]. Jacket support is typically used
be attributed to the worldwide commitment to achieving carbon neu- at intermediate transitioning water depth (30–50 m). However, more
trality [7,8]. Wind energy harvesting, a well-established practice dating than four-fifths of offshore wind resources are available at water depth
back to antiquity, has historically served purposes such as water lifting, larger than 50 m, where bottom-fixed foundations become less cost-
irrigation, grinding, and rice hull removal. According to the Global effective, whereas the deployment of floating offshore foundations is
Wind Energy Council (GWEC) [9], approximately 94 GW of wind more appealing. Although the cost of constructing a floating offshore

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.114092
Received 24 June 2023; Received in revised form 9 November 2023; Accepted 9 November 2023
Available online 18 November 2023
1364-0321/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

summary of the previous reviews of FOWTs is presented in Table 3.

Abbreviations Nevertheless, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no
ALM Actuator line model review papers specifically focusing on the nonlinear hydrodynamics of
BEM Blade element momentum/Boundary element FOWTs. By nonlinear hydrodynamics, it means nonlinear wave loads
method on the FOWTs and their stationkeeping systems (e.g. mooring system)
as well as the structural responses that cannot be properly predicted
BM Boussinesq models
by a linear theory. Future design and analysis of FOWTs and mooring
CFD Computational fluid dynamics systems, either in shallow water or deep water areas, inevitably have to
FOWT Floating offshore wind turbine properly take into account the nonlinear effects, which however is still
LBM Lattice boltzmann model very challenging and resource-demanding. For instance, the utilization
FEM Finite element method of a 3D free-surface Navier–Stokes solver remains a time-consuming
FVW Free vortex wake endeavor, particularly when striving to derive statistically significant
IBM Immersion boundary method results of high quality, further complicated by the requirement for
RNA Rotor-Nacelle-Assembly intricate mesh generation.
This review aims to cover the following important topics:
RAO Response amplitude operator
NDLE Nonlinear dispersive long-wave equations • Nonlinear wave characteristics and hydrodynamic challenges of
QALE-FEM Quasi-arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian Finite ele- FOWTs.
ment method • Nonlinear wave effects on the coupled dynamic behavior of
QTF Quadratic transfer function FOWTs including mooring system.
FNPF Fully nonlinear potential flow • Challenges associated with the state-of-the-art numerical tools
PF Potential flow (commercial, open source, and in-house codes) to investigate
the nonlinear hydrodynamics of FOWTs and their feasibility for
FVM Finite volume method
industrial applications.
FDM Finite difference method
FFT Fast Fourier transform This study should be of particular interest to researchers and design-
N-S Navier–Stokes ers who are new to this topic by providing a review of relevant basis
SPH Smoothed particle hydrodynamics and theories, as well as existing challenges that new research must carry
out to push forward the state of the art, and to experts by presenting
a comprehensive list of relevant references where further details of the
analysis methods can be acquired.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,
wind turbine is currently high, it will become profitable as industrial
the nonlinear hydrodynamic fundamentals and developments are in-
standardization develops. To date, many standalone FOWT demon-
troduced, including nonlinear wave characteristics and wave–structure
stration projects and small-scale commercial wind farms have been
interactions. Some trending studies on nonlinear hydrodynamic appli-
built and operated all over the world. A number of successful Spar
cations are discussed. Based on the nonlinear hydrodynamic character-
and semi-submersible FOWT applications are listed in Tables 1 and
istics, challenges for FOWTs, such as physical problems and numerical
2, respectively. Due to the confidentiality of demonstrate projects, the
models, are discussed in Section 3. In Section 4, the challenges of
measured data of these prototypes have not been accessible to the
nonlinear hydrodynamics for floaters in practical applications are dis-
public, and the relevant hydrodynamic performance cannot be further
cussed, including low-frequency slow-drift motion, transient effects and
summarized. Nonetheless, the study process behind these prototypes
responses induced by higher harmonic nonbreaking wave loads and
reveals the importance of nonlinearity on the FOWT.
wave slamming, and the hydroelastic couplings associated with struc-
The ocean gravity surface waves are generated by a far-field wind.
tural flexibility due to FOWT upscaling, current effects, and shallow-
They propagate, evolve, and redistribute energy among different fre-
water hydrodynamic behavior of the mooring line. Section 5 concludes
quency components, exhibiting nonlinearity even in small sea states.
the commercial software and open-source or in-house code used to in-
With the engineering and technology challenges posed from coastal vestigate FOWTs and the related challenges. Finally, Section 6 presents
and offshore projects, more accurate and efficient numerical methods the conclusions and future perspectives of this review.
to solve the governing partial differential equations, development of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tools and computer hardware, and 2. Relevant design consideration and implication in nonlinear
upgrades of experimental equipment and techniques, have been seen. hydrodynamics
Various wave models have been developed in the literature depending
on inherent assumptions. Examples are the Stokes wave theory, the Fundamentally, the hydrodynamic considerations in the design and
cnoidal wave theory, the solitary wave theory, as well as other ana- analysis of FOWTs share similarities with those for other floating
lytical and numerical methods for the analysis of nonlinear waves. As structures in offshore engineering. This implies that existing marine
the first theoretical nonlinear wave theory, the Stokes theory is used hydrodynamic theories and models remain applicable to FOWT applica-
to obtain a nonlinear approximated solution. It has been proven that tions. However, as the FOWT industry evolves, novel floater concepts,
the wave number and frequency are related to the wave amplitude, innovative combinations of existing FOWT designs with other ocean-
which is qualitatively different from a linear wave, featuring the non- energy devices, and the exploration of cost-efficient stationkeeping
linear effects of waves. With the development of marine measurement systems based on shared anchors and mooring have become subjects
technology, a number of extreme wave events have been measured. of exploration.
A typical example is the so-called ‘New year wave’ captured at the Given that these new developments involve key physics that are
Draupner platform in 1995, with a maximum wave height over 25.6 m. often mutually coupled and differ from prior offshore engineering ap-
In the search for high-quality wind resources, FOWTs are subjected to plications, they impose fresh requirements on hydrodynamic modeling.
highly nonlinear hydrodynamic action under extreme conditions, such In this section, we commence with a concise introduction to nonlinear
as typhoons and rogue waves. water waves and their interaction with floating structures, and we
Recently, many reviews on FOWT have been published, discussing, discuss available models that have been adapted from the field of
for instance, the upscaling of technical, experimental, and numerical marine hydrodynamics. Subsequently, we present a few examples of
methods, as well as structural dynamics and scaling laws. A brief new design considerations specific to FOWT.

2
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 1
A brief summary of Spar FOWTs projects in operation.
Figure Project information Wind turbine information Marine condition

Hywind Demo 2.3 MW Water depth 220 m

Norway/2009 [13] Rotor diameter 85 m 10 km offshore

Kabashima Spar 2 MW –
Japan/2013 [14] Rotor diameter 80 m

Fukushima Advanced Spar 7 MW –

Japan/2016 [15] Rotor diameter 126 m

TetraSpar 3.6 MW Water depth 200 m

Norway/2021 [16] Rotor diameter m 10 km offshore

Hywind Scotland 6 MW*5 Water depth 105 m

wind farm Rotor diameter 154 m 25 km offshore
Scotland/2017 [17]

Hywind Tampen 8 MW*11 Water depth

wind farm Rotor diameter 167 m 260 m–300 m
Norway/2022 [18] 140 km offshore

2.1. Nonlinear hydrodynamic: basics and development 2.1.1. Nonlinear waves

In linear wave models, ocean waves are modeled as the superpo-
Ocean waves in coastal and offshore areas naturally exhibit non- sition of a number of independent linear regular waves. As a result,
linear characteristics. For simplicity, linear theories are frequently em- the wave elevation follows a Gaussian distribution owing to the central
ployed to describe these waves in offshore engineering applications, limit theorem, and the linear wave amplitude follows a Rayleigh dis-
offering reasonably accurate approximations for engineering practice. tribution if the system is narrow-banded [52]. These models disregard
Nevertheless, providing an accurate depiction of nonlinear wave kine- all nonlinear contributions, including the quadratic and higher compo-
matics and their statistical properties becomes crucial in extreme wave nents. They also assume that the wave amplitudes are small and waves
conditions, especially when dealing with the ultimate limit state (ULS) obey the linear dispersion relation.
design of offshore structures. In this subsection, we review the nonlin- In the context of nonlinear waves, the profile characteristics often
ear hydrodynamic basics and development of traditional ocean engi- exhibit horizontal asymmetries, typically with sharper crests and flatter
neering. troughs. Moreover, the wave components are not entirely independent

3
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 2
A brief summary of Semi-submersible projects in operation.
Figure Project information Wind turbine information Marine condition

WindFloat 2 MW Water depth 45 m

Portugal/2011 [19] Rotor diameter 80 m 5 km offshore

Fukushima Compact 2 MW –
Japan/2015 [15] Rotor diameter 80 m

Fukushima V-Shape 7 MW –
Japan/2015 [15] Rotor diameter 164 m

WindFloat Atlantic 6.2 MW*3 Water depth 100 m

wind farm Rotor diameter 164 m 20 km offshore
Portugal/2020 [20]

Three gorges Yinling 5.5 MW Water depth

China/2021 [21] Rotor diameter 155 m 28 m–32 m
30 km offshore

Kincardine 2 MW Water depth

wind farm Rotor diameter 80 m 60–80 m
Scotland/2021 [22] and 9.5 MW*5 15 km offshore
Rotor diameter 164 m

Haizhuang Fuyao 6.2 MW Water depth 65 m

China/2022 [23] Rotor diameter 152 m 15 km offshore

Haiyou Guanlan 7.25 MW Water depth 120 m

China/2023 [24] Rotor diameter 158 m 136 km offshore

from each other. To quantify wave nonlinearity, wave steepness is dynamic free surface conditions can be expressed as:
frequently employed as a parameter. When wave nonlinearity can be 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜂
described by Stokes second- or third-order theory [53,54], the waves = + + , on 𝑧 = 𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) (1)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
may be regarded as weakly nonlinear [55–58]. If the wave steepness
is even larger featuring strongly nonlinear properties, a fully nonlinear 𝜕𝜙 1
+ 𝑔𝜂 + ∇𝜙 ⋅ ∇𝜙 = 0, on 𝑧 = 𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) (2)
theory is necessary [59–61]. 𝜕𝑡 2

The nonlinearity of the incident wave plays a significant role in Here, 𝜙 is the velocity potential 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) satisfying the Laplace
contributing to nonlinear wave excitation, subsequently leading to equation. An Earth-fixed coordinate system is assumed in those ex-
nonlinear responses of marine structures. If we take a potential-flow pression, with 𝑥 and 𝑦 the horizontal coordinates and 𝑧 the vertical
theory and define the free surface as 𝑧 = 𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡), the kinematic and coordinate. 𝑡 represents time. The underlined terms are the nonlinear

4
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 3
A list of previous review paper about OWT.
Studies Theme Brief introduction
Leimeister and Kolios [25] Risk and reliability analysis methods Methods applied, the method differentiation, traditional and novel method
introduction etc.
Igwemezie et al. [26] Material requirements for fatigue resistance OWT develop trend and structural integrity concerns relating to XL steel
improvement plates etc.
Gueydon et al. [27] Model testing technical Limitations, similarities, differences and complementary approaches in
different experimental method etc.
Ren et al. [28] Operations and maintenance Strategy selection, schedule optimization , onsite operations, repair,
assessment criteria , recycling, and environmental concerns etc.
Jiang [29] Installation technical The classification of OWT, installation vessels, rules and regulations,
numerical modeling tools and various installation methods etc.
Micallef and Rezaeiha [30] Aerodynamics trends and challenges The critical of current coupled analysis aerodynamics and six major
challenges and opportunities etc.
Bashetty and Ozcelik [31] Dynamics of floater The ad/disadvantages of the previous floater dynamics, the numerical
methods for aerodynamics and hydrodynamics, wake models etc.
Chen et al. [32] Aerodynamic experimental methods The development status, characteristics, and limitations of two
aerodynamic experimental methods etc.
Wang et al. [33] Reliability Reliability assessment of OWT support structures, include the structural
reliability, reliability-based calibration of codes, fatigue reliability and
implementation of reliability assessment etc.
Subbulakshmi et al. [34] Experimental and numerical methods Uncoupled, partially coupled and fully coupled numerical methods,
possible configurations of real-time hybrid experiment etc.
Sergiienko et al. [35] Scaling laws The trends of wind energy systems, semi- submersible floater of 5–15 MW,
the system dynamics for upscale techniques etc.
Patryniak et al. [36] Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimization Optimization framework architecture, support platform design variables,
constraints and objective functions etc.
Ojo et al. [37] Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimization Floater concepts overview, the geometric shape parameterization
techniques and the analysis design approaches, multidisciplinary design
analysis and optimization, optimization algorithms etc.
Papi and Bianchini [38] Technical challenges of upscaling Comparative analysis based on 5 MW and 15 MW FOWT
López-Queija et al. [39] Control technologies The ad/disadvantages of the most used control algorithms etc.
Li et al. [40] Typhoon Resistance Analysis The damage reason by typhoon, the anti-typhoon design and operation
and maintenance strategy, problems in typhoon-prone areas etc.
Jahani et al. [41] Structural dynamics Modal alignment, aeroelasticity, hydroelasticity, soil–pile interaction,
mooring line-floater interaction, drive train vibrations, control of vibration
amplitudes, and motion and structural dynamics experiments etc.
Hou et al. [42] Risk assessment methodologies Risk assessment methodologies and the characteristics and applicability,
challenges and trends etc.
Faraggiana et al. [43] Numerical modeling and optimization The methods, numerical tools and optimization for floater conceptual
design etc.
Truong et al. [44] Active control strategies The classifications based on the enhancements in the typical methods and
floater architectures etc.
Yeter and Garbatov [45] Structural integrity assessment Historical background, physics-based modeling techniques, estimation
methods and models, risk-based framework, uncertainties, future trends
etc.
Wang et al. [46] Aerodynamic and wake characteristics Theoretical analysis, experimental tests and the numerical simulation
about aerodynamics and wakes etc.
Xia and Zou [47] Digital twin for Operation and maintenance DT technology targeting on failure analysis, objectives, strategies,
optimization optimization models, management and optimization etc.
Tian et al. [48] Damping technology Latest improvements in offshore damping technology.
Maduka et al. [49] Hydrodynamic effects of biofouling -induced Biofouling phenomena, hydrodynamic effects etc.
surface roughness
Ramezani et al. [50] Uncertainty models for structural design Uncertainty in material, geometrical, hydrodynamics modeling,
environmental load etc.
Jung and Schindler [51] Properties of global OWT fleet Quantify the meteorological, geographical, and technical properties of the
global owt fleet etc.

terms. Since those boundary conditions are satisfied on the instanta- linear solution but modifies the wave profile, resulting in crest-trough
neous free surface position 𝑧 = 𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡), it is very difficult to directly asymmetry in wave elevation statistics. As the wave steepness, denoted
apply these nonlinear boundary conditions to analytically solve the by 𝑘𝐴, increases, the nonlinear effect becomes increasingly significant,
problem. Therefore, weakly nonlinear wave theories, e.g. Stokes wave making linear wave theory less applicable.
theory, have been proposed. With nonlinearity up to the third order [63,64], the dispersion
Within the context of Stokes wave theory, the mechanisms and relationship between wave number and wave frequency becomes wave-
properties of wave nonlinearity become apparent. When examining amplitude dependent. Wave celerity is not only related to the wave
regular waves, the second-order free surface conditions encompass number and water depth but also to the wave amplitude. The third-
quadratic terms of the linear wave solutions. These terms give rise order wave contains not only triple the linear frequency, but also
to a second-order bounded wave that travels at the same speed as includes a similar linear component. It shows nonlinear influence, not
the linear wave [62]. High-order bounded waves, on the other hand, only in multiple-integer frequencies of the linear-wave frequency, but
release energy and transform into free waves, each propagating at its also covers the wave frequency and low-frequency component.
unique wave speed, with their wave number and frequency satisfying As the wave steepness further increases, or the waves propagate
the dispersion relation. In the case of irregular waves or a wave group, to shallow-water regions, waves become more nonlinear [65,66]. The
interactions between each pair of wave components can generate a wave is highly nonlinear, with orders up to fifth [67] or even
second-order wave component. This second-order solution relies on the higher [68], which is close to the breaking limit. Dean [69] and Fenton

5
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

[70] developed the stream function method to describe fully nonlinear the fluid volume, and enforces Laplace equation to be satisfied on grid
regular waves with greater precision. The wave solution is expressed points or in a weak-form integrated manner. Examples are the finite
as linear superposition of stream functions, which are fundamental element method (FEM) [82–88], finite difference method (FDM) [89–
solutions to the Laplace equation. The unknown coefficients for the 93], and Harmonic Polynomial Cell method (HPC) [94–96]. The free
stream functions are numerically obtained using the fully nonlinear free surface conditions are integrated in time to evolve the wave solutions
surface conditions. on the free surface. Once the solutions for the flow are obtained,
wave loads and thus floater motions can be obtained, with the latter
2.1.2. Nonlinear wave–structures interaction being a consequence of Newton’s 2nd law and conservation of angular
The density variation of water is usually negligible, and the fluid momentum.
is regarded as incompressible. For linear and weakly nonlinear wave–
structure interactions, one typically utilizes potential-flow theory and 2.2. Novel concept floater design
the perturbation expansion method to solve the velocity potential in
the fluid domain bounded by the mean positions of the water surface, In the past decade, as wind turbines have been upscaled from 5 to 20
body surfaces and a control surface at far field. However, for highly MW, many novel concepts of floaters have been proposed and rapidly
nonlinear wave–structure interaction problems, the boundary value developed [97,98]. Karimirad and Michailides [99] developed a 5 MW
problem should be solved based on the instantaneous free surface and V-shaped semi-submersible FOWT for a water depth of 100 m. Cao et al.
wetted body surfaces. The velocity potential 𝜙 is typically decomposed [100] proposed a new conceptual semisubmersible platform of 10 MW
into incident potential 𝜙𝑖 , scattered potential 𝜙𝑠 , and radiation potential to operate at a water depth of 200 m. Zhao et al. [101] proposed a
𝜙𝑟 . Diffraction occurs when waves are diffracted by the fixed structure, 10 MW DUT Semi-platform at 130 m water depth. Ren et al. [102]
and radiation is caused by the motions of the structure in still water. performed the design and analysis of a 5 MW tension leg platform
The nonlinearity of the hydrodynamic forces can be seen from the FOWT consisting of multi-columns at 60 m water depth with tendon
dynamic pressure (both the term of time derivative of potential and failure. This gives a good insight of the mooring failure on the dynamic
the term of kinetic energy), given by the Bernoulli equation as response of FOWT. Souza and Bachynski-Polić [103] developed three
( ) 20 MW spar-type FOWTs for 320 m water depth. There are many other
𝜕𝜙 1
𝑝 = −𝜌 + ∇𝜙 ⋅ ∇𝜙 + 𝑔𝑧 (3) novel floater concepts that are not listed here. Most of the relevant stud-
𝜕𝑡 2
ies focused on hydrodynamic performance of the floaters, particularly
where 𝜌 is the density of water, the terms underlined are the nonlinear regarding second-order hydrodynamic effects including low-frequency
resource of the pressure. The hydrodynamic forces 𝐅 = (𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 ) responses. An increasing effort is being made to propose novel floaters,
and the corresponding moments 𝐌 = (𝐹4 , 𝐹5 , 𝐹6 ) are the integration while the nonlinear hydrodynamic performance is an important index
of pressure over the instantaneous wetted body surfaces, which read that must be considered in the design and optimization of FOWTs.
Since nonlinear hydrodynamic effects, such as the viscous drag loads on
𝐹𝑖 = 𝑝𝑛𝑖 𝑑𝑆, 𝑖 = 1, … , 6, (4) slender members or damping plates of the FOWTs, can greatly influence
∬𝑆𝐵
both wave-frequency and low-frequency responses, it is essentially
where 𝑛𝑖 𝑖 = 1, … , 6, is 𝑖th component of the generalized normal vector, important that the nonlinear effects are properly taken into account
with (𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 ) = 𝐧 and (𝑛4 , 𝑛5 , 𝑛6 ) = 𝐫 × 𝐧. Here, 𝐧 is the unit normal in the design and analysis of FOWT.
vector pointing out of the fluid domain in the global coordinate system
and 𝑟 is the position vector of a point on the body surface. 𝑆𝐵 is the 2.3. Shallow water mooring line design and optimization
kinematic boundary condition on wetted body surface.
Once we determined the load characteristics of marine structure, Some FOWT projects have been constructed in deep water [17,18,
we can based on Newton second law and conservation of angular 20,24], but there are still many suitable regions for installing FOWT
momentum to simulate the motion equations: in moderate water depths or shallow-water regions, such as off the
𝑀 𝐱̈ = 𝐹 𝑃 𝑜𝑡 + 𝐹 𝑉 + 𝐹 𝑀 + 𝐹 𝑅 (5) coasts of China and the UK. One of the biggest technical challenge
for shallow-water FOWTs is the mooring design. In this case, the
where 𝑀 is the mass of the FOWT and 𝐱 is the 6-Dof displacement mooring system may greatly increase the total costs of a FOWT project,
of FOWT caused by external force. 𝐹 𝑃 𝑜𝑡 includes all the wave loads making it less attractive than fixed offshore wind turbine. McEvoy et al.
that can be described by potential-flow models, consisting of linear [104] introduced a novel mooring solution for FOWTs that utilizes
and nonlinear hydrodynamic inertia, radiation and diffraction loads. a combination of a high modulus, non-stretch rope and a compliant
𝐹 𝑉 is the excitation and damping force contributed by the viscous. nonlinear polymer spring. This innovative approach offers a complete
𝐹 𝑀 represents the forces from the mooring and cable systems, and 𝐹 𝑅 semi-taut mooring system that is lightweight and suitable for shallow-
represents the forces from the rest parts of the structure, e.g. tower. water environments. Xu et al. [105] proposed seven different mooring
If a linear or second-nonlinear theory is followed, the hydrodynamic concepts for shallow-water–mooring-line solutions. Many studies fo-
loads can be obtained from a standard diffraction-radiation solver based cusing on mooring concept designs have proposed hybrid and novel
on perturbation expansion. When higher-order nonlinearities matter, synthetic mooring concepts. The nonlinear hydrodynamics associated
more advanced numerical models could be utilized, and highly non- with shallow-water effects, together with the behavior of nonlinear
linear wave–structure interactions must be solved in the time domain. materials of synthetic rope components, represent new challenge in the
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) [71–74] with proper turbulence design and analysis, which will be elaborated in Section 4.5.
modeling and free surface capturing techniques (e.g. Volume of Fluid
or Level Set methods) is the most sophisticated approach to model 2.4. Freak wave
violent wave–structure interactions. When viscous effects are minor,
fully nonlinear potential flow models [75–77] governed by the Laplace Since the successful observation of the ‘New year wave’ extreme
equation, and boundary conditions at the free surface, body surface, event in the North sea, many studies have put effort in the scientific
seabed and the far field, can also be used as a good approximation. To definition, mechanisms, and probability of the occurrence of freak
solve the boundary-value problem, either boundary element methods waves. McAllister et al. [106] recreated the freak wave measured at
(BEMs) or the field methods can be used. The BEMs solve the boundary the Draupner platform to gain an understanding of the directional
integral equation which is obtained by applying Green’s second identity conditions leading to the large and steep wave. As pointed out in DNV-
to the Laplace equation [78–81]. The field method directly discretizes RP-C205 [107], there is currently no well-accepted definition of freak

6
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

waves or the probability of their occurrence. Some studies suggest that results indicate significant cost savings and favorable dynamic response
freak waves could be induced by wave–current interaction, combined characteristics, with no observed issues related to modular resonance.
seas, and wave energy focusing. Nevertheless, for FOWT applications, However, in a recent study by Sauder [122], it is shown for an array
the focus is how the waves interact with the structures, which has of semi-submersible FOWTs that modular resonances exist, and the
gained great interests in research. Qu et al. [108] conducted a study to corresponding natural frequencies are different from that of single
examine the dynamic responses of a Spar-type floating offshore wind FOWTs. The impacts of modular resonances on failure modes of FOWTs
turbine under the combined effect of a freak wave and a uniform on a farm level and their implication in safety assessment require future
current. Chang et al. [109] investigated the influence of freak wave on dedicated studies.
the responses of a tension leg platform (TLP), while further considered Connolly and Hall [123] introduced four distinct geometric de-
the second-order wave effect and focusing positions. Wang et al. [110] signs for shared lines and presented a novel algorithm for analyzing
analyzed the dynamic response of TLP with a hydro-pneumatic ten- these shared lines. The analysis involves considering the distance be-
sioner under freak wave conditions. This type of study involves highly tween turbines, which, when combined with appropriate mooring line
nonlinear hydrodynamic problems related to freak wave-floater inter- properties, effectively minimizes floater motion and mooring tension,
actions [111], including slamming. A discussion on this is presented in resulting in substantial cost savings. In the study conducted by Liang
a later Section 4.2. et al. [124], an analysis of the shared mooring system between two
Spar FOWTs was performed using Irvine’s method [125]. The study
2.5. Multi-energy integration hybrid system primarily focused on determining the natural periods of the system,
which play a crucial role in avoiding wave resonance periods. In their
To capture more ocean renewable energy and reduce the lev- work, Wilson et al. [126] introduced a linearized representation for
elized cost of energy by increasing power capacity, wave energy con- shared mooring systems, which enables easy simulation of array-wide
verters and tidal turbines have been proposed to be integrated with dynamic properties. This representation serves as a valuable tool for
FOWTs. Michailides et al. [112] proposed a braceless semi-submersible the efficient evaluation and systematic optimization of preliminary
FOWT which is equipped with a flap-type wave energy converter, shared mooring systems. Additionally, Wang et al. [127] discovered
and investigated the hydrodynamic performance based on experi- that achieving cost savings in a 3 by 3 square FOWT array may require
ments and numerical tools. Sun et al. [113] developed an experiment compromising the mean horizontal offset. Furthermore, Lopez-Olocco
to investigate a semi-submersible FOWT platform combined with a et al. [128] conducted experimental research on a shared mooring
point absorber-wave energy converter. Yang et al. [114] proposed configuration for two Spar FOWTs. Their findings indicated that the
shared mooring configuration led to a 40% increase in platform surge
an integrated energy system that consisting of two tidal turbines
motion compared to a single Spar FOWT in extreme wave conditions.
attached with a Spar FOWT and investigated its performance. Hu et al.
Although the fairlead tensions of the anchor lines did not increase
[115] and Zhou et al. [116] conducted a size and layout optimization
significantly in the shared mooring configurations, the shared line
study of wave energy converters (WECs) within the FOWT hybrid
exhibited rare, extreme tension peak events.
system. Zhang et al. [117] integrated the FOWT with oscillating water-
Using the coupled analysis tool FAST.Farm, as reported by Lozon
column wave energy converters and proposed a coupled numerical
and Hall [129], the shared-mooring design demonstrated smaller fluc-
framework to investigate the hydrodynamic performance. Many novel
tuations in surge compared to individual FOWTs. This configuration
hybrid systems [118,119], similar to novel floater design concepts, are
did not introduce significant inter-platform resonances and had no
not listed here; however, they may also represent different nonlinear
consequential effects on turbine loading or mooring fatigue life. In
hydrodynamic problems. Except for the FOWT floater hydrodynamic
a dynamic analysis of a dual-spar floating offshore wind farm with
performance, it includes ocean renewable-energy device motion, power
a shared mooring system in extreme environmental conditions, Liang
take-off (PTO) systems and gap resonance between wave-energy arrays.
et al. [130] found that the loading direction significantly influenced
New hydrodynamic challenges in integrated hybrid systems have
platform motion and mooring response. However, the influence of
not been investigated thoroughly in the literature. For example, a point shared line properties on platform motion and structural responses
absorber WEC makes use of large-amplitude relative motion between was limited when compared to the wave incident direction loading
the devices and the fluid to extract energy via PTO systems, involving direction. Lastly, as highlighted by Zhang and Liu [131], anisotropy
nonlinear hydrodynamics due to violent variation of wetted surface and in the stiffness properties of the shared mooring system can impact the
wave runup that cannot be well described by a linear potential flow displacements of a FOWT. The study emphasized that wind direction
theory, and how to evaluate the effect of viscous drag variation under and position primarily determine these displacements. Furthermore,
this situation. In addition, how those nonlinear wave loads influence it pointed out the non-negligible risk of progressive failure in the
the wave energy capture and the performance of the integrated system, structural configuration of shared mooring systems.
and whether the dynamic response of the FOWT will be increased when Fontana et al. [132] introduced four geometric designs for shared
the float is designed to capture energy, need dedicated studies. For anchors, demonstrating the potential to reduce anchor loads and save
example, can the higher-harmonic resonance responses of oscillating costs through shared anchor arrangements. Li et al. [133] proposed two
water column [120] trigger the high-frequency resonant responses of shared anchor concepts. Their results indicated that, even in scenarios
the tower structures of FOWTs, and if a linear model is adopted, can where mooring failures occurred in shared anchor configurations, these
those phenomena be captured? failures did not lead to catastrophic events within the wind farm.
Furthermore, a comparative study by Pillai et al. [134] focused on
2.6. Shared mooring/anchor systems a 15MW Floating Offshore Wind Turbine (FOWT) in moderate water
depth, comparing a single-turbine setup with a scenario where three
Utilizing shared mooring systems and anchors presents a cost-saving turbines shared an anchor. The findings revealed that shared anchors
method, with the added potential of reducing line and anchor loading reduced peak loads by 67% when wind and waves came from the
in floating offshore wind farms. However, this approach may introduce same direction. Conversely, load levels were similar to those of a single
complexities and design challenges to the overall system. There are turbine when wind and waves approached from different directions.
also only limited studies on the modular (floater-to-floater coupling) However, the shared anchor systems were susceptible to variable loads
responses on a farm level, which may represent different failure modes from different directions, suggesting that alternative anchor types could
than standalone FOWTs. be considered to accommodate multi-directional loads. Moreover, the
Goldschmidt and Muskulus [121] examined various share-line ar- research conducted by Lozon and Hall [129] revealed that the total
rangements aiming at reducing costs and analyzing the dynamic be- anchor capacity required for a shared-mooring array decreased by
havior of FOWT in both frequency domain and time domain. The approximately 25% when shared anchors were used.

7
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

3. Nonlinear hydrodynamic challenges for FOWT 4.1. The slow-drift responses

Nonlinear phenomena, including issues like ringing and springing, Second-order wave loads and responses are directly associated with
have been identified and extensively studied in marine structures. the square of the wave amplitude, while their frequencies are equal to
These nonlinear characteristics often cannot be adequately addressed either the sum- or difference-frequencies of the incident waves [136].
using linear models. The research community has developed theoretical One special case of difference-frequency wave loads is the mean-drift
models to calculate higher harmonic hydrodynamic loads and impact wave load. The nonlinear sum-frequency or difference-frequency wave
loads on monopiles with simple geometries. However, when it comes to loads may lead to resonant responses of the FOWTs, even though the
FOWTs, the nonlinear hydrodynamic challenges are distinct and require natural frequencies of the floater have been intentionally designed
special consideration. to be outside the wave frequencies. Difference-frequency loads, often
There are two main categories of challenges. The first one is the referred to as low-frequency (LF) or slow-drift load, can cause large-
associated physics that need to be properly considered: amplitude slow-drift motion of the FOWT in the horizontal plane.
Regarding slow-drift responses as a second-order problem, it becomes
• Low-frequency slow-drift load and floater motion. evident that utilizing a linear theory falls short in capturing the sig-
• Transient effects and damage by higher harmonic non-breaking nificant nonlinear slow-drift responses [71,137]. This shortfall results
wave loads and wave slamming. in a substantial underestimation of motion responses in FOWTs and,
• Vibrations triggered by hydroelastic coupling for large FOWTs. consequently, leads to inaccurate prediction of mooring loads during
• Effects of the wave–current interaction. the design process. In this subsection, low-frequency slow-drift loads
• Hydrodynamic behavior of shallow-water mooring lines. and motions are reviewed and discussed.
Currently, a range of methods with different computational costs
Another challenge is related to the fidelity and feasibility of the
are being used to calculate second-order excitation wave loads, such
available numerical models. To date, most tools for the fully coupled
as Newman’s approximation, Pinkster approximation and the full QTF
FOWT hydrodynamic analysis are based on the potential-flow theory method which solves the complete second-order problem [138]. As
utilizing the perturbation expansion method. Here, the hypothesis is long as mooring loads are concerned, second-order LF hydrodynamic
that first-order motion is smaller than the size of the floater, and loads need to be included in the fully coupled FOWT analysis. A brief
second-order motion is smaller than first-order motion. However, in overview of some relevant studies is shown in Table 4. In general,
extreme conditions, where the motions are not significantly smaller all studies have shown that it is necessary to consider second-order
than the floater size, the applicability of those models becomes a hydrodynamics in the FOWT design, especially the LF hydrodynamic
concern. These challenges in numerical models can be summarized as loads. The predicted LF responses are larger when the second-order
follows: wave loads are included, particularly concerning surge and pitch. The
• Inertial coordinate system limitations: There has been certain Pinkster approximation and the full QTF method are more accurate
limitation regarding the traditional formulations under an inertial than Newman’s approximation in estimating low-frequency loads. How-
coordinate system, which is less consistent and applicable for the ever, the Pinkster approximation may also provide less reliable esti-
current FOWT simulations under extreme conditions. Therefore, mates in shallow water conditions. Carmo and Simos [139] presented a
an appropriate method is required to solve this problem. comparison between Newman’s approximation and a slender-body ap-
proach for computing the second-order wave loads acting on a slender
• Empirical viscous corrections: In recent research, models using
cylinder, and Carmo et al. [140] presented a slender-body approach
the perturbation expansion method is usually empirically cor-
for evaluating the first- and second-order wave loads, it allows the
rected to account for viscous effects, and the required empirical
direct utilization of an IFFT algorithm to compute the time series
coefficients, for instance the drag coefficients, are often calibrated
of wave kinematics required by the approximation. In early design
from experiments. Selecting appropriate empirical coefficients for
stages, this approximation provides an interesting alternative to the
use in numerical models is not a straightforward task.
common approach of using hydrodynamic coefficients that need to be
• CFD method trade-off: While the CFD method is another choice
pre-computed in frequency domain.
to mitigate the inconsistencies in the hybrid method mentioned
It has been frequently reported in recent years that the slow-drift
above, computational costs still hinder its wide application in the
motion of FOWTs are underpredicted by engineering models, in com-
design and analysis of FOWT.
parison to experimental measurement. Matos et al. [148] found that
• Lack of full coupling: Existing fully coupled analysis tools for
second-order velocity potential plays an important role in the to-
FOWTs do not consistently account for the interaction between
tal second-order load effect when the vertical resonant motions of a
different physical fields. For instance, the hydrodynamic analysis
semi-submersible platform is of interest. When dealing with similar
does not consider aerodynamic load when calculating RAO (Re-
floaters, the calculation of QTFs can be less computation-intensive
sponse amplitude operator) and QTFs (Quadratic transfer func-
if the quadratic free-surface force are not included. The study also
tion). Therefore, there is a need for a fully coupled Hydro-Aero- unveiled that the frequency domain heave, roll, and pitch motions
Mooring-Elast-Servo analysis that can comprehensively considers at resonance can be estimated with a white noise approach. This
the interaction between modules. method leverages QTFs computed without accounting for the free
surface forcing terms and the coupling effects between various motions.
4. Challenges of nonlinear floater hydrodynamics Robertson et al. [149] found that most engineering models, includ-
ing Sesam, HAWC2, OpenFAST, OrcaFlex, and Bladed, consistently
Nonlinear hydrodynamics, stemming from nonlinear waves and underestimated the ultimate and fatigue loads by approximately 10%–
their interaction floaters, introduce critical hydrodynamic and struc- 20%, primarily attributed to the underprediction LF responses. Simos
tural responses that require meticulous consideration in the design of et al. [150] investigate the slow-drift motions of a 1.5 MW semi-
FOWTs and their stationkeeping systems. Xu et al. [135] investigated submersible FOWT through both model tests and numerical modeling.
the effects of linear and non-linear waves on FOWT and demonstrated Their results show that Newman’s approximation underestimates the
the importance of applying nonlinear hydrodynamic analysis, particu- second-order response under certain conditions. Kvittem et al. [151]
larly for extreme sea states in shallow and intermediate water regions. investigate a 10 MW FOWT through experiment and numerical studies.
This section delves into the issues related to FOWT floaters that are In their numerical model, LF wave excitation loads are estimated using
influenced by the intricacies of nonlinear hydrodynamics. Newman’s approximation, while a tuned quadratic damping matrix

8
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 4
A brief overview of FOWT second-order hydrodynamic investigation.
Studies Numerical tools Floater-type
Bayati et al. [141] Wamit+FAST 5 MW DeepCwind semi-submersible
Cao et al. [100] HyrdoD+FAST A novel 10 MW semi-submersible
Zhao et al. [142] ANSYS AQWA+FAST 5 MW/10 MW Braceless semi-submersible
Pham and Shin [143] UOU in-house code+FAST 5 MW DeepCwind semi-submersible
Chuang et al. [144] SIMA and FAST 5 MW DeepCwind semi-submersible
Mei and Xiong [145] F2A ActiveFloat 15 MW semi-submersible
Yu et al. [146] UOU in-house code+FAST 10 MW S-FOWT semi-submersible
Chang et al. [109] In-house code and OrcaFlex TLP platform
Niranjan and Ramisetti [147] ANSYS AQWA+OpenFAST Volturn US-S 15 MW semi-submersible
Carmo et al. [140] METiS Wamit+OpenFAST A four-column semi-submersible

is considered to account for the viscous effect. However, LF surge drag loads contribute to nonlinear wave-drift loads for column-based
responses are underestimated by the numerical model. Additionally, floaters, meaning that applying different wave amplitudes in the CFD
LF surge responses are also seen to magnify the pitch and mooring- analysis will yield different viscous corrections to the QTFs [157]. As a
line tensions responses. The drag coefficients determined from decay result, further dedicated studies are still to address this problem.
tests led to underestimated low-frequency surge motions in irregular Alternatively, Wang et al. [158] put forth an empirical viscous-drag
sea states. Pegalajar-Jurado and Bredmose [152] investigated the slow- model with the goal of enhancing the low-frequency load calculations
drift motion of a 10 MW NAUTILUS-DTU FOWT and concluded that in OpenFAST. The transverse viscous-drag force acting on the vertical
the surge response is consistently underpredicted in extreme sea states, columns near the waterline was characterized as the main contributor
and the yaw motion is consistently underpredicted in all sea conditions. to the low-frequency surge force near the surge resonance frequency.
The applied QTFs do not account for first-order motion effects and In this range, the contribution from second-order wave diffraction was
the mooring lines introduce damping, causing a underprediction of the found to be negligible. The increased transverse drag coefficient near
surge response in severe sea states and an always underpredicted yaw the free surface, in combination with vertical wave stretching, served
motion. Azcona et al. [153] studied a 5 MW semi-submersible FOWT as the basis for the surge load and motion. A smaller transverse drag
by a software-in-the-loop (SiL) hybrid experiment and compared with coefficient, which have previously been calibrated using free-decay
a numerical model. The findings from this investigation revealed that and forced-oscillation experiments, was employed for the submerged
incorporating nonlinear wave load effects through full QTF calculations part of the columns to prevent excessive surge damping under floating
can improve the accuracy of low-frequency results, although the to- conditions. The studies formulated the normal viscous drag on the
tal response may still be underestimated. When turbulent winds are heave plates to account for the impact of flow separation, resulting
taken into account at rated wind speed, the influence of hydrodynamic in a better estimation of the low-frequency pitch moment. A simpli-
nonlinearities is typically limited because wind load effect dominates fied approach that involved computing a portion of the normal drag
the low-frequency floater motions. The latest CCP-WSI 1st FOWT com- force based on a high-pass-filtered relative normal velocity was also
parative study, Holcombe et al. [154] shows that the state-of-the-art proposed. The approach managed to offer a better estimation of the
engineering models underpredict low-frequency wave loads and motion low-frequency pitch resonance motion and the wave-frequency heave
due to their limitations in hydrodynamic modeling, which typically resonance motion of the floater. However, it remains unclear over
focuses on linear or weakly nonlinear effects. which frequency range this method provides accurate predictions of the
To address the problem of underprediction of LF wave loads in engi- nonlinear low-frequency wave loads.
neering models, Wang et al. [74] carried out a benchmark study to in- Overall, both methods by Li and Bachynski-Polić [155] and Wang
vestigate the behavior of the OC5 FOWT when exposed to bichromatic et al. [158] seem to be promising in improving the prediction of low-
wave excitation, with the goal of capturing the nonlinear difference- frequency wave loads in engineering models, but so far they have only
frequency excitation. Both computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simu- been attempted for ‘DeepCWind’ floaters. Thus obtaining an accurate
lations and experimental results showed that high-fidelity CFD tools can QTF and damping coefficient for an arbitrary floater still remains a
accurately predict nonlinear difference-frequency wave loads, which major challenge.
are typically underestimated by engineering models. Furthermore, CFD Furthermore, to achieve a more accurate prediction of slow-drift
method can serve as a valuable reference to tune and enhance engineer- motions, it is essential to incorporate slow-drift damping (SDD) which
ing models. Li and Bachynski-Polić [155] utilized both CFD and SIMA is however a challenging to quantify. Hermans and Sierevogel [159]
to investigate nonlinear wave excitation loads on a stationary semi- derived the wave-drift damping coefficients and managed to com-
submersible FOWT. The comparison with experimental data revealed pute all the coefficients required to describe the low-frequency lateral
that engineering models consistently underpredict low-frequency wave motions of a ship in waves. Lupton and Langley [160] proposed an
loads. Furthermore, the study observed phase discrepancies, partic- empirical expression to determine the scaling of slow-drift motion as
ularly when accounting for high-order wave diffraction loads. The a function of platform size, mooring properties, and wave conditions.
issue of underestimation was addressed by revising the QTF [156] The findings suggest that slow drift motion may be less significant
to include viscous effects. This method involved a modification and for FOWT compared to larger-sized floating structures. Lim and Kim
proportional increase of the difference-frequency wave excitation QTF [161] introduced a new design-wave method for estimating the extreme
on a stationary body based on a series of computational fluid dynamics slow-drift motion of a moored offshore platform. The method assumes
simulations with bichromatic incident waves. These revised QTFs were that the linearized equation of slow-drift motion can reliably identify
then incorporated into the engineering model, resulting in improved extreme events with nonlinear slow-drift motion and that any memory
low-frequency load predictions under floating conditions. This, in turn, effect is less significant for extreme events. Pham and Shin [143]
led to more accurate estimations of low-frequency resonance motion. utilized in-house codes developed at Ulsan University to examine the
Modifying QTFs based on tank tests or CFD simulations requires specific influence of second-order wave loads on the drift motion of floating
adjustments tailored to the characteristics of the floating model under offshore wind turbines. Their results revealed that the second-order
consideration. The accuracy of this method is significantly influenced wave loads exerted a greater influence on surge response at the surge
by the specific details and attributes of the floating model being ana- natural frequency, and that resonance responses were highly dependent
lyzed. Furthermore, it is commonly understood that third-order viscous on the damping force applied to the FOWT system. Additionally, the

9
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

damping coefficient was found to vary among different sea states. Srini- linear or weakly nonlinear frequency-domain potential flow theory,
vasamurthy et al. [162] utilized a real-time hybrid model to explore it cannot capture the higher harmonic wave load [169] and wave
the wind tracking capabilities of a novel FOWT design. Additionally, slamming effects. It also cannot capture the wave breaking, greenwater
a forced yawing test was conducted to estimate slow-drift damping on deck, etc. Some linear and nonlinear solution comparison can be
coefficients. The results proved that slow-drift damping is a crucial found in [71,137,170]. The fully nonlinear potential models, CFD,
factor to consider when simulating the turning motion of the moored and experimental method are the proper tools to investigate these
point of the FOWT. Wright et al. [163] proposed a novel method situations. The details are discussed below.
for fitting drag coefficients to non-constant damping rates, the drag Regarding the non-breaking higher harmonic wave loads, many
coefficients and added mass were calculated by a combined potential studies have investigated the harmonic wave load on monopiles and
flow and Morison’s equation model. proposed numerical models, such as the FNV theory, second-order
Since linear radiation damping becomes negligible at the natural and third-order diffraction theory [171,172]. It also includes a phase-
periods of surge, sway, and yaw motions of FOWT with catenary manipulation method to decompose the monopile harmonic load up to
mooring system, the quadratic viscous damping stemming from the twelfth order [170]. However, there are few studies on the harmonic
FOWT’s hull and the mooring system assumes greater importance. wave load on FOWT and there is lack of relevant load model for
The equivalent viscous damping is roughly proportional to the wave FOWT. Orszaghova et al. [173] carried out an experiment to examine
height, while wave-drift damping is proportional to the square of the the behavior of high-order sub-harmonics on a TetraSpar FOWT under
wave height. Consequently, as wave height increases, the significance irregular-wave extreme conditions. The harmonic separation method
of wave-drift damping surpasses that of viscous damping. Utilizing employed in the investigation was based on a phase-manipulated de-
Newman’s approximation and assuming narrow-band slow-drift surge composition technique. The results indicated that the odd slow-drift
responses, Faltinsen [157] demonstrated that the standard deviation resonant responses were dominated by drag force, while the even pitch
of surge, denoted as 𝜎𝑥1 , is proportional to 𝐻𝑠𝑏 . Here, 𝐻𝑠 signifies motion was due to the interaction between wave and structure at
the significant wave height of a seastate. The value of the exponent difference-frequency range. The odd resonance and even resonance are
𝑏 depends on the dominant damping mechanism. Specifically, 𝑏 equals based on the phase decomposition method for decomposition of the
1.0 when wave-drift damping takes precedence and 𝑏 equals 34 when total interest signal, in which odd resonance includes the first, third,
viscous damping dominates. In a recent study conducted by Zheng et al. etc. and even resonance includes the second, second-order difference-
[164], the low-frequency responses of a deep-draft spar in irregular frequency and fourth, etc. Notably, pitch resonance is crucial for the
waves were examined using a complete and consistent second-order safety of FOWT, which indicates that it is necessary to take into account
hydrodynamic model. Without using Newman’s approximation and the unexpected odd-resonant pitch motion in extreme load cases. The
assumption of narrow-band responses, their results provide valuable investigation sought to understand the potential drivers of odd resonant
insights into the relationship between significant wave height (𝐻𝑠 ) and motions, considering both third-order potential flow effects and Mori-
the standard deviation of motions at the center of gravity. Specifically, son drag. The findings emphasize that Morison drag overwhelmingly
the study reveals that 𝜎𝑥1 ∼ (𝐻𝑠 )1.1 for surge motion, highlighting dominates over cubic low-frequency forcing, particularly under severe
viscous damping as the predominant damping mechanism in this con- wave conditions. This domination results in pitch motion of comparable
text. Moreover, for low-frequency pitch motion prediction, the study magnitude to the second-order even response.
indicates the importance of considering both wave-drift damping and Based on the harmonic separation method, Zeng et al. [71] provides
viscous damping, as denoted by 𝜎𝑥5 , the standard deviation of pitch a good way to investigate the higher harmonic wave load and low-
motion, with 𝜎𝑥5 ∼ (𝐻𝑠 )4∕3 . frequency resonance response of DeeCwind FOWT under a focused
In summary, recent studies consistently highlight that the second- wave group. The dynamic response of the floater can be characterized
order slow-drift motions are underpredicted by the state-of-the-art into two parts, i.e. ‘forced oscillations’ due to drag-driven from odd
time-domain engineering tools for FOWT. In response to this underes- harmonics, and ‘free decay’ because of the second-order difference-
timation, various empirical corrections have been proposed. However, frequency effect from even harmonics. The motion of odd harmonics
the effectiveness of such one-stop correction open to scrutiny, as the closely correlates with the time history of the incident wave, attributed
underestimation may also stem from inappropriate assumptions within to a drag-induced response by the wave. In contrast, the motion of even
the applied numerical models. For example, the calculation of QTFs harmonics primarily stems from the effects of second-order difference-
for second-order wave excitation loads in the frequency domain uses frequency resonance, oscillating at the natural periods. However, the
the first-order solutions as inputs, while the challenge of appropriately amplitudes of these oscillations gradually decay over time due to the
incorporating drag loads into the linearized frequency-domain analysis presence of damping. For extreme waves with large steepness, the low-
remains. Methods to linearize the quadratic drag forces have been pro- frequency components dominate the total surge and pitch motions.
posed in the literature, for instance, the regular-wave linearization for The focused-wave model serves as a simple extreme equivalent model.
monochromatic waves and stochastic linearization for irregular waves. However, the limitation is that it lacks the extreme statistical property
Those concerns must be resolved before one can universally tune the found in irregular waves. Zeng et al. [174] conducted an experiment
engineering models using model tests or high-fidelity CFD simulations. to investigate the dynamic response of FOWT under various freak wave
In addition, effectively applying 𝐶𝑑 coefficients from model tests or profiles that were embedded in unidirectional Gaussian seas. It revealed
CFD be properly applied to simulations of irregular waves remains a that a deep trough of freak wave resulted in stronger motions of the
challenge, which will be discussed in a later Section 5.3. FOWT when compared to a large crest.
Many studies have conducted experiments and CFD investigations
4.2. The transient effects, higher harmonic non-breaking wave load and on the breaking-wave slamming loads [175]. Abdussamie et al. [176]
slamming carried out experiments to investigate the global response of a TLP
under load conditions consisting of long-crested irregular waves com-
Beyond the second-order wave effects, extreme wave is a highly bined with wave-in-deck load effects under extreme wave conditions.
nonlinear wave phenomenon, characterized by their colossal wave The results managed to offer a meaningful conclusion regarding the
heights. The corresponding loads can be classified into non-breaking effects of wave loading on platform movement, tendon tension, and
higher-harmonic wave load and impulsive wave-slamming load, which slamming pressures. Meanwhile, the above-mentioned parameters are
have different mechanisms. The models include the Faltinsen–Newman– qualitatively correlated. Vestbøstad et al. [177] investigated the col-
Vinje (FNV) theory [165,166] for higher order loads and the pressure umn slamming of a TLP platform through basin test. The structural
impulse theory [167,168] for slamming. If we utilized traditional response due to slamming pressure are found to be determined by

10
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

the rise time, contact duration, and spatial distribution of the load. potential flow model that predicts fully nonlinear wave kinematics. The
Meanwhile, the up-wave columns were found to have large impact pressure-impulse model managed to provide equal results compared
pressure when compared to down-wave columns. Based on the fully with experimental data, which proved the applicability to be combined
nonlinear potential flow theory, Cheng and Ji [178] examined the with fully nonlinear potential flow (FNPF) to predict slamming.
impact of the breaking wave acting on a FOWT whose working location For shallow-draft structures with features like heave plates, as ex-
is featured with varying depth. The numerical analysis involved the use emplified by the Advanced-Spar type FOWT [15], specific challenges
of an adiabatic model to simulate the variations in air cavity volume arise. These challenges are characterized by non-constant water-plane
and pressure, which were imposed on the dynamic boundary condition areas due to the proximity of the heave plate and the potential for
of the inner free surface. The findings concluded that the wind turbine greenwater and wave breaking when the heave plate emerges from the
installed on a seabed with a larger slope experienced higher air cavity water. In response to these challenges, Katafuchi et al. [185] conducted
pressure, higher rotational speed, and smaller speed in both horizontal a study that both numerically and experimentally investigated the
and vertical directions. nonlinear motion characteristics of a monopile type floater with skirts.
Yan et al. [179] investigated the plunging wave effects on a fixed The findings indicated the potential of CFD methods to accurately
structure with box-shape. The wave impact occurs before, upon and reproduce the motion characteristics of shallow-draft floating objects
after the wave breaking, and the pressure maxima is identified on both with skirts in waves, particularly when compared to linear potential
the front and bottom walls under three different wave impact scenar- theory [186]. The source of these nonlinearities was traced back to the
ios. Luo et al. [180] conducted experiments to examine the behavior proximity of the skirt and the waterline, with the nonlinear motions
of TLP platforms under different freak wave scenarios. The results primarily resulting from quadratic damping behavior, including the
indicated that the local impact pressure employed on the structure effects of viscosity and vortex shedding, as well as abrupt changes in
was closely influenced by the level of wave breaking, i.e. highly- water-plane area during violent heave and pitch motions.
breaking waves provided larger pressure than slightly breaking and However, there still lacks studies on the higher-harmonic loads on
unbroken waves. However, they could lead to evenly unfavorable FOWTs of 15 MW or larger, especially regarding how the resonant
results concerning the of floater motion and anchor force. Furthermore, responses of the tower and floater induced by the higher-harmonic
highly-breaking waves were found to cause extreme floater motions, loads also influence the mooring loads, and whether it will cause the
which can potentially induce large transient snap loads and high- nacelle and blade resonant responses. There is also a lack of studies on
frequency responses in the tether. Luo et al. [181] provided further whether slamming loads on FOWT could cause mooring line breakage.
insights into the effects of air-gap conditions. As the air gap decreases, Some studies [108–110,187] have investigated the freak wave interac-
the impact pressure on the bottom wall of the upper deck increases, tion with FOWT based on the traditional time-domain simulation based
while the impact pressures on the vertical front wall decrease. on Cummins’ equation to study the hydrodynamic problem, and the
There are relatively fewer studies on breaking-wave slamming on suitability and accuracy of this type of models in capturing the key
FOWTs. Rudman and Cleary [182] employed the Smoothed Particle
physics and dynamic response. An extreme wave is always accompa-
Hydrodynamics (SPH) method to investigate the impact of rogue waves
nied by a strong wind. Dynamic response of FOWT under a nonlinear
on a semi-submersible platform, which focused on the effects of various
wave and wind includes the generated power, structural response,
mooring systems on floater motion and mooring tension. The use
and mooring tension, which are required for a deep investigation.
of polyester rope offers advantages in the floater response and 45◦
However, the current FOWT integration analysis tool is based on linear
wave impacts (wave incident direction is 0◦ ) are considered to be the
or weakly nonlinear theories, which cannot consider higher-harmonic
most crucial case when worst-case scenarios are of interest. Banks and
wave loads. Nevertheless, the pressure impulse theory demonstrated
Abdussamie [183] conducted an experiment to investigate the interac-
in Ghadirian et al. [168] for monopiles opens new possibilities to
tion between unidirectional waves and a semi-submersible floater with
implement similar models in engineering tools to predict the breaking-
horizontal mooring system. The heave and pitch motions were found
wave slamming loads under extreme wind and wave conditions for
to be enlarged as the wave steepness increased.
column-based FOWTs.
Zhou et al. [184] studied a series of cases of the floater motion,
hydrodynamic load, and mooring force of FOWT under severe sea
states, and the results show that the potential flow model under- 4.3. Vibrations triggered by the hydroelastic couplings
predicted the nonlinearity of the hydrodynamic load and the motion
caused by high-frequency loads. Zhou et al. [72] looked into the effects When the above-mentioned higher-harmonic or transient loads act
due to wave type and steepness on the FOWTs behavior based on a on FOWTs, they may cause hydroelastic phenomena, such as ring-
self-developed aero-hydro-mooring CFD model. The findings indicated ing and springing [188]. Ringing, which is a phenomenon of struc-
that the nonlinear response was dominated by wave steepness param- tural vibration due to transient waves loads, can be triggered by a
eter, while the aerodynamic responses were barely affected by the steep wave group, whereas the springing phenomenon is a steady-
wave conditions. Via a comparative benchmark test of CFD analysis state structural resonant response of certain flexible modes that can
against experiments, Wang et al. [73] investigated the DeepCWind occur under continuous hydrodynamic excitation [189]. In essence,
FOWT under an irregular wave where extreme events were present. hydroelasticity addresses the intricate interaction between fluids and
Second-order low-frequency resonant motion is of unique importance flexible structures. It delves into how the deformations or vibrations
for determining the extreme and fatigue loads in the floater and moor- of these structures can be influenced by the surrounding fluid, and
ing system. There is also a shortage of mathematical models to describe conversely, on how the fluid flow can be affected by the presence of
the slamming phenomenon. Recently, a pressure-impulse model was the deformable structure. If we consider a linear theory, some of these
developed by Ghadirian and Bredmose [167] to describe the slamming important hydroelastic phenomena may not be captured or accurately
wave loads acting on a monopile. The pressure impulse is defined as the predicted, such as the high-frequency vibration of the tower. In this
time-integral of the pressure with a small time scale during the impact. subsection, FOWT hydroelastic coupling problems are reviewed and
The proposed model was developed for simple geometry and consider discussed.
the relative impact height, crest length, and monopile radius as relevant In the early stage, hydroelastic couplings were considered in
parameters. The maximum impact angle served as a free parameter that monopile-type structures because of the ringing phenomena which
can be calibrated to produce the correct force impulse. Later, Ghadirian were identified as nonlinear mechanism caused by the high-frequency
et al. [168] introduced a straightforward methodology for implement- transient response. Subsequently, many studies developed high-order
ing a pressure impulse-based slamming model in conjunction with a hydrodynamic models to consider this phenomenon [165,166,171] and

11
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 5
A brief introduction of FOWT hydroelastic experimental investigation.
Studies Experimental method Floater-type Model scale
Luan et al. [195] the internal loads between segments 5 MW braceless semi-submersible 1:30
Suzuki et al. [196] consider an inner skeleton braceless semi-submersible 1:80
Takata et al. [197] consider an inner skeleton multi-column floater 1:50
Leroy et al. [198] consider an inner skeleton 10 MW Spar 1:40

conducted wave tank tests [190,191] or numerical simulations [192– internal loads. Svendsen [201] utilized the equivalent beam model in
194] to investigate this phenomenon on a monopile. a global model of the whole TLP FOWT to investigate the influence of
As the sizes of FOWTs increase, their natural frequencies may hull elasticity on the global structural dynamic characteristics and the
become closer to the excitation frequencies, and thus the hydroelastic internal loads, which proved that floater motion in vertical direction
couplings will be more easily triggered in a wide range of frequencies. was significantly influenced by hull elasticity. Luan et al. [202] devel-
Two different experimental methods have recently been proposed to oped and verified a time-domain method for examining global forces
investigate FOWT hydroelastic couplings, one of which is to measure and moments that impacted the structural components of a generic
the internal loads of the intersection between two rigid segments or on floater under linear and nonlinear hydrodynamic loads, treating the
a rigid component of the platform. Luan et al. [195] carried out a real- FOWT as a collection of separate components. This method focused
time hybrid basin test and used this method to measure the internal on the inertia and external loads on the hull of the FOWT and the
bending moments of three columns of a braceless platform. The single- mapping of the loads in the FEM of the hull. However, it is not ap-
column fore-aft bending moment can be easily obtained. However, plicable to consider the second-order and higher-order hydrostatic and
this method ignored the deformation of the platform segments, and hydrodynamic loads, as well as the hydroelastic effects. Jonkman et al.
the hydroelastic couplings of the full substructure were not captured. [203] followed the method proposed by Luan et al. [202] to modify
Another method is to use an inner skeleton that offers the aiming and implement floater flexibility and member-level load capabilities
stiffness in the floater while ensuring the Froude-scaled hydrodynamic for FOWT in OpenFAST. The Guyan modes are used to obtain the
loads on the outer shell. Suzuki et al. [196] developed a braceless floater’s rigid-body motion, and the Craig–Bampton and static modes
semi-submersible FOWT in wave-tank tests and divided the model are used to capture the floater elasticity. Thomsen et al. [204] focused
into different segmented-backbone connected by guy-wire to consider on TetraSpar FOWT, comparing different modeling in OpenFAST and
the elastic response. The results indicated that if the pontoon rigidity OrcaFlex of the flexibility effects. The results managed to explain the
was large, for the heave motion, the tension variance of the guy-wire flexible effect of the structure due to floater motion and hydrodynamic
became limited. If the pontoon rigidity was low, the load was borne by loads. Zhao et al. [205] used OpenFAST to analyze a novel 10 MW
the guy-wire under the pitch motion. Takata et al. [197] conducted a semi-submersible FOWT substructure flexibility, and the results showed
study employing a flexible multi-column FOWT model to understand that the operational fatigue damage of the FOWT is significantly influ-
the floater elastic response and its influence on the floater motion enced by substructural flexibility. Alexandre et al. [206] proposed a
under regular waves. The experiment results are also compared with new boundary element method that splits the floating structure into
two numerical models. The outcomes of this investigation unveiled several sections to consider hydroelastic effects. This approach takes
a noteworthy elastic deformation in the decks and columns of the advantage of a single-body BEM calculation and outputs hydrodynamic
model, particularly around the wave period corresponding to the nat- coefficients for different pre-selected sections. This approach distributes
ural period of structural vibration. Leroy et al. [198] developed a 10 loading across a platform that can be straightforwardly coupled to a
MW Spar-type FOWT test with a model made of a flexible backbone, structural solver while maintaining a much faster computational time
and managed to reproduce the first bending-mode natural frequency than the multi-body strategy previously introduced. To reproduce the
and the hydrodynamic loads. The study demonstrated that hydroelastic experiment using a numerical model, Suzuki et al. [196] took the
responses can be induced when the bending mode is excited by higher- floater deformation as a geometrical boundary condition. The tension
order hydrodynamic loads, and thereafter springing or ringing response of the guy-wire was determined by the change in distance between
of the FOWT can be expected. The results also demonstrated that the support points of the guy-wire, accounting for the initial tension
it is necessary to consider the nonlinear hydrodynamic effects when applied to the floater. Takata et al. [197] conducted an analysis of the
evaluating the elastic responses of large FOWTs. A brief introduction dynamic motions and deformations of FOWT experimental model, com-
of experimental investigations on hydroelastic responses of FOWTs is paring their findings with numerical calculations from NK-UTWind and
presented in Table 5. WAMIT codes. They further compared these results with experimental
These experimental studies were used to validate the numerical data to assess the influence of elastic deformation on multi-column
tools for a more advanced analysis. In traditional medium-fidelity FOWT models. Their research revealed that dynamic elastic deforma-
analysis for FOWTs, fully coupled analysis tools, such as OpenFAST, tion can notably impact the heave response of the model, particularly
HAWC2, and SIMA, are favored in terms of numerical modeling, which under realistic sea conditions, especially when the peak period of the
includes tower and blade as flexible beams, as well as floater as onsite wave spectrum coincides with the natural vibration period of the
rigid body. However, the ’rigid–flexible’ coupling methodology cannot floater.
consider the flexibility of the platforms [199]. With the development Ran et al. [207] used numerical tools WAMIT and SIMA to compare
of numerical methods, many studies have proposed various methods results for different rigid and flexible models with experimental data
to solve this problem. The main method involves coupling the hy- from Leroy et al. [198]. The investigation encompassed the examina-
drodynamic model with a structural model. The hydrodynamic model tion of Morison-only models and potential-flow models coupled with
can be a choice among the potential-flow models based on BEM or Morison drag for rigid structures, along with the utilization of beam
empirical Morison equation. The structural models used were FEM or elements for flexible structures. The results of this research indicate that
modal superposition. Borg et al. [200] utilized a radiation-diffraction the potential flow model outperforms the Morison-only model in accu-
solver, based on the relation between the hydrodynamic panels and rately simulating the internal loads within the structural components,
finite elements to derive the relevant shape functions to consider the particularly in the vicinity of the first bending-mode natural frequency.
flexibility of 10 MW Spar FOWT substructures. It was concluded that A brief summary of relevant studies on the numerical modeling of the
the first-order bending mode of the floater is coupled with the pitch FOWT hydroelasticity is presented in Table 6.
motion, and the flexible mode is significantly excited under extreme en- Hydroelasticity not only affects the tower and substructures but
vironmental conditions, thereby increasing the predicted substructure also has important effects on the mooring dynamics. Thomsen et al.

12
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 6
A brief introduction of FOWT hydroelastic numerical investigation.
Studies Numerical method Software Floater-type
Borg et al. [200] Boundary elements method+ Timoshenko beam-type FE Wamit+HAWC2 10 MW Spar
model
Svendsen [201] Panel model+Beam elements Wamit+Simo/Riflex/Aerodyn TLPWT model
Luan et al. [202] Beam element method + Finite element model Simo/Riflex/Aerodyn 5 MW Braceless
semi-submersible
Alexandre et al. [206] Boundary elements method Bladed OC3 Spar and OC4
semi-submersible
Suzuki et al. [196] Extended Morison equation +Hooft method NK-UTWind in-house code Braceless semi-submersible
Jonkman et al. [203] Morison-based method coupled with finite element models OpenFAST –
Thomsen et al. [204] Morison-based method coupled with finite element OpenFAST and OrcaFlex 3.6 MW TetraSpar
models (OpenFAST) ‘line’ model(OrcaFlex)
Takata et al. [197] Morison equation/Potential flow +Beam elements NK-UTWind in-house code/Wamit multi-column floater
+ ANSYS
Zhao et al. [205] Morison-based method coupled with finite element models OpenFAST v 3.0 10 MW Semi-DUT
semi-submersible
Ran et al. [207] Morison equation/Potential flow coupled with Morison Wamit+SIMA 10 MW Spar
drag + Beam elements

[204] considers the mooring tension affected by the flexibility of FOWT velocity increases. Second-order floater motions resulting from wave
through simulations in OpenFAST and OrcaFlex. The obtained results and current interactions could happen under operational conditions.
by the two solvers are comparable. However, there is no comparison However, the extreme second-order response was influenced by current
with a rigid model, and thus it is not clear how the structural flexibility velocities depending on the environmental conditions.
has influenced the mooring dynamics. Zhao et al. [205] explored the In addition to the effects on the dynamic response of the floater and
flexibility of floater substructure on a newly-proposed 10 MW semi- the tension of the mooring line, the current also affects the damping
submersible FOWT, it is found that the flexible effect will increase the force. Ishihara and Liu [216] investigated the dynamic response of a
extreme value of mooring loads by up to 25%, but has little effects on semi-submersible FOWT under combined wave and current conditions,
the mean value. At a frequency of approximately 2 rad/s, the mooring and the results showed that the velocity of water particles passing
line tension was strongly induced by the flexibility effect. This indicates through the FOWT component will be increased due to the presence
that for a large FOWT, for instance with the capacity of 15 MW or of current, resulting in an increase in vertical damping. Additionally,
higher, the hydroelastic effects on the tower must be considered in the the current pushed the equilibrium position of the platform down-
fully coupled dynamic analysis. It is necessary to investigate how the stream, increasing the upstream mooring line tension as well as the
nonlinear hydrodynamics influence the hydroelastic behavior, and the pitch response. Yang et al. [217] proposed a simplified formula to
extreme and fatigue loads of the FOWTs. calculate the effect of current and viscous effects on drift forces for
non-collinear wave–current conditions. The research revealed that the
4.4. The current effect viscous component of wave–current interactions became largest under
collinear wave and current conditions, while the coupling effect can be
Current plays an equally significant role as waves in contributing disregarded when the current direction is perpendicular to the wave
to the nonlinear effect on the FOWT [208]. Surface water waves is direction. Ommani et al. [218] extended the research on the low-
featured with frequency shifts and wave-shape modifications when cur- frequency surge motion response of a semi-submersible platform in
rents travel underneath. In the traditional offshore oil and gas industry, severe sea states subjected to strong currents. Compared zero current
many studies considered the ocean current as particularly important velocity conditions, wave drift forces exhibited an increase in magni-
in two aspects: the modulation of waves due to current and wave– tude with the presence of current velocity, particularly pronounced in
current-structure interactions, whereas one of the important effects is cases of higher significant wave heights 𝐻𝑠 .
the flow-induced motions [209–211]. Certain novel types of FOWT featuring columns and extended pon-
For the FOWT, Chen and Basu [212] investigated the effects of cur- toons are susceptible to Flow-Induced Motions (FIM). These motions
rent and wave–current interactions in the fatigue analysis of the FOWT, have the potential to significantly reduce the operational lifespan of
by means of a nonlinear mooring hydrodynamics model. Analytical mooring, riser, and cable systems. These FIM effects can exhibit signif-
wave–current interaction models based on linear wave theory are ap- icant nonlinearity. Gonçalves et al. [211] employed small-scale towing
plied to consider the current effect on the wave field. It was shown that tank tests to investigate how irregular and regular waves influence
current-only and wave–current interactions can significantly influence Vortex-Induced Motions (VIM) of a semi-submersible platform. The
the FOWT responses, especially for tower and cable. Neglecting the findings demonstrated that waves exerted an impact on the VIM phe-
current and wave–current interactions could overestimate the fatigue nomenon, resulting in reduced response amplitudes under certain con-
life of the cable when the current increases cable tension. Sarkar et al. ditions. Importantly, the mitigation process was not contingent on the
[213] found that there is little connection between underlying current nature of the waves. Specifically, VIM in waves was mitigated in cases
and the controller performance but wave–current interaction on the where inertia forces predominated. However, it was still observed even
contrary is important. The vorticity effect in combination with current at low amplitudes in cases characterized by a large Keulegan–Carpenter
could lead to complicated fluid motion, which will significantly affect (KC) number within the viscous-dominant region. Later, Goncalves
the dynamics of spar FOWT. Qu et al. [214] found that the existence of et al. [219] conducted an experiment to emphasize the significance of
current has a considerable influence on the tension in the mooring lines, FIM behavior in FOWT platform. The results indicated the presence of a
a 1 m/s opposite current increased the starboard line tension by 26.3% resonance phenomenon, as evidenced by significant oscillations in both
and decreased upstream line tension by 13.6%, whereas the results for the transverse and pitch directions with high amplitudes. Consequently,
the following current are the opposite. Silva et al. [215] found that the it was determined that the FIM phenomenon was characterized by
influence of quadratic hydrodynamic terms is reduced when the current VIM rather than galloping. It is worth noting that VIM results from

13
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 7
A brief introduction of the current effect on FOWT.
Studies Floater-type Current effects
Chen and Basu [212] Spar-type Tower/cable responses and fatigue life
Sarkar et al. [213] Spar-type Vorticity effect
Qu et al. [214] Spar-type Mooring tension
Silva et al. [215] Spar-type Motion response
Carlson and Modarres Sadeghi [222] Semi-submersible Vortex-induced vibration
Ishihara and Liu [216] Semi-submersible Vertical damping
Yang et al. [217] Semi-submersible Viscous component
Ommani et al. [218] Semi-submersible Low-frequency response
Gonçalves et al. [211] Semi-submersible Vortex-Induced Motion
Naito et al. [220] Semi-submersible FIM and WIE

vortex shedding, while galloping is linked to instability, and both mooring line. The difference between the linear and fully nonlinear
are encompassed under the umbrella of flow-induced motion. Naito waves is more significant in the low-frequency surge resonant range,
et al. [220] conducted a towing tank experiments to measure FIM in comparison to that in the wave-frequency range.
in a semi-submersible with extended cylindrical pontoons. The find- In recent years, most studies have investigated the mooring line
ings revealed that FIM primarily induced motions in heave, roll, and laid on a flat seabed, but topography changes sharply on the shallow-
pitch due to the flow around the pontoons. These motions exhibited water seafloor. Tang et al. [225] found that the seafloor topography
multiple lock-in stages resulting from the coupling effects between changed the point of contact between the mooring line and the seafloor.
different degrees of freedom. Additionally, it was noted that the wake As the inclination angle of the mooring line gradually increased, the
interference effect (WIE) played a significant role. Furthermore, other mooring line lying on the seabed is gradually lifted up. The variation
studies have explored the influence of the heave plate on FIM in in the seabed terrain causes an increase in the mooring tension, that
FOWT [221] and examined vortex-induced vibration in slender Spar- is, the projection of the terrain is not conducive to the strength of the
type FOWT [222]. Consequently, the design of FOWT platforms should mooring line. When the mooring line lies on a large projection of the
incorporate considerations for flow-induced motions during the initial seabed near the anchorage point, the bottom of the mooring line may
stages of development. cause large mooring tension. Therefore, in mooring engineering, the
A brief introduction of the current effect on FOWT is presented in anchorage point should avoid seabed terrain with a large projection to
Table 7. Although there has been research that takes into account the reduce the tension at the bottom of the mooring line.
wave–current interaction effect for FOWT in deep water, there are very When FOWTs are installed in shallow water regions, for example,
few studies that considered the current effect for FOWT applications in the coastal areas of Zhejiang and Fujian and the Taiwan Strait area
shallow waters. Except for the mooring-line tension, FOWTs were found in China, the problem of tidal variation is extremely prominent. For
to be influenced by the wave modulation due to current and depends example, in Hangzhou Bay in the Zhejiang area, the average tide range
on whether vortex-induced motions are induced, as well as whether of Shangyu port for many years reached 6.14 m [226]. Song et al. [227]
the dynamic cable is affected by current and indirectly influence the investigated the dynamic influence of large tidal ranges on different
floater. mooring systems. The results show that fairlead tension increases with
increasing tidal ranges. The mooring system with buoys is less influ-
4.5. The nonlinear hydrodynamic behavior of mooring system in shallow enced by the change of tide than the system with a combined chain with
water clumps, but the chain with the buoy tension mooring system has the
largest tension. Increasing mooring line number can make the platform
The mooring systems are also key to the station-keeping and sur- more suitable for areas with large tidal ranges. Chains with clump
vivability of FOWTs exposed to extreme marine environments [223]. mooring systems were recommended for large tidal ranges [227].
Meanwhile it also contributes, together with the floater, to overall hy- It is necessary to consider the hydrodynamic forces that act directly
drodynamic stability of the FOWT system. When FOWTs are installed in on the mooring lines when considering the slow-drift motion of a
intermediate or shallow water regions [224], the effective depth which FOWT. Drag forces on the mooring lines provide significant damping
is defined as the distance between the fairlead and seabed becomes to the slow-drift oscillation, which, in return, influences the coupling
limited for the mooring system to function [105], and the incident wave between the floater motion and the mooring dynamics. Wright et al.
becomes nonlinear. The shallow-water condition requires the mooring [163] found that the Keulegan–Carpenter (KC) number and drag co-
system to consider the sensitivity of the wave climate and should efficient 𝐶𝑑 obtained from total damping (hull + mooring) follow an
adapt to changes in depth of water during storm events and variations inverse relationship, which indicates that when the KC numbers and
in tidal level. In this subsection, the nonlinear incident wave effects, the relevant oscillation amplitudes are lower, the damping will be
topography, tidal level variations effect, and the dynamic coupling much higher. In engineering practice, it is common to use a constant
between the floater and the mooring, especially the slow-drift effect, drag coefficient calibrated from model tests or dedicated CFD analysis.
are discussed. However, it would be more accurate to apply the KC-dependent drag
The nonlinear incident wave effects in shallow water are commonly coefficient 𝐶𝑑 in practical applications. The KC-dependent 𝐶𝑑 can be
recognized by studies. Xu et al. [135] studied a semi-submersible FOWT obtained by considering a range of oscillations parameters, e.g. oscil-
using both linear and fully nonlinear irregular waves as inputs. It was lation amplitudes and frequencies. Nakamura et al. [228] proposed a
found that using linear waves as input under-predicts the surge motion modified approximation method in the time-domain for estimating the
of the FOWT, and the tension response predictions are higher when dynamic mooring line tension. It is based on the assumption that the
the mooring line in the downwind direction is relatively less slack than coupling spring constant will transmit the vertical dynamic force on
under fully nonlinear wave conditions. The difference is quite obvious the mooring chain in the horizontal direction. The results showed that
for the upwind mooring line between linear and nonlinear incident ignoring the hydrodynamic forces acting on the mooring line leads
wave conditions. According to the nonlinear wave model, the tension to an overestimation of the slow-drift oscillation amplitude. Taking
in the mooring line exhibits a higher degree of nonlinearity and non- into account the dynamic effects of the mooring line is crucial for
Gaussian behavior, with increased skewness and kurtosis. This is due accurately estimating the slow-drift motion. Chuang et al. [144] found
to the effects of nonlinear waves and nonlinear characteristics of the that the mean-drift and slow-drift forces will influence the horizontal

14
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 8
A brief introduction of frequency domain potential flow hydrodynamic codes.
Numerical tools Open source Second-order Multi Infinite and Removal of Linearization of
and distribution hydrodynamics/method bodies zero frequencies irregular frequency drag loads
Wamit No/Commercial Yes/Full QTF method Yes Yes No
ANSYS AQWA No/Commercial Yes/Mean drift Yes No Yes Yes
WADAM No/Commercial Yes/Full QTF method Yes No Yes Yes
HAMS Yes/Free No No Yes Yes No
NEMOH Yes/Free Yes/Full QTF method Yes No Yes No
MOSES No/Commercial Yes/Mean drift Yes No No
Hydrostar No/Commercial Yes/Full QTF method Yes Yes Yes Yes
WAFDUT Yes/Free Yes/Full QTF method Yes Yes Yes No

floater motions. This will increase the restoring forces due to mooring mass, radiation damping, first-order and second-order wave excitation
lines. Second-order forces amplify the dynamic mooring tension at the loads, etc. These hydrodynamic properties of the floaters are then
fairlead, and thus reduce the fatigue life of the mooring lines. imported into the simulator, where the inverse fast Fourier transform
Therefore, investigation of the hydrodynamic behavior of the shal- (IFFT) is often utilized to perform time-domain analysis [239–241]. The
low water mooring line is also unavoidable, including many challenges, advantage of type of solvers is that they are fast and easy to use, but
such as accurate description of nonlinear shallow-water waves and their applicability depends on the accuracy of the input coefficients and
large tidal levels. The drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 due to the impact on the the validity of the intrinsic assumptions.
mooring line was found to influence the likelihood of occurrence and The other category is the CFD method [71–74], which typically
the magnitude of the snap loads [229]. Shallow water makes it much requires proper meshing technique to discretize the fluid domain for
less valid to apply Newman’s approximation and the Pinkster approxi- the considered hydrodynamic problems. In recent years, there are three
mation. It has also been confirmed that snap loads could occur during main mesh techniques to simulate floater motion: overset/chimera
numerical simulations of catenary mooring systems in shallow wa- mesh technique, sliding mesh technique, and morphing mesh tech-
ter [229], which in return influences the coupling between the floater nique. The overset mesh usually includes two independent regions,
and mooring dynamics in numerical analysis. According to experiment the off-body grid, also called the background grid, and the on-body
and numerical simulations, Guillouzouic et al. [229] found the im- grid. Data interpolations at the interface of the two grid systems are
portance of selecting the appropriate drag coefficient according to the performed. The background region was used for wave generation and
Reynolds number. It is assumed that the drag coefficient only depends propagation, and the motion region could be subjected to 6-DOF mo-
on the Reynolds number since the wave particle amplitudes are much tions of the floater [242]. The greatest advantage of this method is
larger than the mooring line diameter, leading to a large KC number as mesh region independence, which avoids the negative mesh volume,
high as 170, such that the local flow can be quasi-statically regarded as with a cost of larger number of meshes [243]. The overset mesh can
a current. The differences of more than 20% have been seen between be coupled with a sliding mesh to consider the Hydro-Aero coupling
models using different drag coefficients. Therefore, it is recommended simulation, and the sliding mesh can facilitate the simulation with
that, when modeling the response to extreme environmental conditions, bladed motion. The morphing mesh technique has a smaller mesh cost
the variable 𝐶𝑑 should correspond to the Reynolds number in basin than overset method, but the mesh negative volume problem should be
test for direct comparison (e.g., numerical model calibration), and noted in the generation and simulation [71]. In addition, the morphing
the variable 𝐶𝑑 corresponds to full-scale Reynolds number for design mesh cannot be coupled with the sliding mesh. The Actuator line model
studies. Marine growth will also increase the 𝐶𝑑 [229]. Furthermore, (ALM) method [244–246] can solve the problem because it simplifies
studies on different mooring types have been conducted to overcome the blade as a force source term. Sliding mesh as the third method
slow drift oscillations and nonlinear waves are needed. focuses on the sliding interface, and two sliding mesh chimeras can
also model the Hydro-Aero coupling. However, other equivalent models
5. Summary and challenges of the commercial, open-source and such as SPH method [247,248] and the Lattice Boltzmann method, can
in-house codes for FOWT also be applied to the hydrodynamic analysis.
When it comes to free-surface waves, the existing implementation
The hydrodynamic solvers for FOWT applications can be catego- of turbulence models in CFD solvers may over-produce the turbulence
rized into the linear/second-order frequency-domain potential flow for nearly potential-flow waves, and thus special care should be taken
codes, time-domain weakly nonlinear codes, fully nonlinear potential when selecting an appropriate turbulence model [249]. In the liter-
flow models, and CFD models. Specific tools within each category are ature, for the same DeepCWind FOWT model, different models have
summarized in Tables 8, 9, and 10, respectively. The simulation cost been applied, such as one-equation Spalart–Allmaras Detached Eddy
and precision are compared in Fig. 1. The listed FOWT hydrodynamic Simulation [71], two-equation 𝑘-𝜔 SST [72], novel two-equation KSKL
analysis solvers are only based on the authors’ knowledge, and the turbulence model [250]. It is difficult to judge which turbulence model
challenges in existing numerical tools are discussed. or existing numerical implementation of the turbulence models is better
than another when it comes to simulating FOWTs in waves. Therefore,
5.1. Summary the existing hydrodynamic models in FOWT application whether turbulence modeling is required to solve a wave–structure
problem depends on the physics of the fluid flow in the particular
The FOWT hydrodynamic application should take into account fully case [251], even though the wave breaks for the same structures. More
coupled dynamics which consists of aerodynamics, and structural dy- details of different turbulence modeling approaches can be seen in Pena
namics. Two state-of-the-art hydrodynamic methods are implemented and Huang [252].
in the FOWT fully coupled analysis, including the time-domain models The use of CFD models introduces a notable aspect: the possibility
based on Impulse Response Functions (IRF) using frequency-domain of uncertainties stemming from variations in parameter settings across
hydrodynamic coefficients as input, and high-fidelity free-surface CFD different users. These parameters encompass factors such as mesh
models with proper turbulence modeling. An overview is provided in generation and turbulence parameters, among others. Acknowledging
Table 11. and understanding these uncertainties is crucial when employing CFD
The accuracy of the solvers in the first category depends heavily for simulations or analyses. Parameters defined in the numerical code
on the frequency-domain hydrodynamic codes, which calculate added could potentially result in significant influence in the nonlinear wave

15
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 9
A brief introduction of fully nonlinear potential flow hydrodynamic methods.

Numerical method Applications Wave–structure interaction

Boundary element Ferrant et al. [78] Yes

Bai and Eatock Taylor [79,80]
Zhou et al. [81]
High order spectrum Aliyar et al. [230] No
Liu and Zhang [231]
Xiao et al. [232]
Finite element Tou [82] Yes
Wu and Taylor [83]
Wang and Wu [84,85]
Yan and Ma [86]
Sun et al. [87]
Huang and Wang [88]
Finite difference Bingham and Zhang [89] Yes
Engsig-Karup et al. [90]
Ducrozet et al. [91,92]
Hicks et al. [93]
Harmonic polynomial cell Shao and Faltinsen [94] Yes
Hanssen et al. [95]
Liang et al. [96]

Table 10
A brief introduction of Navier–Stokes equations solver or other equivalent hydrodynamic models.
Numerical method Applications FOWT coupled analysis
FVM OpenFOAM/Star CCM+/Fluent/CFX Yes
3D non-hydrostatic model Fujima et al. [233], Ai et al. [234] No
SPH Luo and Koh [235], Chen et al. [236] No
LBM Janssen et al. [237], Yang et al. [238] No

Fig. 1. The simulation cost and precision of different hydrodynamic method.

loads, especially for the nonlinear low-frequency wave loads which are achieve statistical convergence for low-frequency surge and pitch mo-
very small in magnitudes [253]. A lot of studies have put research tion even with a 3-hour time window. Additionally, different wave
effort on relevant problems [253–255]. Wang et al. [253] concluded realizations originating from the same wave spectrum can result in
three fundamental uncertainty causes in the CFD simulation: numerical significantly different low-frequency results [73]. For CFD simulation,
uncertainty, modeling uncertainty, and statistical uncertainty. Higher- a 3-hour irregular wave modeling for FOWT needs tremendously high
order nonlinear loads was proved to be much larger than those of computational costs, and thus it is currently not suitable for engineer-
the wave-frequency loads, though it is still acceptable concerning the ing purposes. Modeling mooring dynamics in CFD represents another
relative total uncertainties of the nonlinear loads. The dominating error challenge. In commercial CFD package, such as StarCCM+, there is
source for the nonlinear difference-frequency wave loads is spatial lack of sophisticated mooring dynamics model to model the catenary
discretization, where mesh resolution is the dominating factor for the lines, line-seabed interaction, clump or buoy, as well as nonlinear line
accuracy of the numerical study. materials. In OpenFOAM, most studies couple the open-source mooring
Modeling and reproducing irregular waves is another challenge dynamics solvers, e.g. MoorDyn, Moody and MAP++ [256–258], with
for CFD solvers. Significant variations exist in the wave elevation the floater motions [230,259,260]. A model that can consider the inter-
time series, particularly in extreme conditions. It can be difficult to action between wave/current and mooring and its influence on FOWT

16
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 11
Overview of the most common fully coupled FOWT codes.
Numerical tools Open source Hydro model Nonlinear Aero model Mooring model
and distribution
OpenFAST Yes/Free Frequency domain Weakly BEM/FVW Dynamic
potential flow nonlinear
OrcaFlex No/Commercial Frequency domain Weakly BEM Dynamic
potential flow nonlinear
SIMA No/Commercial Frequency domain Weakly BEM Dynamic
potential flow nonlinear
Bladed No/Commercial Frequency domain Weakly BEM Quasi-static
potential flow nonlinear
HAWC2 Yes/Commercial Frequency domain Weakly BEM Quasi-static
potential flow nonlinear
Qblade Yes/Community free Frequency domain Weakly BEM/FVW Quasi-static
No/Enterprise commercial potential flow nonlinear
Ashes No/Commercial Frequency domain Linear BEM Quasi-static
potential flow
OpenFoam Yes/Free N-S equation Fully ALM/IBM/ Dynamic
nonlinear directly
calculate
Star CCM+ No/Commercial N-S equation Fully ALM/directly Quasi-static
nonlinear calculate
ANSYS Fluent No/Commercial N-S equation Fully ALM/directly Quasi-static
nonlinear calculate

is still in need. Eskilsson et al. [261] presents two high-fidelity wave- upon the groundwork laid by Shao and Faltinsen [263,266,267]. A
body-mooring (WBM) modeling based on Moody [257] and implement complete and consistent numerical model in time-domain was devel-
in OpenFOAM. Fluid-mooring coupling effect is included by sampling oped to estimate the first and second-order wave loads and floater
the fluid kinematics to estimate drag, and inertia forces in the mooring motions. Since a body-fixed coordinate system is adopted in the for-
tension calculation and consider inter-moored multibody interactions. mulation of the first and second-order boundary value problems, this
The proposed combined wave-body-mooring model is considered to model does not assume the horizontal motions as small, and thus allows
be the state-of-the-art method which can include most marine WBM for large-amplitude horizontal motions, making it well-suited to con-
problems. sistently simulate slow-drift motions of floating structures. The model
also avoids the hypothesis inconsistency related to higher derivatives
5.2. The applicability of the inertial coordinate system and perturbation in the body-boundary conditions, as those derivatives are not required.
expansion hypothesis Recently, this model has been applied to investigate wave-frequency
and low-frequency responses of a semi-submersible FOWT in focused
FOWTs utilizing catenary mooring system often exhibit significant waves [137] and a deep-draft spar buoy in irregular waves [164]. Note
low-frequency motions with amplitudes comparable to the character- that these studies primarily focused on the hydrodynamic responses,
istic structural dimensions and larger than the wave-frequency re- with no consideration of wind loads, and the mooring system was
sponses [71,164,262]. It does not fulfill the requirement of the tradi- approximated by linear springs.
tional weakly nonlinear models based on series expansion and Taylor The methods put forth by Teng et al. [265] and Shao et al. [262]
expansion, which assumes that the dynamic motions of the floaters are stand as the most comprehensive and consistent second-order hydro-
small. Therefore, traditional formulations based on the inertial coor- dynamic models within the existing literature. These approaches open
dinate system become inconsistent and less applicable. Furthermore, up extensive possibilities for the future of fully coupled analysis for
the boundary conditions at the body contain higher derivatives of the FOWTs.
velocity potential, making the calculation and integration difficult to
perform close to the sharp edges of the platform [262–264], such as
5.3. The choice and improvement of drag and damping coefficients in
the edges of the heave plate. It is important to note that most exist-
engineering tools
ing engineering tools for FOWT simulations utilize frequency-domain
coefficients generated from diffraction-radiation solvers based on tra-
ditional formulations in the Earth-fixed coordinate system. However, The traditional perturbation expansion method has been utilized
caution must be exercised when the assumption of small horizontal and implemented in several FOWT numerical analysis tools. To avoid
motions is violated in the case of FOWTs with catenary mooring nonphysical results, a common approach is to add extra drag and/or
systems. To address these issues in the field of marine hydrodynamics, damping terms based on experiments or CFD results to the motion equa-
two methods have been developed. tions [268], especially for extreme conditions. Notably, in the context
Teng et al. [265] proposed to Taylor expand the boundary condi- of linear theory, these nonlinear terms are absent from the formulation,
tions close to the instantaneous mean position of the platform, which potentially resulting in the overprediction of wave-frequency dynamic
solves the free-surface equations at the instantaneous position to solve responses due to the omission of viscous-drag induced damping. The
the inconsistent problem. Stokes theorem converts the surface integral key questions are how to determine the relevant drag coefficients
of the second derivatives of the velocity potential into first derivatives, and apply them in existing engineering tools. In the frequency-domain
which needs additional calculation of increased order of the derivatives analyses, the regular-wave or stochastic linearizations of the drag loads
of the green function. However, it remains unclear how to handle the in the frequency-domain analysis [269,270], thus providing better hy-
third derivatives of the zeroth-order potential. Higher derivatives of the drodynamic inputs to the time-domain simulations. The short comes of
wave loads still requires calculation if a pressure integration approach the hybrid method with empirical correction of drag loads or damping
is implemented. will be discussed in this subsection, together with the application of
Shao et al. [262] proposed an approach that expresses the mathe- the drag coefficients 𝐶𝑑 and damping from model tests or CFD to
matical formulations in the body-fixed coordinate system, expanding simulations in irregular waves.

17
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

In the frequency-domain hydrodynamic analysis, the floating plat- [273] examined the hydrodynamic kinetics of heave plates solely and
form and the rotor-nacelle-assembly (RNA) are modeled as rigid bodies, attached on cylinder-mounted structures at different level of submer-
and the steady-state motion equations can be expressed as: gence. Empirical modifications were implemented when comparing
[ 2 ] the results with linearized potential flow methods and experimental
−𝜔 (𝑀 + 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴 ) + 𝐢𝜔(𝐵 + 𝐵𝐴 ) + 𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 𝝃 = 𝐹 1 + 𝐹 𝐷 + 𝐹 𝑅 (6)
measurements, while satisfactory agreements were achieved. Medina-
where 𝑀 is the inertia matrix of the floater, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the added mass Manuel et al. [274] evaluated the added mass and damping coefficients
matrix and radiation damping matrix respectively that can be estimated for a column of FOWT which is equipped with a solid heave plate.
by a potential flow solver. 𝐴𝐴 is the additional external mass matrix. Forced oscillation and free decay test were considered. The tests were
𝐵𝐴 is additional linearized damping matrix which includes structural conducted using an experimental system that allowed for performing
damping, viscous flow effects, etc. 𝐶 is hydrostatic restoring matrix and both forced heave oscillations and heave decay tests. Wang et al. [275]
𝐶𝐴 is additional restoring matrix. 𝝃 is a vector of the complex motion conducted physical experiments and numerical simulations to examine
amplitudes. 𝐹 1 is the first-order wave excitation force vector, 𝐹 𝐷 is the how the perforated chamfer affects the hydrodynamic performance of
excitation force vector contributed by the linearized nonlinear viscous the heave plate in a DeepCWind FOWT. Heave plates with various types
drag force. 𝐹 𝑅 represents the forces from the rest parts of the structure, of perforations were evaluated to determine their effects on vertical
e.g. tower. A similar motion equation for second-order motions can be force amplitudes, additional mass and damping. In addition, the varia-
set up to consider the mean, rapidly varying and slowly varying wave tion of the added mass and damping coefficients, based on the different
loads 𝐹 2 . structural geometries (different thickness, porosity ratio, shapes), in
The hydrodynamic damping of the FOWTs can be categorized into different KC number and different vertical oscillation frequencies and
two parts: wave-radiation damping and viscous damping. Radiation amplitude are also discussed.
damping arises due to the presence of a free surface, and it stems from The viscous terms that contribute to the mean drift surge excitation
the radiated waves, which transport wave energy radially towards the of the FOWT originate from both the horizontal and vertical terms.
far field as a result of the oscillations of the model propagating away Horizontal terms contribute significantly to horizontal slowly varying
from the floater. Viscous damping is directly related to the velocity forces, and vertical viscous terms contribute to the horizontal terms
difference between fluid particles and the moving structure, causing through coupling with pitch motion. Therefore, horizontal drag loads
viscous flow separation and vortex shedding, which can be strongly are also important. Berthelsen et al. [276] employed a strategy that
affected by the edges of structures [271]. For non-separated flows, the involved horizontal drag coefficients in the splash zone with higher
friction on the wetted body surface may also contribute to the viscous values and lower values for area underneath in order to achieve high
loads. The drag part in the Morison-type forces includes the relative excitation while maintaining low surge damping. This method pro-
velocity between wave particle and moving structure, and therefore, duced better agreement for surge motion between numerical simulation
contributes to both excitation and damping [151]. Taking a slender and the measured results as compared to the use of a consistent
cylinder for example, the drag force on a segment with length of 𝛥𝑙 value. Kvittem et al. [151] found that drag coefficients determined from
can be expressed and linearized as: decay tests underestimated low-frequency surge motions in irregular
1 waves. An approach that applied different horizontal drag coefficients
𝐹 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝜌𝐶 𝐷 𝛥𝑙(𝒗 − 𝒙)|𝒗
̇ − 𝒙|
̇ ≈ 𝐵𝐴 𝒗 − 𝐵𝐴 𝒙,
̇ (7)
2 𝑑 in the wave zone, and the lower parts of the columns are proposed,
where 𝐶𝑑 is the empirical drag coefficient. 𝐷 is the diameter of cylinder. which successfully adjusted the numerical model to reproduce similar
𝒗 is the velocity of the ambient flow which is not affected by the low-frequency motions to model tests.
presence of the structure. 𝒙̇ is the velocity of the structure. 𝐵𝐴 is the Most experimental studies investigated the drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 in
linearized damping coefficient for the considered segment, depending small KC numbers under still-water conditions Pinguet et al. [273],
on which linearization approach is followed. The term 𝐵𝐴 𝒗 is consid- Zhang et al. [277], Medina-Manuel et al. [274], while it is not clear if
ered as the linearized viscous-drag excitation, which is referred as 𝐹 𝐷 the relevant KC numbers are always small, in particular in an extreme
in Eq. (7). The term −𝐵𝐴 𝒙̇ is considered as a damping force, which will marine dynamic environment. Kim et al. [278] investigated the drag
appear as 𝐵𝐴 𝒙̇ on the left-hand side of Eq. (7). The drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 , coefficient in different conditions, they found that the drag coefficient
which is dependent on e.g. Reynolds number, KC number and surface increases in oscillating flow with increasing effective incident velocity
roughness, is the key to determine both the damping term 𝐵𝐴 𝒙̇ and due to shed vortices, so the drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 are amplified signifi-
excitation term 𝐹 𝐷 . cantly in decay, regular and irregular waves, compared to the steady
The drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 can be determined by different meth- state value. In high wave conditions, the mean drift force is much
ods [268]. Many studies have conducted experimental and numerical larger in the splash zone than in the submerged zone, regardless of
studies on vertical drag loads, especially for the heave plates. The the presence of wave-only or wave–current coexisting flow fields. The
heave plate increases the inertia of the system through added mass, KC number is related to the wave velocity and wave period; in a real
which makes the resonant frequency of the floater away from the wave sea state, each wave period and height in an irregular wave group are
frequency, while the sharp edges of the heave plate can speed up the different, but the oscillation amplitude is controlled by the operator, it
vortex-shedding process, contributing considerable viscous damping to is not suitable to determine the drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 depending on one
the dynamic system, consequently modifying the RAO of the models. or some regular amplitudes in an experiment. Kim et al. [278] demon-
According to Takata et al. [272], it was discovered that attaching the strated that a strong correlation between regular and irregular waves
heave plate to the Sphere model footing resulted in a 20% increase for both wave-only and wave–current coexisting flow fields, which is
in the natural heave period and a fourfold increase in damping levels. due to the vortex-pair regime prevails for flow conditions of regular
In terms of the response under sea conditions, significant reductions and irregular waves under consideration. While, if the diffraction effect
in the height of motion (specifically heave and pitch) were observed is significant and the potential force dominates, parameters related to
for operational and storm/centenary conditions, respectively. Ezoji diffraction effects should be included in addition to the KC number to
et al. [271] performed a comprehensive review of the experimental express the drag coefficient appropriately. Regarding the current effects
data in the literature about the hydrodynamic behavior of solid and on the drag coefficient, especially the strong current condition, Kim
perforated heave plates when KC numbers are low and oscillations et al. [278] found that the drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑 decreases significantly if
amplitudes are small. In such case, the viscous damping resulting from current is present, because of the strong interaction between front and
the flow separation is proportional to edge area. Additionally, the aft columns. In addition, the types of investigated FOWT heave plates
study examined damping produced by floater oscillations. Pinguet et al. are usually circular or perforated circular plates; however, in FOWT

18
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of heave plate types (a) Polygonal/WindFloat [279] and (b) Semi-circular/Yinling [21].

demonstration projects, the heave plate is polygonal [279] or semi- sense [269]. The stochastic linearization drag force on a strip of length
circular [21], as shown in Fig. 2. How can we determine the 𝐶𝑑 of new 𝑑𝑙 of a Morison element can be written as:
types? How about the vortex-shedding effect for new types? Whether √
1 8
the traditional empirical reference value is applicable? The most recent 𝑑𝑭 𝒅 ≈ 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐷 𝜎 (𝒗 − 𝒙)𝑑𝑙
̇ = 𝑏𝑣 (𝒗 − 𝒙)
̇ (9)
2 𝜋 𝑣−𝑥̇
work from Zhang et al. [277] systematically investigated the damping
where 𝜎𝑣−𝑥̇ is the standard deviation of the amplitude of the relative ve-
effect of the heave plate on FOWT, which is vital to assess the dynamic
locity between ambient flow and the rigid-body motion at the location
response of FOWT. They found that the octagonal heave plate displays
of the Morison element.
similar added mass and damping coefficients to the circular heave
A prevalent challenge arises when dealing with viscous damping
plate. Square one obtains lower added mass coefficients compared to
values that vary across different motions. Directly obtaining these
the circular, octagonal and hexagon. The hexagonal plate seems to have
damping values is a formidable task. Consequently, various models
the highest damping force for different KC numbers. Their work enables
have been devised to simplify the representation of damping. These
a better understanding of the flow and structure interaction of the
models replace all the viscous damping with linear damping coefficient
FOWT in heave direction. However, more experiments on the drag load
𝐵1 and quadratic damping coefficient 𝐵2 . 𝐵1 is proportional to velocity,
coefficients obtained through force oscillation under irregular waves
while 𝐵2 is proportional to velocity squared. These coefficients are sub-
and current conditions for different types are necessary in the future.
sequently added to the left-hand side of the motion equations. Notable
Besides above that, the additional damping may also caused by wind,
methods encompass the PQ damping method, equivalent linearization
it have been some discuss by Amaral et al. [280] and more discussion
method, and energy slope method [281].
are need in future.
Numerous studies have delved into the estimation of damping in
The standard frequency-domain panel method is normally applied
FOWTs through free-decay experiments and CFD simulations. Notable
together with the use of drag terms in Morison’s equation in the motion
investigations, such as those by Burmester et al. [282], Burmester et al.
analysis for early efficient design. This can avoid nonphysical wave-
[254], Wang et al. [250], Li and Bachynski-Polić [283], and Wang et al.
frequency responses and to obtain a good estimation of the QTFs
[284], have explored various aspects of this topic. These studies have
particularly at motion resonances. In a frequency-domain analysis, the
scrutinized damping coefficients and their uncertainties, with particular
drag term must be linearized based on regular-wave or stochastic
attention to numerical errors and post-processing. Some key findings
linearization. For the regular-wave linearization method, where the
indicate that estimating damping coefficients directly can introduce
considered structures are exposed to regular waves, the equivalent
significant uncertainty and that minimizing numerical uncertainties is
linear damping coefficient is determined by requiring that the equiv-
imperative. Additionally, factors such as friction damping due to moor-
alent damping dissipates the same amount of energy as the quadratic
ing setups have been identified as contributing to the complexity of the
damping over one cycle of oscillation. In this method, a wave amplitude issue. Another challenge is controlling free decay in basin tests, where
is required as input to the linearization scheme [270]. The regular-wave energy tends to disperse into other coupling directions. To address
linearization drag force on a strip of length 𝑑𝑙 of a Morison element can these challenges, there is a call for the development of a unified free-
be written as: decay device that can be applied across all floater free decay scenarios.
1 8 Furthermore, it is essential to meticulously control the decay direction,
𝑑𝑭 𝒅 ≈ 𝜌𝐶 𝐷 |𝒗 − 𝒙| ̇ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 (𝒗 − 𝒙)𝑑𝑙
̇ = 𝑏𝑣 (𝒗 − 𝒙)
̇ (8)
2 𝑑 3𝜋 striving to minimize uncertainty and error as much as possible.
where 𝒗 is the ambient flow velocity, 𝒙̇ is the motion velocity of
the strip, |𝒗 − 𝒙|
̇ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 is the amplitude of the relative velocity between 5.4. Efficiency improvement of CFD models
ambient flow and the structure at the location of the Morison element,
𝑏𝑣 represents the linearized damping coefficient contributed by a strip Even though the 3D free-surface CFD models are still too com-
of length 𝑑𝑙. putationally heavy to be applied in early design of FOWTs, there is
However, for structures in irregular wave conditions, it is not clear growing interests to use those high-fidelity models. Over the years,
which wave amplitude is the most reasonable selection for the lin- both the computer power and the efficiency of the numerical algorithms
earization scheme, as the floater will experience waves with variational implemented in the CFD solvers have been greatly improved.
wave amplitudes in a random and unsteady sea state, especially under Advanced numerical methods, such as adaptive mesh refinement
extreme wave conditions. The stochastic linearization method directly and hybrid mesh techniques, have the potential to significantly enhance
considers the characteristics of the wave spectrum. By assuming that computational efficiency. In the context of wave–structure interac-
the excitation is a Gaussian stochastic process, the equivalent linear tion, a potential-viscous flow coupling hybrid approach is employed.
damping is obtained after minimizing the errors in the least-square This approach leverages potential flow for modeling large-scale wave

19
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Table 12
A brief overview of current application for hybrid potential-viscous method.
Numerical method Coupling type Applications
Velocity decomposition Ferrant et al. [285]
Edmund et al. [286]
Domain decomposition Weakly coupling VOF/N-S+FNPF Lachaume et al. [287]
VOF/N-S+FNPF Biausser et al. [288]
LBM/N-S+FNPF Janssen et al. [237]
SPH/N-S+BM Narayanaswamy et al. [289]
ANSYS CFX+FNPF Hildebrandt et al. [290]
OpenFOAM+HOS Aliyar et al. [230]
Star CCM+HOS Zhang et al. [291]
Strong coupling 3D non-hydrostatic pressure model+NDLE Fujima et al. [233]
Level-set/N-S+PF Colicchio et al. [292]
VOF/N-S+PF Kim et al. [293]
IMLPG-R/N-S+FNPF Sriram et al. [294]

propagation in the far field, while viscous flow accounts for small- characteristics and nonlinear hydrodynamics of wave–structure inter-
to micro-scale physics in the wave–structure interaction in the near actions, ranging from linear and weakly nonlinear to fully nonlinear
field. It can be further categorized into two methods: the velocity modeling. The challenges related to physical problems and numeri-
decomposition method, which treats velocity and pressure as separate cal analysis are focused throughout this review. Five primary nonlin-
components within the Navier–Stokes model, and the domain decom- ear hydrodynamic problems of FOWTs are scrutinized in depth and
position method, which uses an interface or overlap zone to facilitate the challenges of numerical methods involved are also analyzed. In
communication between velocity and pressure in different domains. summary, this review provides a critical evaluation of the nonlinear
The domain decomposition method itself can be classified into weak hydrodynamics of FOWTs, covering various aspects of this field in a
and strong coupling methods. In the weak coupling approach, the systematic and detailed manner.
far-field model provides data to the Navier–Stokes model at specific With FOWT upscaling, shallow-water marine condition demands,
locations without disturbance. In contrast, the strong coupling method and extreme marine dynamic environments occurring frequently, the
involves feedback between the far-field potential flow model and the wave nonlinear interaction is stronger, which makes high-frequency
Navier–Stokes model. An overview of the current applications of the wave energy propagate to low-frequency zones. Therefore, the non-
hybrid method can be found in Table 12. linear low-frequency slow-drift resonance response is a consensus, the
In conclusion, the hybrid potential-viscous approach has been de- current time domain analysis based on frequency-domain hydrody-
veloped toward ocean-engineering applications, and the computational namic coefficients consider low-frequency response and underestimates
efficiency is being greatly improved. It has been barely used for FOWT the total load and motion by approximately 10%–20% compared with
simulation for now [230], but it has a trend and broad perspective in the experiment and CFD methods, and it emanates primarily from
the future, including the latest HOS+FNPF method [295,296]. low-frequency part. To predict nonlinear low-frequency responses ac-
curately and efficiently, a QTF correction and empirical formulation
5.5. The fully coupled Hydro-Aero-Mooring-Cable-Elast integration analysis of viscous-drag force are the recommended solutions. However, these
models have a number of limitations, particularly for the FOWT ap-
The current fully coupled Hydro-Aero-Mooring-Elast analysis tools plications. It should be noted that the assumption of smallness of
simulate the different physics loads individually and coupled these motions in engineering models might be violated by large motions
loads into rigid body equations to consider integration analysis. In of real-life FOWT applications. Large horizontal motions are mostly
reality, those different physics may have mutual interacts. For instance, caused by low-frequency wave loads. Some consistent hydrodynamic
the wave-induced floater motion will influence aerodynamics, and the models, including the twice expansion method and the second-order
mooring-line dynamics will influence on floater motion. Furthermore, hydrodynamic model formulated in body-fixed coordinate system, have
it worth to mention that the dynamic cable effects have not been inves- been proposed, with the potential to address theoretical inconsistencies.
tigated in the integration analysis in existing studies. Deng et al. [297] Other than that, the main challenge is how to accurately account for
developed a direct time-domain fully coupled aero-hydrodynamic anal- the viscous-drag loads in the analysis.
ysis method for FOWT. They discovered that the traditional indi- Extreme waves along with higher harmonic wave load and breaking
rect time-domain method, which uses the QTF based on assumed wave impacts induce vibration of tower structures and floater hydroe-
response, is not suitable for accurately evaluating the nonlinear wave lastic coupling responses. Some experiments and numerical methods
force of a FOWT in coupled motions. However, their model employed have been recently developed. Current effects also need to be consid-
second-order weakly nonlinear theory and did not consider the instan- ered in design. The current will change the hydrodynamic damping,
taneous wet surface and higher-order nonlinear effects. Additionally, dynamic response of the FOWT and thus the mooring tension. FOWTs
their model is limited in its applicability to shallow water conditions. motions were also found to be affected by current via wave–current
There is currently a shortage of analysis tools that can consider modulation. Vortex-induced motions of the column-based FOWTs can
RNA-Floater-Mooring-Cable under wind-wave–current servo dynamic be induced by current. The shallow-water nonlinear hydrodynamic
time-domain analysis, which is needed to consider loads coupling, behavior of mooring is of importance to consider, involving the effects
multi-module motion coupling, and the nonlinear effects. Challenges of seafloor topography, tidal variation, and nonlinear characteristics of
need to consider how different physical subjects integrate into one waves, etc. Drag loads on mooring lines also provide non-negligible
reliable and efficient analysis system, and how the synergy mechanism viscous damping for slow-drift motions of FOWTs.
in the complicated RNA-Floater-Mooring-Cable system. Moreover, CFD method can provide accurate numerical results
through highly-sophisticated simulations. Advanced meshing technique
6. Conclusion and future perspectives and hybrid method can address the low-efficiency problem to some
extent. The hybrid potential-viscous flow coupling method uses the
In this review, a comprehensive discussion of the nonlinear hydro- potential flow to consider large-size wave propagation in the far field,
dynamics of FOWTs is presented. The review begins with a general whereas uses the viscous flow solver to consider the local-scale wave–
background on FOWT, followed by an exploration of nonlinear wave structure interactions the near field. This approach has been seen to

20
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

Fig. 3. The tendency of future perspectives.

Fig. 4. The example of double rotor FOWT (a) OceanX [300] and (b) W2Power [301].

significantly improve the computational efficiency. Other challenges maintain better stability and reduce hydrodynamic loads and dynamic
still exist, including the selection of turbulence model, accuracy and motions as much as possible, particularly where the cost can be re-
uncertainty quantification of CFD models, etc. The development of duced [129], are questions to answer, and the perspectives are broad.
Hydro-Aero-Mooring-Elast integration tools is expected. These tools Nonlinear hydrodynamic load reduction is an inevitable problem to be
will study the interaction between the hydrodynamic and aerodynamic considered in new type design. It accompanies the mooring line and
mooring lines and their effect on floating structures. anchor type change with FOWT upscaling. As a result, the mooring line
In conclusion, the tendency of FOWT future perspectives is con- needs to be stronger and thicker. The new mooring line material is also
cluded for five parts with broad prospects, which are shown in Fig. 3. favored [302]. The mooring hydrodynamic behavior, especially under
∙ New trends: To increase wind energy captured in one floater and highly nonlinear wave conditions should be considered in design [105].
to decrease the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of FOWT on a far Deeper regions may have different geological conditions on the seabed,
level, upscaling is one of the choices [35,298]. The maximum design and the anchor requires better road holding capacity and different
power of turbines has been increased to 15 MW and 20 MW [103], insertion conditions.
despite immense technical challenges need to be solved before full-scale ∙ New techniques: With the multidisciplinary development, some up-
deployments, including nonlinear hydrodynamic problems discussed
dated techniques are broadly perspective [303]. One is the monitor and
in this paper. The large-size structure must be facing the nonlinear
transmission system, the accurate monitoring and instant transmission
wave loading increases that accompany the mooring lines and ancillary
from deep-marine regions to onshore receivers, which can monitor and
increases, and hydroelastic problems are inevitable [38]. Heavier tower
control the system to maintain FOWT safety. The motion reduction
structures with higher center of gravity also poses challenges on static
technique includes the TMD and a tuned liquid damper [304–306]
and dynamic stability of the supporting floaters. Another perspective
to avoid large floating motion when exposed to extreme conditions.
to increase wind resource utilization ratio in one floater is multi-
Drivetrain optimization can promote electric conversion efficiency and
turbines. Two examples of double-rotor FOWTs are shown in Fig. 4.
increase power.
These multi-turbines systems need to consider more complex nonlinear
hydrodynamic restoration modes when different wind and wave inci- ∙ New materials: The development of material science has led to the
dences. In recent years, most of the FOWT projects are demonstrative. exploration of numerous synthetic materials that have been shown to
Furthermore, wind farms can be combined with aquaculture struc- be highly beneficial in various applications. For example, synthetic
tures, floating photo-voltaic cells (PV) [299], and seawater hydrogen materials are used in the construction of floating structures, which
production. Hydrodynamic coupling between those structures might not only make structures more robust against wave impacts, but also
be important if they are in close proximity. Another trend to obtain reduce damage. In addition, the use of synthetic ropes for mooring lines
more renewable energy is a multi-energy integration system, integrat- has been investigated, which can adjust the nonlinear hydrodynamic
ing wave energy and/or tidal energy with FOWTs, which promises behavior of the mooring. Moreover, synthetic anchors have great po-
high-efficiency energy attainment. Both nonlinear wave excitation and tential applications, especially for shared anchoring. The complicated
nonlinear hydrodynamic damping need to be adequately addressed for nonlinear materiel behavior of the fiber ropes in, for instance, the static
those integrated system [113]. and dynamic stiffness, must be adequately modeled in the slow-drift
∙ New types: With FOWT upscaling, the new floater types are required motion analysis of FOWTs to provide acceptable prediction of mooring
to be put forward. How to support the larger size wind turbines, tension.

21
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

∙ New environments: The consensus was reached that FOWTs should be [12] Yang Y, Bashir M, Li C, Michailides C, Wang J. Mitigation of coupled wind-
installed in deeper marine environments in the future, where extreme wave-earthquake responses of a 10 MW fixed-bottom offshore wind turbine.
Renew Energy 2020;157:1171–84.
marine conditions are faced, typhoons and giant waves threaten FOWTs
[13] NS Energy Staff Writer. Hywind. 2021, https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/
and bring the highly nonlinear hydrodynamic load and unsteady non- news/unitech-offshore-to-take-over-hywind-demo-floating-wind-turbine-from-
linear aerodynamic loads, and the operation and maintenance condi- equinor/, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
tions are more severe. [14] Kyoto University. Kabashima spar. 2021, https://www.econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp/
renewable_energy/stage2/contents/column0276, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
[15] Fukushima. Fukushima offshore wind consortium. 2013, Fukushima floating
CRediT authorship contribution statement
offshore wind farm demonstration project (Fukushima Forward).
[16] Stiesdal. TetraSpar. 2021, https://www.stiesdal.com/offshore/, Retrived date
Xinmeng Zeng: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original 02-11-2022.
draft. Yanlin Shao: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, [17] Gravås Ø. Hywind scotland. 2021, https://www.equinor.com/news/archive/
Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Xingya Feng: Methodol- 20211012-change-policy-adjusted-earnings-renewables, Retrived date 02-11-
2022.
ogy, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Kun Xu: Methodology, [18] Karoline Rivero Bernacki. Hywind tampen. 2022, https://www.equinor.com/
Data curation, Writing – review & editing. Ruijia Jin: Investigation, news/20221114-first-power-from-hywind-tampen, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
Writing – review & editing. Huajun Li: Conceptualization, Methodol- [19] Principle Power. WindFloat. 2016, https://www.offshorewind.biz/2016/09/29/
ogy, Supervision, Resources, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & principle-power-dismantles-windfloat-1/, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
[20] Adnan Durakovic. WindFloat Atlantic. 2020, https://www.offshorewind.biz/
editing.
2020/07/27/windfloat-atlantic-fully-up-and-running/, Retrived date 02-11-
2022.
Declaration of competing interest [21] China Three Gorges Renewables. Yinling. 2021, https://www.ctgne.com/
sxxnychina/1077672/, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- [22] Power P. Kincardine. 2021, https://www.principlepower.com/projects/
kincardine-offshore-wind-farm, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to [23] CSSC. Fuyao. 2022, http://www.hzwindpower.com/, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
influence the work reported in this paper. [24] China National Offshore Oil Corporation. Guanlan. 2022, https://news.e23.cn/
guonei/2023-05-20/2023052000125.html/, Retrived date 12-10-2023.
Data availability [25] Leimeister M, Kolios A. A review of reliability-based methods for risk analysis
and their application in the offshore wind industry. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2018;91:1065–76.
Data will be made available on request. [26] Igwemezie V, Mehmanparast A, Kolios A. Current trend in offshore wind
energy sector and material requirements for fatigue resistance improvement
Acknowledgments in large wind turbine support structures – a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2019;101:181–96.
[27] Gueydon S, Bayati I, de Ridder EJ. Discussion of solutions for basin model tests
Huajun Li received funding from the National Natural Science
of FOWTs in combined waves and wind. Ocean Eng 2020;209:107288.
Foundation of China (Grant No. 52088102). Kun Xu received fund- [28] Ren Z, Verma AS, Li Y, Teuwen JJ, Jiang Z. Offshore wind turbine opera-
ing from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant tions and maintenance: A state-of-the-art review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
No. 52201344) and the Shandong Provincial Natural Science Founda- 2021;144:110886.
tion, China (Grant No. ZR2021QE228). Xingya Feng acknowledges the [29] Jiang Z. Installation of offshore wind turbines: A technical review. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2021;139:110576.
funding from Shenzhen City Natural Science Foundation (Grant No.
[30] Micallef D, Rezaeiha A. Floating offshore wind turbine aerodynamics: Trends
JCYJ20210324104606017). Xinmeng Zeng acknowledges the Funda- and future challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021;152:111696.
mental Research Funds for the Central Universities, China (Grant No. [31] Bashetty S, Ozcelik S. Review on dynamics of offshore floating wind turbine
202261059). Ruijia Jin acknowledges the Basic Funding of the Central platforms. Energies 2021;14(19):6026.
[32] Chen C, Ma Y, Fan T. Review of model experimental methods focusing on
Public Research Institutes (TKS20230106).
aerodynamic simulation of floating offshore wind turbines. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2022;157:112036.
References [33] Wang L, Kolios A, Liu X, Venetsanos D, Cai R. Reliability of offshore wind
turbine support structures: A state-of-the-art review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
[1] Li H, Liu Y, Liang B, Liu F, Wu G, Du J, et al. Demands and challenges 2022;161:112250.
for construction of marine infrastructures in China. Front Struct Civil Eng [34] Subbulakshmi A, Verma M, Keerthana M, Sasmal S, Harikrishna P, Kapuria S.
2022;16:551–63. Recent advances in experimental and numerical methods for dynamic analysis
[2] Ji R, Sun K, Zhang J, Zhu R, Wang S. A novel actuator line-immersed boundary of floating offshore wind turbines — An integrated review. Renew Sustain
(AL-IB) hybrid approach for wake characteristics prediction of a horizontal-axis Energy Rev 2022;164:112525.
wind turbine. Energy Convers Manage 2022;253:115193. [35] Sergiienko NY, Da Silva LSP, Bachynski-Polić EE, Cazzolato BS, Arjomandi M,
[3] Qin M, Shi W, Chai W, Fu X, Li L, Li X. Extreme structural response prediction Ding B. Review of scaling laws applied to floating offshore wind turbines.
and fatigue damage evaluation for large-scale monopile offshore wind turbines Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;162:112477.
subject to typhoon conditions. Renew Energy 2023;208:450–64. [36] Patryniak K, Collu M, Coraddu A. Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimi-
[4] Shi W, Hu L, Lin Z, Zhang L, Wu J, Chai W. Short-term motion prediction sation frameworks for floating offshore wind turbines: State of the art. Ocean
of floating offshore wind turbine based on muti-input LSTM neural network. Eng 2022;251:111002.
Ocean Eng 2023;280:114558. [37] Ojo A, Collu M, Coraddu A. Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimiza-
[5] Gao Z, Merino D, Han K-J, Li H, Fiskvik S. Time-domain floater stress analysis tion of floating offshore wind turbine substructures: A review. Ocean Eng
for a floating wind turbine. J Ocean Eng Sci 2023;8(4):435–45. 2022;266:112727.
[6] Shi W, Yan C, Ren Z, Yuan Z, Liu Y, Zheng S, et al. Review on the development [38] Papi F, Bianchini A. Technical challenges in floating offshore wind turbine
of marine floating photovoltaic systems. Ocean Eng 2023;286:115560. upscaling: A critical analysis based on the NREL 5 MW and IEA 15 MW
[7] Chen Y, Wang Y, Dong Z, Su J, Han Z, Zhou D, et al. 2-D regional short-term reference turbines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;162:112489.
wind speed forecast based on CNN-LSTM deep learning model. Energy Convers [39] López-Queija J, Robles E, Jugo J, Alonso-Quesada S. Review of control
Manage 2021;244:114451. technologies for floating offshore wind turbines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
[8] Ji R, Sheng Q, Wang S, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Zhang L. Array characteristics 2022;167:112787.
of oscillating-buoy two-floating-body wave-energy converter. J Mar Sci Appl [40] Li J, Li Z, Jiang Y, Tang Y. Typhoon resistance analysis of offshore wind
2019;18(3):325–33. turbines: A review. Atmosphere 2022;13(3):451.
[9] GWEC. GWEC annual global wind report. 2022, https://gwec.net. [41] Jahani K, Langlois RG, Afagh FF. Structural dynamics of offshore wind turbines:
[10] Zeng X, Shi W, Michailides C, Zhang S, Li X. Numerical and experimental A review. Ocean Eng 2022;251:111136.
investigation of breaking wave forces on a monopile-type offshore wind turbine. [42] Hou G, Xu K, Lian J. A review on recent risk assessment methodologies of
Renew Energy 2021;175:501–19. offshore wind turbine foundations. Ocean Eng 2022;264:112469.
[11] Zeng X, Shi W, Michailides C, Wang K, Li X. Comparative experimental [43] Faraggiana E, Giorgi G, Sirigu M, Ghigo A, Bracco G, Mattiazzo G. A review
and numerical study of wave loads on a monopile structure using different of numerical modelling and optimisation of the floating support structure for
turbulence models. China Ocean Eng 2021;35(4):554–65. offshore wind turbines. J Ocean Eng Mar Energy 2022;8(3):433–56.

22
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

[44] Truong HVA, Dang TD, Vo CP, Ahn KK. Active control strategies for system [76] Feng X, Bai W. Hydrodynamic analysis of marine multibody systems by a
enhancement and load mitigation of floating offshore wind turbines: A review. nonlinear coupled model. J Fluids Struct 2017;70:72–101.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;170:112958. [77] Bihs H, Wang W, Pakozdi C, Kamath A. REEF3D::FNPF—A flexible fully
[45] Yeter B, Garbatov Y. Structural integrity assessment of fixed support structures nonlinear potential flow solver. J Offshore Mech Arct Eng 2020;142(4).
for offshore wind turbines: A review. Ocean Eng 2022;244:110271. [78] Ferrant P, Touzé DL, Pelletier K. Non-linear time-domain models for irregular
[46] Wang X, Cai C, Cai S-G, Wang T, Wang Z, Song J, et al. A review of wave diffraction about offshore structures. Internat J Numer Methods Fluids
aerodynamic and wake characteristics of floating offshore wind turbines. Renew 2003;43(10–11):1257–77.
Sustain Energy Rev 2023;175:113144. [79] Bai W, Eatock Taylor R. Higher-order boundary element simulation of fully
[47] Xia J, Zou G. Operation and maintenance optimization of offshore wind farms nonlinear wave radiation by oscillating vertical cylinders. Appl Ocean Res
based on digital twin: A review. Ocean Eng 2023;268:113322. 2006;28(4):247–65.
[48] Tian H, Soltani MN, Nielsen ME. Review of floating wind turbine damping [80] Bai W, Eatock Taylor R. Numerical simulation of fully nonlinear regular and fo-
technology. Ocean Eng 2023;278:114365. cused wave diffraction around a vertical cylinder using domain decomposition.
[49] Maduka M, Schoefs F, Thiagarajan K, Bates A. Hydrodynamic effects of Appl Ocean Res 2007;29(1–2):55–71.
biofouling-induced surface roughness – review and research gaps for shallow [81] Zhou BZ, Wu GX, Meng QC. Interactions of fully nonlinear solitary wave with
water offshore wind energy structures. Ocean Eng 2023;272:113798. a freely floating vertical cylinder. Eng Anal Bound Elem 2016;69:119–31.
[82] Tou SKW. A 2-D finite element model for unsteady free-surface flow
[50] Ramezani M, Choe D-E, Heydarpour K, Koo B. Uncertainty models for the
and its experimental verification. Comput-Aided Civil Infrastruct Eng
structural design of floating offshore wind turbines: A review. Renew Sustain
1991;6(4):335–42.
Energy Rev 2023;185:113610.
[83] Wu GX, Taylor RE. The coupled finite element and boundary element
[51] Jung C, Schindler D. The properties of the global offshore wind turbine fleet.
analysis of nonlinear interactions between waves and bodies. Ocean Eng
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2023;186:113667.
2003;30(3):387–400.
[52] Jensen JJ. Load and global response of ships. 2001.
[84] Wang CZ, Wu GX. An unstructured-mesh-based finite element simula-
[53] Forristall GZ. Wave crest distributions: Observations and second-order theory.
tion of wave interactions with non-wall-sided bodies. J Fluids Struct
J Phys Oceanogr 2000;30(8):1931–43.
2006;22(4):441–61.
[54] Hascoët R. Level-crossing distributions of kinematic variables in multidirectional [85] Wang CZ, Wu GX. Time domain analysis of second-order wave diffraction by
second-order ocean waves. Ocean Eng 2022;265:112585. an array of vertical cylinders. J Fluids Struct 2007;23(4):605–31.
[55] Li B. A mathematical model for weakly nonlinear water wave propagation. [86] Yan S, Ma QW. Numerical simulation of fully nonlinear interaction between
Wave Motion 2010;47(5):265–78. steep waves and 2D floating bodies using the QALE-FEM method. J Comput
[56] Wang X, Liu PLF. An explicit finite difference model for simulating weakly Phys 2007;221(2):666–92.
nonlinear and weakly dispersive waves over slowly varying water depth. Coast [87] Sun JL, Wang CZ, Wu GX, Khoo BC. Fully nonlinear simulations of interactions
Eng 2011;58(2):173–83. between solitary waves and structures based on the finite element method.
[57] Li Y, Li X. Weakly nonlinear broadband and multi-directional surface waves on Ocean Eng 2015;108:202–15.
an arbitrary depth: A framework, Stokes drift, and particle trajectories. Phys [88] Huang H, Wang C. Finite element simulations of second order wave resonance
Fluids 2021;33(7):076609. by motions of two bodies in a steady current. Ocean Eng 2020;196:106734.
[58] Hlophe T, Wolgamot H, Taylor PH, Kurniawan A, Orszaghova J, Draper S. [89] Bingham HB, Zhang H. On the accuracy of finite-difference solutions for
Wave-by-wave prediction in weakly nonlinear and narrowly spread seas using nonlinear water waves. J Eng Math 2007;58(1–4):211–28.
fixed-point surface-elevation time histories. Appl Ocean Res 2022;122:103112. [90] Engsig-Karup AP, Bingham HB, Lindberg O. An efficient flexible-order model
[59] Feng X. Analysis of higher harmonics in a focused water wave group by a for 3D nonlinear water waves. J Comput Phys 2009;228(6):2100–18.
nonlinear potential flow model. Ocean Eng 2019;193:106581. [91] Ducrozet G, Bingham HB, Engsig-Karup AP, Ferrant P. High-order finite
[60] Pierella F, Bredmose H, Dixen M. Generation of highly nonlinear irregular waves difference solution for 3D nonlinear wave-structure interaction. J Hydrodyn
in a wave flume experiment: Spurious harmonics and their effect on the wave 2010;22(S1):225–30.
spectrum. Coast Eng 2021;164:103816. [92] Ducrozet G, Engsig-Karup AP, Bingham HB, Ferrant P. A non-linear wave de-
[61] Li Y, Draycott S, Adcock TAA, van den Bremer TS. Surface wavepackets composition model for efficient wave–structure interaction. Part a: Formulation,
subject to an abrupt depth change. Part 2. experimental analysis. J Fluid Mech validations and analysis. J Comput Phys 2014;257:863–83.
2021;915. [93] Hicks JBH, Bingham HB, Read RW, Engsig-Karup AP. Nonlinear wave
[62] Li Y, Zheng Y, Lin Z, Adcock TAA, van den Bremer TS. Surface wavepackets generation using a heaving wedge. Appl Ocean Res 2021;108:102540.
subject to an abrupt depth change. Part 1. second-order theory. J Fluid Mech [94] Shao Y, Faltinsen OM. A harmonic polynomial cell (HPC) method for 3D
2021;915. Laplace equation with application in marine hydrodynamics. J Comput Phys
[63] Venutelli M. Third-order dispersion in shallow water waves. Eur J Mech 2014;274:312–32.
B/Fluids 2014;48:143–52. [95] Hanssen FCW, Bardazzi A, Lugni C, Greco M. Free-surface tracking in 2D with
[64] Khait A. Third-order generation of narrow-banded wave trains by a wavemaker. the harmonic polynomial cell method: Two alternative strategies. Internat J
Ocean Eng 2020;218:108200. Numer Methods Engrg 2018;113(2).
[65] Gemmrich J, Cicon L. Generation mechanism and prediction of an observed [96] Liang H, Santo H, Shao Y, Law YZ, Chan ES. Liquid sloshing in an up-
extreme rogue wave. Sci Rep 2022;12(1). right circular tank under periodic and transient excitations. Phys Rev Fluids
2020;5(8).
[66] McAllister ML, Draycott S, Adcock TAA, Taylor PH, van den Bremer TS.
[97] Bai H, Zhang M, Yuan W, Xu K. Conceptual design, parameter optimization and
Laboratory recreation of the draupner wave and the role of breaking in crossing
performance investigation of a 10MW semi-submersible floating wind turbine
seas. J Fluid Mech 2019;860:767–86.
in shallow water. Ocean Eng 2023;281:114895.
[67] Fenton JD. A fifth-order stokes theory for steady waves. J Waterw Port Coast
[98] Wang K, Chu Y, Huang S, Liu Y. Preliminary design and dynamic analysis of
Ocean Eng 1985;111(2):216–34.
constant tension mooring system on a 15 MW semi-submersible wind turbine
[68] Alagan Chella M, Bihs H, Myrhaug D, Muskulus M. Breaking characteristics and
for extreme conditions in shallow water. Ocean Eng 2023;283:115089.
geometric properties of spilling breakers over slopes. Coast Eng 2015;95:4–19.
[99] Karimirad M, Michailides C. V-shaped semisubmersible offshore wind tur-
[69] Dean RG. Stream function representation of nonlinear ocean waves. J Geophys
bine: An alternative concept for offshore wind technology. Renew Energy
Res: Atmos 1965;70(18):4561–72.
2015;83:126–43.
[70] Fenton JD. Discussion of ‘‘nonuniqueness in stream function wave theory’’ by [100] Cao Q, Xiao L, Guo X, Liu M. Second-order responses of a conceptual semi-
robert a. Dalrymple and pedro solana (march, 1986, vol. 112, no. 2). J Waterw submersible 10 MW wind turbine using full quadratic transfer functions. Renew
Port Coast Ocean Eng 1988;114(1):110–2. Energy 2020;153:653–68.
[71] Zeng X, Shi W, Feng X, Shao Y, Li X. Investigation of higher-harmonic wave [101] Zhao Z, Shi W, Wang W, Qi S, Li X. Dynamic analysis of a novel semi-
loads and low-frequency resonance response of floating offshore wind turbine submersible platform for a 10 MW wind turbine in intermediate water depth.
under extreme wave groups. Mar Struct 2023;89:103401. Ocean Eng 2021;237:109688.
[72] Zhou Y, Xiao Q, Peyrard C, Pan G. Assessing focused wave applicability on [102] Ren Y, Vengatesan V, Shi W. Dynamic analysis of a multi-column TLP
a coupled aero-hydro-mooring FOWT system using CFD approach. Ocean Eng floating offshore wind turbine with tendon failure scenarios. Ocean Eng
2021;240:109987. 2022;245:110472.
[73] Wang L, Robertson A, Kim J, Jang H, Shen Z-R, Koop A, et al. Validation of [103] Souza CESD, Bachynski-Polić EE. Design, structural modeling, control, and
CFD simulations of the moored DeepCwind offshore wind semisubmersible in performance of 20 MW spar floating wind turbines. Mar Struct 2022;84:103182.
irregular waves. Ocean Eng 2022;260:112028. [104] McEvoy P, Kim S, Haynes M. Fibre spring mooring solution for mooring
[74] Wang L, Robertson A, Jonkman J, Yu Y-H, Koop A, Borràs Nadal A, et al. floating offshore wind turbines in shallow water. In: Proceedings of the 40th
OC6 phase ib: Validation of the CFD predictions of difference-frequency wave international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. 2021.
excitation on a FOWT semisubmersible. Ocean Eng 2021;241:110026. [105] Xu K, Larsen K, Shao Y, Zhang M, Gao Z, Moan T. Design and comparative anal-
[75] Feng X, Bai W. Wave resonances in a narrow gap between two barges using ysis of alternative mooring systems for floating wind turbines in shallow water
fully nonlinear numerical simulation. Appl Ocean Res 2015;50:119–29. with emphasis on ultimate limit state design. Ocean Eng 2021;219:108377.

23
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

[106] McAllister ML, Draycott S, Adcock TAA, Taylor PH, van den Bremer TS. [135] Xu K, Shao Y, Gao Z, Moan T. A study on fully nonlinear wave load effects on
Laboratory recreation of the draupner wave and the role of breaking in crossing floating wind turbine. J Fluids Struct 2019;88:216–40.
seas. J Fluid Mech 2019;860:767–86. [136] Ren Z, Teng B, Cong L. Time-domain simulation of sum-frequency hydrody-
[107] DNV G. Environmental conditions and environmental loads. 2021, DNV-RP- namic performance of a TLP-type floating wind turbine in multidirectional seas.
C205. Appl Ocean Res 2023;135:103565.
[108] Qu X, Li Y, Tang Y, Hu Z, Zhang P, Yin T. Dynamic response of spar-type [137] Zheng Z, Lei W, Wang R, Chen J, Shao Y. Motion Analysis of a Moored
floating offshore wind turbine in freak wave considering the wave-current Semi-Submersible Floating Offshore Wind Turbine in Focused Waves by a Con-
interaction effect. Appl Ocean Res 2020;100:102178. sistent Second-Order Hydrodynamic Model. In: Proceedings of the thirty-third
[109] Chang S, Huang W, Liu F, Song H. Influence of second-order wave force and international ocean and polar engineering conference. 2023.
focusing position on dynamic responses of tension leg platform under a freak [138] Alonso Reig M, Pegalajar-Jurado A, Mendikoa I, Petuya V, Bredmose H.
wave. Ocean Eng 2021;242:110126. Accelerated second-order hydrodynamic load calculation on semi-submersible
[110] Wang J, Luo Y, Wang Y, Guo R, Cai W, Zhao J. Dynamic response of tension leg floaters. Mar Struct 2023;90:103430.
platform with hydro-pneumatic tensioner under second-order waves and freak [139] Carmo LHS, Simos AN. On the complementarity of the slender-body and
waves. Ocean Eng 2022;252:111261. Newman’s approximations for difference-frequency second-order wave loads on
[111] Zhong W, Zhang X, Wan D. Hydrodynamic characteristics of a 15 MW slender cylinders. Ocean Eng 2022;259:111905.
semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbine in freak waves. Ocean Eng [140] Carmo LHS, Simos AN, de Mello PC. A second-order slender-body ap-
2023;283:115094. proach for computing wave induced forces with application to a simplified
[112] Michailides C, Gao Z, Torgeir M. Experimental and numerical study of the semi-submersible FOWT model. Ocean Eng 2023;285:115410.
response of the offshore combined windwave energy concept SFC in extreme [141] Bayati I, Jonkman J, Robertson A, Platt A. The effects of second-order
environmental. Mar Struct 2016;50:35–54. hydrodynamics on a semisubmersible floating offshore wind turbine. J Phys
[113] Sun K, Yi Y, Zheng X, Cui L, Zhao C, Liu M, et al. Experimental investigation of Conf Series 2014;524:012094.
semi-submersible platform combined with point-absorber array. Energy Convers [142] Zhao Z, Wang W, Shi W, Li X. Effects of second-order hydrodynamics on
Manage 2021;245:114623. an ultra-large semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbine. Structures
[114] Yang Y, Bashir M, Wang J, Yu J, Li C. Performance evaluation of an integrated 2020;28:2260–75.
floating energy system based on coupled analysis. Energy Convers Manage [143] Pham T-D, Shin H. The effect of the second-order wave loads on drift
2020;223:113308. motion of a semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbine. J Marine Sci Eng
[115] Hu J, Zhou B, Vogel C, Liu P, Willden R, Sun K, et al. Optimal design and 2020;8(11):859.
performance analysis of a hybrid system combing a floating wind platform and [144] Chuang Z, Liu S, Lu Y. Influence of second order wave excitation loads on
wave energy converters. Appl Energy 2020;269:114998. coupled response of an offshore floating wind turbine. Int J Naval Architect
[116] Zhou B, Hu J, Jin P, Sun K, Li Y, Ning D. Power performance and motion Ocean Eng 2020;12:367–75.
response of a floating wind platform and multiple heaving wave energy [145] Mei X, Xiong M. Effects of second-order hydrodynamics on the dynamic
converters hybrid system. Energy 2023;265:126314. responses and fatigue damage of a 15 MW floating offshore wind turbine. J
Marine Sci Eng 2021;9:1232.
[117] Zhang D, Chen Z, Liu X, Sun J, Yu H, Zeng W, et al. A coupled numerical
[146] Yu Y, Pham TD, Shin H, Ha K. Study on the motion characteristics of 10
framework for hybrid floating offshore wind turbine and oscillating water
MW superconducting floating offshore wind turbine considering 2nd order wave
column wave energy converters. Energy Convers Manage 2022;267:115933.
effect. Energies 2021;14(19):6070.
[118] Da Silva LSP, Sergiienko NY, Cazzolato B, Ding B. Dynamics of hy-
[147] Niranjan R, Ramisetti SB. Insights from detailed numerical investigation of
brid offshore renewable energy platforms: Heaving point absorbers con-
15 MW offshore semi-submersible wind turbine using aero-hydro-servo-elastic
nected to a semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbine. Renew Energy
code. Ocean Eng 2022;251:111024.
2022;199:1424–39.
[148] Matos VLF, Simos AN, Sphaier SH. Second-order resonant heave, roll and pitch
[119] Zhu K, Shi H, Zheng S, Michele S, Cao F. Hydrodynamic analysis of hy-
motions of a deep-draft semi-submersible: Theoretical and experimental results.
brid system with wind turbine and wave energy converter. Appl Energy
Ocean Eng 2011;38:2227–43.
2023;350:121745.
[149] Robertson AN, Wendt F, Jonkman JM, Popko W, Dagher H, Gueydon S, et
[120] Yi Y, Sun K, Liu Y, Ma G, Zhao C, Zhang F, et al. Experimental and CFD as-
al. OC5 project phase II: Validation of global loads of the DeepCwind floating
sessment of harmonic characteristics of point-absorber wave-energy converters
semisubmersible wind turbine. Energy Procedia 2017;137:38–57.
with nonlinear power take-off system. J Marine Sci Eng 2023;11(10):1860.
[150] Simos AN, Ruggeri F, Watai RA, Souto-Iglesias A, Lopez-Pavon C. Slow-drift of
[121] Goldschmidt M, Muskulus M. Coupled mooring systems for floating wind farms.
a floating wind turbine: An assessment of frequency-domain methods based on
Energy Procedia 2015;80:255–62.
model tests. Renew Energy 2018;116:133–54.
[122] Sauder T. Second-order wave loads on floating wind parks with shared mooring.
[151] Kvittem MI, Berthelsen PA, Eliassen L, Thys M. Calibration of hydrodynamic
2023, http://dx.doi.org/10.31224/2921, Engrxiv.
coefficients for a semi-submersible 10 MW wind turbine. In: Proceedings of the
[123] Connolly P, Hall M. Comparison of pilot-scale floating offshore wind farms with
37th international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. 2018.
shared moorings. Ocean Eng 2019;171:172–80.
[152] Pegalajar-Jurado A, Bredmose H. Reproduction of slow-drift motions of a
[124] Liang G, Jiang Z, Merz K. Mooring analysis of a dual-spar floating wind farm floating wind turbine using second-order hydrodynamics and operational modal
with a shared line. J Offshore Mech Arct Eng 2021;143:062003. analysis. Mar Struct 2019;66:178–96.
[125] Irvine H. Cable structures. 1992. [153] Azcona J, Bouchotrouch F, Vittori F. Low-frequency dynamics of a floating wind
[126] Wilson S, Hall M, Housner S, Sirnivas S. Linearized modeling and optimization turbine in wave tank-scaled experiments with SiL hybrid method. Wind Energy
of shared mooring systems. Ocean Eng 2021;241:110009. 2019;22(10):1402–13.
[127] Wang Y, Wolgamot H, Watson P, Gaudin C, Zhao W, Milne I. Preliminary [154] Holcombe A, Edwards E, Tosdevin T, Greaves D, Hann M. A comparative
investigation of a shared mooring arrangement for a floating offshore wind tur- study of potential-flow-based numerical models to experimental tests of a semi-
bine farm in deep water. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2022 41th international submersible floating wind turbine platform. In: Proceedings of the thirty-third
conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. 2022. international ocean and polar engineering conference. 2023.
[128] Lopez-Olocco T, Liang G, Medina-Manuel A, Ynocente LS, Jiang Z, Souto- [155] Li H, Bachynski-Polić EE. Analysis of difference-frequency wave loads and
Iglesias A. Experimental comparison of a dual-spar floating wind farm with quadratic transfer functions on a restrained semi-submersible floating wind
shared mooring against a single floating wind turbine under wave conditions. turbine. Ocean Eng 2021;232:109165.
Eng Struct 2023;292:116475. [156] Li H, Bachynski-Polić EE. Validation and application of nonlinear hydrodynam-
[129] Lozon E, Hall M. Coupled loads analysis of a novel shared-mooring floating ics from CFD in an engineering model of a semi-submersible floating wind
wind farm. Appl Energy 2023;332:120513. turbine. Mar Struct 2021;79:103054.
[130] Liang G, Jiang Z, Merz K. Dynamic analysis of a dual-spar floating offshore [157] Faltinsen OM. Sea loads on ships and offshore structures. Cambridge University
wind farm with shared moorings in extreme environmental conditions. Mar Press; 1990.
Struct 2023;90:103441. [158] Wang L, Robertson A, Jonkman J, Yu Y-H. OC6 phase I: Improvements to the
[131] Zhang Y, Liu H. Coupled dynamic analysis on floating wind farms with shared openfast predictions of nonlinear, low-frequency responses of a floating offshore
mooring under complex conditions. Ocean Eng 2023;267:113323. wind turbine platform. Renew Energy 2022;187:282–301.
[132] Fontana CM, Arwade SR, DeGroot DJ, Myers AT, Landon M, Aubeny C. Efficient [159] Hermans AJ, Sierevogel LM. A discussion on the second-order wave forces and
multiline anchor systems for floating offshore wind turbines. In: Proceedings of wave drift damping. Appl Ocean Res 1996;18(5):257–63.
the ASME 2016 35th international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic [160] Lupton RC, Langley RS. Scaling of slow-drift motion with platform size and its
engineering, vol. 54476. 2016, p. 1–7. importance for floating wind turbines. Renew Energy 2017;101:1013–20.
[133] Li Y, Zhu Q, Liu L, Tang Y. Transient response of a SPAR-type floating offshore [161] Lim D-H, Kim Y. Design wave method for the extreme horizontal slow-drift
wind turbine with fractured mooring lines. Renew Energy 2018;122:576–88. motion of moored floating platforms. Appl Ocean Res 2018;71:48–58.
[134] Pillai AC, Gordelier TJ, Thies PR, Cuthill D, Johanning L. Anchor loads for [162] Srinivasamurthy S, Iwamatsu S, Hashimoto K, Suzuki H, Chujo T, Haneda K,
shallow water mooring of a 15 MW floating wind turbine—Part II: Synthetic et al. Study of slow-drift damping on wind tracking performance of a new-type
and novel mooring systems. Ocean Eng 2022;266:112619. FOWT ‘optiflow’ with single-point mooring. Ocean Eng 2021;242:110131.

24
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

[163] Wright CS, Yoshimoto H, Wada R, Takagi K. Surge slow drift viscous drag [193] Zhang Y, Teng B. A nonlinear potential flow model for higher-harmonic wave
damping of an advanced spar: A numerical–experimental method for variable loads and ringing response of a monopile. Ocean Eng 2021;222:108574.
damping rates. Ocean Eng 2022;266:112696. [194] Xu F, Wang Y. Numerical simulation of ringing responses of a vertical cylinder.
[164] Zheng Z, Shao Y, Chen J. Wave-frequency and low-frequency motions of a Ocean Eng 2021;226:108815.
deep-draft spar buoy in irregular waves based on a consistent second-order [195] Luan C, Gao Z, Moan T. Comparative analysis of numerically simulated and
theory. Mar Struct 2024;93:103537. experimentally measured motions and sectional forces and moments in a
[165] Faltinsen OM, Newman JN, Vinje T. Nonlinear wave loads on a slender vertical floating wind turbine hull structure subjected to combined wind and wave
cylinder. J Fluid Mech 1995;289:179–98. loads. Eng Struct 2018;177:210–33.
[166] Kristiansen T, Faltinsen OM. Higher harmonic wave loads on a vertical cylinder [196] Suzuki H, Xiong J, Do Carmo LHS, Vieira DP, de Mello PC, Malta EB, et
in finite water depth. J Fluid Mech 2017;833:773–805. al. Elastic response of a light-weight floating support structure of fowt with
[167] Ghadirian A, Bredmose H. Pressure impulse theory for a slamming wave on a guywire supported tower. J Marine Sci Technol 2019;24(4):1015–28.
vertical circular cylinder. J Fluid Mech 2019;867. [197] Takata T, Takaoka M, Gonçalves RT, Houtani H, Yoshimura Y, Hara K, et al.
[168] Ghadirian A, Pierella F, Bredmose H. Calculation of slamming wave loads on Dynamic behavior of a flexible multi-column FOWT in regular waves. J Marine
monopiles using fully nonlinear kinematics and a pressure impulse model. Coast Sci Technol 2021;9(2):124.
Eng 2023;179:104219. [198] Leroy V, Delacroix S, Merrien A, Bachynski-Polić EE, Gilloteaux JC. Experimen-
[169] Rongé É, Peyrard C, Venugopal V, Xiao Q, Johanning L, Benoit M. Evaluation tal investigation of the hydro-elastic response of a spar-type floating offshore
of second and third-order numerical wave-loading models for floating offshore wind turbine. Ocean Eng 2022;255:111430.
wind TLPs. Ocean Eng 2023;288:116064. [199] Saverin J, Perez-Becker S, Luna RBD, Marten D, Gilloteaux J-C, Kurnia R. D1.2.
[170] Feng X, Taylor PH, Dai S, Day AH, Willden RHJ, Adcock TAA. Experimental Higher Order Hydroelastic Module. 2021.
investigation of higher harmonic wave loads and moments on a vertical cylinder [200] Borg M, Hansen AM, Bredmose H. Floating substructure flexibility of large-
by a phase-manipulation method. Coast Eng 2020;160:103747. volume 10mw offshore wind turbine platforms in dynamic calculations. J Phys
[171] Chau FP, Taylor RE. Second-order wave diffraction by a vertical cylinder. J Conf Series 2016;753(8):82024.
Fluid Mech 1992;240:571–99. [201] Svendsen KF. Structural design and dynamic analysis of a tension leg platform
[172] Malenica S, Molin B. Third-harmonic wave diffraction by a vertical cylinder. J wind turbine considering elasticity in the hull. Norwegian University of Science
Fluid Mech 1995;302:203–29. and Technology; 2016.
[173] Orszaghova J, Taylor PH, Wolgamot HA, Madsen FJ, Pegalajar-Jurado AM, [202] Luan C, Gao Z, Moan T. Development and verification of a time-domain ap-
Bredmose H. Wave- and drag-driven subharmonic responses of a floating wind proach for determining forces and moments in structural components of floaters
turbine. J Fluid Mech 2021;929. with an application to floating wind turbines. Mar Struct 2017;51:87–109.
[174] Zeng F, Zhang N, Huang G, Gu Q, He M. Experimental study on dynamic
[203] Jonkman J, Branlard E, Hall M, Hayman G, Platt A, Robertson A. Implementa-
response of a floating offshore wind turbine under various freak wave profiles.
tion of substructure flexibility and member-level load capabilities for floating
Mar Struct 2023;88:103362.
offshore wind turbines in openfast. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy
[175] Huo F, Zhao Y, Zhang J, Zhang M, Yuan Z-M. Study on wave slamming
Laboratory; 2020.
characteristics of a typical floating wind turbine under freak waves. Ocean Eng
[204] Thomsen JB, Bergua R, Jonkman J, Robertson A, Mendoza N, Brown C, et al.
2023;269:113464.
Modeling the TetraSpar floating offshore wind turbine foundation as a flexible
[176] Abdussamie N, Drobyshevski Y, Ojeda R, Thomas G, Amin W. Experimental
structure in OrcaFlex and openfast. Energies 2021;14(23):7866.
investigation of wave-in-deck impact events on a tlp model. Ocean Eng
[205] Zhao Z, Wang W, Shi W, Qi S, Li X. Effect of floating substructure flexibility
2017;142:541–62.
of large-volume 10 mw offshore wind turbine semi-submersible platforms on
[177] Vestbøstad TM, Økland OD, Lian G, Stavang TP. Column slamming loads on
dynamic response. Ocean Eng 2022;259:111934.
a tlp from steep and breaking waves. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2017 36th
[206] Alexandre A, Urbano RB, Roadnight J, Harries R. Methodology for calculating
international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering, Trondheim,
floating offshore wind foundation internal loads using bladed and a finite
Norway. 2017.
element analysis software. In: International conference on offshore mechanics
[178] Cheng Y, Ji C. Numerical simulation of violent breaking wave impacts on a
and arctic engineering. Ocean renewable energy, vol. 10, 2018.
moored offshore wind turbine foundation over nonuniform topography. Phys
[207] Ran X, Leroy V, Bachynski-Polić EE. Hydroelastic response of a flexible
Fluids 2020;32(10):107106.
spar floating wind turbine: Numerical modelling and validation. Ocean Eng
[179] Yan B, Luo M, Bai W. An experimental and numerical study of plunging wave
2023;286:115635.
impact on a box-shape structure. Mar Struct 2019;66:272–87.
[208] Li X, Xiao Q, Wang E, Peyrard C, Gonçalves RT. The dynamic response of
[180] Luo M, Koh CG, Lee WX, Lin P, Reeve DE. Experimental study of freak wave
floating offshore wind turbine platform in wave–current condition. Phys Fluids
impacts on a tension-leg platform. Mar Struct 2020;74:102821.
2023;35(8).
[181] Luo M, Rubinato M, Wang X, Zhao X. Experimental investigation of freak
[209] Jin R, Shen W, Cong L, Jiang Y, Zhang H, Geng B. Experimental investigation
wave actions on a floating platform and effects of the air gap. Ocean Eng
of the vortex-induced motion of tension leg platform system with suppression
2022;253:111192.
[182] Rudman M, Cleary PW. The influence of mooring system in rogue wave impact system under current. Ocean Eng 2022;246:110588.
on an offshore platform. Ocean Eng 2016;115:168–81. [210] Gonçalves RT, Rosetti GF, Fujarra ALC, Oliveira AC. Experimental study
[183] Banks M, Abdussamie N. The response of a semisubmersible model un- on vortex-induced motions of a semi-submersible platform with four square
der focused wave groups: Experimental investigation. J Ocean Eng Sci columns, part I: Effects of current incidence angle and hull appendages. Ocean
2017;2(3):161–71. Eng 2012;54:150–69.
[184] Zhou Y, Xiao Q, Liu Y, Incecik A, Peyrard C, Li S, et al. Numerical modelling [211] Gonçalves RT, Pinto LA, Fujarra ALC. Experimental study on vortex-induced
of dynamic responses of a floating offshore wind turbine subject to focused motions of a semi-submersible platform with four square columns, part III:
waves. Energies 2019;12(18):3482. Effects of the collinear irregular and regular wave incidence and current. Ocean
[185] Katafuchi M, Suzuki H, Higuchi Y, Houtani H, Malta EB, Gonçalves RT. Wave Eng 2020;217:107585.
response of a monocolumn platform with a skirt using CFD and experimental [212] Chen L, Basu B. Fatigue load estimation of a spar-type floating offshore wind
approaches. J Marine Sci Eng 2022;10(9):1276. turbine considering wave-current interactions. Int J Fatigue 2018;116:421–8.
[186] Suzuki H, Sakai Y, Yoshimura Y, Houtani H, Carmo LHS, Yoshimoto H, et [213] Sarkar S, Chen L, Fitzgerald B, Basu B. Multi-resolution wavelet pitch con-
al. Non-linear motion characteristics of a shallow draft cylindrical barge type troller for spar-type floating offshore wind turbines including wave-current
floater for a FOWT in waves. J Marine Sci Eng 2021;9(1):56. interactions. J Sound Vib 2020;470:115170.
[187] Li Y, Li H, Wang Z, Li Y, Wang B, Tang Y. The dynamic response of a spar-type [214] Qu X, Li Y, Tang Y, Hu Z, Zhang P, Yin T. Dynamic response of spar-type
floating wind turbine under freak waves with different properties. Mar Struct floating offshore wind turbine in freak wave considering the wave-current
2023;91:103471. interaction effect. Appl Ocean Res 2020;100:102178.
[188] Abrahamsen BC, Grytten F, Hellan, Søreide TH, Faltinsen OM. Hydroelastic [215] Silva LSP, Cazzolato B, Sergiienko NY, Ding B. Nonlinear dynamics of a floating
response of concrete shells during impact on calm water. J Fluids Struct offshore wind turbine platform via statistical quadratization — Mooring, wave
2023;116:103804. and current interaction. Ocean Eng 2021;236:109471.
[189] Gurley KR, Kareem A. Simulation of ringing in offshore systems under viscous [216] Ishihara T, Liu Y. Dynamic response analysis of a semi-submersible float-
loads. J Eng Mech 1998;124(5):582–6. ing wind turbine in combined wave and current conditions using advanced
[190] Chaplin JR, Rainey RCT, Yemm RW. Ringing of a vertical cylinder in waves. J hydrodynamic models. Energies 2020;13(21):5820.
Fluid Mech 1997;350:119–47. [217] Yang L, Falkenberg E, Nestegard A, Birknes-Berg J. Viscous drift force and mo-
[191] Bachynski EE, Kristiansen T, Thys M. Experimental and numerical investigations tion analysis of semi-submersible in storm sea states compared with model tests.
of monopile ringing in irregular finite-depth water waves. Appl Ocean Res In: 36th International conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering.
2017;68:154–70. 2017.
[192] Leroy V, Bachynski-Polić EE, Babarit A, Ferrant P, Gilloteaux JC. A weak- [218] Ommani B, Fonseca N, Stansberg CT. Simulation of low frequency motions
scatterer potential flow theory-based model for the hydroelastic analysis of in severe seastates accounting for wave-current interaction effects. In: 36th
offshore wind turbine substructures. Ocean Eng 2021;238:109702. International conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. 2017.

25
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

[219] Goncalves RT, Chame MEF, Silva LSP, Koop A, Hirabayashi S, Suzuki H. [247] Tan Z, Sun P, Liu N, Li Z, Lyu H, Zhu R. SPH simulation and experimental
Experimental flow-induced motions of a FOWT semi-submersible type (OC4 validation of the dynamic response of floating offshore wind turbines in waves.
phase II floater). J Offshore Mech Arct Eng 2021;143(1). Renew Energy 2023;205:393–409.
[220] Naito Y, Hirabayashi S, Suzuki H, Gonçalves R. Experimental study on flow- [248] Tagliafierro B, Karimirad M, Altomare C, Göteman M, Martínez-Estévez I,
induced pitch, roll, and heave motions of a semi-submersible floater with long Capasso S, et al. Numerical validations and investigation of a semi-submersible
pontoons. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2023 42th international conference on floating offshore wind turbine platform interacting with ocean waves using an
ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. 2023. SPH framework. Appl Ocean Res 2023;141:103757.
[221] Gonçalves RT, Malta EB, Simos AN, Hirabayashi S, Suzuki H. Influence of [249] Larsen BE, Fuhrman DR. On the over-production of turbulence beneath
heave plate on the flow-induced motions of a floating offshore wind turbine. J surface waves in Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes models. J Fluid Mech
Offshore Mech Arct Eng 2022;145(3):032001. 2018;853:419–60.
[222] Carlson DW, Modarres Sadeghi Y. Vortex-induced vibration of spar platforms [250] Wang Y, Chen H-C, Koop A, Vaz G. Verification and validation of CFD
for floating offshore wind turbines. Wind Energy 2018;21(11):1169–76. simulations for semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbine under pitch
[223] Amaral GA, Pesce CP, Franzini GR. Mooring system stiffness: A six-degree-of- free-decay motion. Ocean Eng 2021;242:109993.
freedom closed-form analytical formulation. Mar Struct 2022;84:103189. [251] Huang L, Li Y, Benites-Munoz D, Windt CW, Feichtner A, Tavakoli S, et al.
[224] Yan X, Chen C, Yin G, Ong MC, Ma Y, Fan T. Numerical investigations on A review on the modelling of wave-structure interactions based on openfoam.
nonlinear effects of catenary mooring systems for a 10-MW FOWT in shallow OpenFOAM® J 2022;2:116–42.
water. Ocean Eng 2023;276:114207. [252] Pena B, Huang L. A review on the turbulence modelling strategy for ship
[225] Tang Y, Yi C, Zhang S. Analysis of cable shape and cable tension for platforms hydrodynamic simulations. Ocean Eng 2021;241:110082.
in deep sea. Ocean Eng 2007;25(2):9–14, [In Chinese]. [253] Wang L, Robertson A, Jonkman J, Yu Y-H. Uncertainty assessment of CFD inves-
[226] Pan C, Zheng J, Chen G, He C, Tang Z. Spatial and temporal variations of tide tigation of the nonlinear difference-frequency wave loads on a semisubmersible
characteristics in hangzhou bay and cause analysis. Ocean Eng 2019;37(3):1–11, FOWT platform. Sustainability 2021;13(1):64.
[In Chinese]. [254] Burmester S, Vaz G, El Moctar O. Towards credible CFD simulations for floating
[227] Song Z, Shi W, Zhang L, Xin L, Wang B. Design and research on dynamic offshore wind turbines. Ocean Eng 2020;209:107237.
characteristics of mooring systems of semisubmersible wind turbine consid- [255] Islam H, Guedes Soares C. Assessment of uncertainty in the CFD simulation of
ering large tidal ranges. J Central South Univ (Science and Technology) the wave-induced loads on a vertical cylinder. Mar Struct 2021;80:103088.
2022;53(8):3191–201, [In Chinese].
[256] Hall M. MoorDyn V2: New capabilities in mooring system components and
[228] Nakamura M, Koterayama W, Kyozuka Y. Slow drift damping due to drag forces load cases. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2020 39th international conference on
acting on mooring lines. Ocean Eng 1991;18(4):283–96. ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. Oean renewable energy, vol. 9, 2020.
[229] Guillouzouic B, Pétrié F, Lafon V, Fremont F. Experimental and numerical study
[257] Palm J, Eskilsson C, Bergdahl L. An hp -adaptive discontinuous Galerkin method
of the influence of drag coefficient on snap loads in mooring lines of a floating
for modelling snap loads in mooring cables. Ocean Eng 2017;144:266–76.
offshore wind turbine. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2021 40th international
[258] Masciola M, Jonkman J, Robertson A. Implementation of a Multisegmented,
conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering. 2021.
Quasi-Static Cable Model. In: Proceeding of 23th international offshore and
[230] Aliyar S, Ducrozet G, Bouscasse B, Bonnefoy F, Sriram V, Ferrant P. Numerical
polar engineering conference. Ocean renewable energy, vol. 9, 2013.
coupling strategy using HOS-openfoam-MoorDyn for OC3 hywind SPAR type
[259] Chen H, Hall M. CFD simulation of floating body motion with moor-
platform. Ocean Eng 2022;263:112206.
ing dynamics: Coupling MoorDyn with OpenFOAM. Appl Ocean Res
[231] Liu S, Zhang X. Extreme wave crest distribution by direct numerical simulations
2022;124:103210.
of long-crested nonlinear wave fields. Appl Ocean Res 2019;86:141–53.
[260] Domínguez JM, Crespo AJC, Hall M, Altomare C, Wu M, Stratigaki V, et al. SPH
[232] Xiao Q, Zhu R, Huang S. Hybrid time-domain model for ship motions in
simulation of floating structures with moorings. Coast Eng 2019;153:103560.
nonlinear extreme waves using HOS method. Ocean Eng 2019;192:106554.
[261] Eskilsson C, Fernandez GV, Andersen J, Palm J. Hydrodynamic Simulations of
[233] Fujima K, Masamura K, Goto C. Development of the 2D/3D hybrid model for
a FOWT Platform (1st FOWT Comparative Study) Using OpenFOAM Coupled
tsunami numerical simulation. Coastal Eng J 2002;44(4):373–97.
to MoodyCore. In: Proceedings of the thirty-third international ocean and polar
[234] Ai C, Ma Y, Yuan C, Xie Z, Dong G, Stoesser T. An efficient 3D non-hydrostatic
engineering conference. 2023.
model for predicting nonlinear wave interactions with fixed floating structures.
[262] Shao Y, Zheng Z, Liang H, Chen J. A consistent second-order hydrodynamic
Ocean Eng 2022;248:110810.
model in the time domain for floating structures with large horizontal motions.
[235] Luo M, Koh CG. Shared-memory parallelization of consistent particle method
Comput-Aided Civ Infrastruct Eng 2022;37(7):894–914.
for violent wave impact problems. Appl Ocean Res 2017;69:87–99.
[263] Shao YL, Faltinsen OM. Use of body-fixed coordinate system in analysis of
[236] Chen Y-k, Liu Y, Meringolo DD, Hu J-m. Study on the hydrodynamics of a twin
weakly nonlinear wave–body problems. Appl Ocean Res 2010;32(1):20–33.
floating breakwater by using SPH method. Coast Eng 2023;179:104230.
[237] Janssen C, Grilli S, Krafczyk M. Modeling of wave breaking and wave-structure [264] Shao YL. Numerical analysis of second-order mean wave forces by a stabilized
interactions by coupling of fully nonlinear potential flow and lattice-Boltzmann higher-order boundary element method. J Offshore Mech Arct Eng 2019;141(5).
models. In: Proceedings of 20th offshore and polar engineering conference, [265] Teng B, Jin R, Cong L. A twice expansion analysis method in the time-domain
Beijing, China. 2010. for wave action on a floater translating with a large amplitude. Ocean Eng
[238] Yang F, Gu X, Xia X, Zhang Q. A peridynamics-immersed boundary- 2016;118:138–51.
lattice Boltzmann method for fluid-structure interaction analysis. Ocean Eng [266] Shao YL, Faltinsen OM. Linear seakeeping and added resistance anal-
2022;264:112528. ysis by means of body-fixed coordinate system. J Marine Sci Technol
[239] Wang S, Moan T, Gao Z. Methodology for global structural load effect analysis 2012;17(4):493–510.
of the semi-submersible hull of floating wind turbines under still water, wind, [267] Shao Y, Faltinsen OM. Second-order diffraction and radiation of a floating body
and wave loads. Mar Struct 2023;91:103463. with small forward speed. J Offshore Mech Arct Eng 2013;135(1):011301.
[240] Kim T, Madsen FJ, Bredmose H, Pegalajar-Jurado A. Numerical analysis and [268] Mishra V, Crawford C, Buckham B. Predicting hydrodynamic forces on
comparison study of the 1:60 scaled DTU 10 mw TLP floating wind turbine. heave plates using a data-driven modelling architecture. J Fluids Struct
Renew Energy 2023;202:210–21. 2023;116:103812.
[241] Zhu Y, Hu C, Ma Y, Xie G, Yao Z. An equation-based method for fully coupled [269] Shao Y, You J, Glomnes EB. Stochastic linearization and its application in mo-
analyses of floating offshore wind turbine based on modelica. Energy Convers tion analysis of cylindrical floating structure with bilge boxes. In: Proceedings
Manage 2023;277:116653. of the 35th international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering.
[242] Luo W, Liu W, Yang M, Chen S, Song X, Wu W. Load characteristics and 2016.
extreme response of straight-bladed floating VAWT using a fully coupled model. [270] Shao Y, Xiang X, Liu J. Numerical investigation of wave-frequency pontoon
J Marine Sci Technol 2023;11(1):185. responses of a floating bridge based on model test results. In: Proceedings of
[243] Zhang L, Li Y, Xu W, Gao Z, Fang L, Li R, et al. Systematic analysis of the 38th international conference on ocean, offshore and Arctic engineering.
performance and cost of two floating offshore wind turbines with significant 2019.
interactions. Appl Energy 2022;321:119341. [271] Ezoji M, Shabakhty N, Tao L. Hydrodynamic damping of solid and perforated
[244] Navarro Diaz GP, Otero AD, Asmuth H, Sørensen JN, Ivanell S. Actuator line heave plates oscillating at low KC number based on experimental data: A
model using simplified force calculation methods. Wind Energy Sci Discuss review. Ocean Eng 2022;253:111247.
2022;2022:1–29. [272] Takata T, Takaoka M, Houtani H, Hara K, Oh S, Malta EB, et al. Effect of
[245] Stanly R, Martínez-Tossas LA, Frankel SH, Delorme Y. Large-eddy simulation of heave plates on the wave motion of a flexible multicolumn FOWT. Energies
a wind turbine using a filtered actuator line model. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 2022;15(20):7605.
2022;222:104868. [273] Pinguet R, Benoit M, Molin B, Rezende F. CFD analysis of added mass,
[246] Liu L, Franceschini L, Oliveira DF, Galeazzo FC, Carmo BS, Stevens RJAM. damping and induced flow of isolated and cylinder-mounted heave plates at
Evaluating the accuracy of the actuator line model against blade element various submergence depths using an overset mesh method. J Fluids Struct
momentum theory in uniform inflow. Wind Energy 2022;25(6):1046–59. 2022;109:103442.

26
X. Zeng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191 (2024) 114092

[274] Medina-Manuel A, Botia-Vera E, Saettone S, Calderon-Sanchez J, Bulian G, [290] Hildebrandt A, Sriram V, Schlurmann T. Simulation of focusing waves and
Souto-Iglesias A. Hydrodynamic coefficients from forced and decay heave local line forces due to wave impacts on a tripod structure. In: Proceedings of
motion tests of a scaled model of a column of a floating wind turbine equipped the 23rd international offshore and polar engineering conference, Anchorage,
with a heave plate. Ocean Eng 2022;252:110985. Alaska. 2013.
[275] Wang W, Zhao C, Jia P, Lu Z, Xie Y. Numerical simulation and experimental [291] Zhang Y, Xu H, Law Y, Santo H, Magee A. Hydrodynamic analysis and
study on perforated heave plate of a DeepCwind floating wind turbine platform. validation of the floating DeepCwind semi-submersible under 3-h irregular wave
Ships Offshore Struct 2023;18(3):438–49. with the HOS and CFD coupling method. Ocean Eng 2023;287:115701.
[276] Berthelsen PA, Bachynski EE, Karimirad M, Thys M. Real-time hybrid model [292] Colicchio G, Greco M, Faltinsen OM. A BEM-level set domain-decomposition
tests of a braceless semi-submersible wind turbine. part III: Calibration of a strategy for non-linear and fragmented interfacial flows. Internat J Numer
numerical model. In: Proceedings of the 35th international conference on ocean, Methods Engrg 2006;67(10):1385–419.
offshore and arctic engineering. 2016. [293] Kim S-H, Yamashiro M, Yoshida A. A simple two-way coupling method
[277] Zhang L, Shi W, Zeng Y, Michailides C, Zheng S, Li Y. Experimental investi- of BEM and VOF model for random wave calculations. Coast Eng
gation on the hydrodynamic effects of heave plates used in floating offshore 2010;57(11–12):1018–28.
wind turbines. Ocean Eng 2023;267:113103. [294] Sriram V, Ma QW, Schlurmann T. A hybrid method for modelling
[278] Kim J-S, Joe KH, Yeon LD. Viscous drift forces on a semi-submersible in com- two dimensional non-breaking and breaking waves. J Comput Phys
bined wave and current. In: Proceedings of the asme 2018 37th international 2014;272:429–54.
conference on ocean, offshore and Arctic engineering. 2018. [295] Kaiyuan S, Renchuan Z. Efficient spectral coupled boundary element method
[279] Principle Power. Kincardine. 2021, https://www.offshorewind.biz/2021/05/ for fully nonlinear wave–structure interaction simulation. Phys Fluids (1994)
10/final-kincardine-floating-wind-platform-leaves-spain/, Retrived date 02-11- 2023;35(5).
2022. [296] Shi K, Zhu R, Xu D. A spectral coupled boundary element method for the
[280] Amaral G, Mello P, Do Carmo L, Alberto I, Malta E, Simos A, et al. Seakeeping simulation of nonlinear surface gravity waves. J Ocean Eng Sci 2023.
tests of a FOWT in wind and waves: An analysis of dynamic coupling effects [297] Deng S, Liu Y, Ning D. Fully coupled aero-hydrodynamic modelling of floating
and their impact on the predictions of pitch motion response. J Marine Sci offshore wind turbines in nonlinear waves using a direct time-domain approach.
Technol 2021;9(2):179. Renew Energy 2023;216:119016.
[281] Hoff J. Estimation of linear and quadratic roll damping from free-decay test. [298] Putra MJ, Oguz E, Uzol NS. Aerodynamic and hydrodynamic investigations on
2001. linear upscaling and optimization of floating offshore wind turbines. Ocean Eng
[282] Burmester S, Vaz G, Gueydon S, El Moctar O. Investigation of a semi- 2023;287:115728.
submersible floating wind turbine in surge decay using CFD. Ship Technol Res [299] Michele S, Zheng S, Buriani F, Borthwick AGL, Greaves DM. Floating hy-
2020;67(1):2–14. droelastic circular plate in regular and irregular waves. Eur J Mech B/Fluids
[283] Li H, Bachynski-Polić EE. Experimental and numerically obtained low-frequency 2023;99:148–62.
radiation characteristics of the OC5-DeepCwind semisubmersible. Ocean Eng [300] MYSE. Oceanx. 2022, https://http://www.myse.com.cn/jtxw/info.aspx?itemid=
2021;232:109130. 935/, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
[284] Wang L, Robertson A, Jonkman J, Kim J, Shen Z-R, Koop A, et al. OC6 phase ia: [301] EnerOcean. PLOCAN. 2020, https://www.plocan.eu/en/eneroceans-w2power-
CFD simulations of the free-decay motion of the DeepCwind semisubmersible. floating-wind-technology-tested-on-plocans-test-site-awarded-with-the-
Energies 2022;15(1):389. atlantic-project-awards-2020/, Retrived date 02-11-2022.
[285] Ferrant P, Gentaz L, Alessandrini D, Ecole CDN. A potential/RANSE approach [302] Sørum SH, Fonseca N, Kent M, Faria RP. Assessment of nylon versus polyester
for regular water wave diffraction about 2-d structures. Ship Technol Res ropes for mooring of floating wind turbines. Ocean Eng 2023;278:114339.
2003;50(4):165–71. [303] Ha Y-J, Ahn H, Park S, Park J-Y, Kim K-H. Development of hybrid model test
[286] Edmund DO, Maki KJ, Beck RF. A velocity-decomposition formulation for the technique for performance evaluation of a 10 MW class floating offshore wind
incompressible Navier–Stokes equations. Comput Mech 2013;52(3):669–80. turbine considering asymmetrical thrust. Ocean Eng 2023;272:113783.
[287] Lachaume C, Biausser B, Grilli S, Fraunie P, Guignard S. Modeling of breaking [304] Xue M, Dou P, Zheng J, Lin P, Yuan X. Pitch motion reduction of semisub-
and post breaking waves on slopes by coupling of BEM and VOF methods. mersible floating offshore wind turbine substructure using a tuned liquid
In: Proceeding of 13th international offshore polar engineering conference, multicolumn damper. Mar Struct 2022;84:103237.
Honolulu, USA. 2003, p. 353–9. [305] Zhou Y, Qian L, Bai W. Sloshing dynamics of a tuned liquid multi-column
[288] Biausser B, Fraunie P, Grilli S, Marcer R. Numerical analysis of the internal damper for semi-submersible floating offshore wind turbines. Ocean Eng
kinematics and dynamics of 3-D breaking waves on slopes. Int J Offshore Polar 2023;269:113484.
Eng 2004;14:247–56. [306] Alotta G, Laface V, Failla G, Ruzzo C, Arena F. A novel concept of floating
[289] Narayanaswamy M, Crespo A, Gomez-Gesteira M, Dalrymple R. SPHyiscs- absorber for motion mitigation in floating offshore wind turbines. Eng Struct
FUNWAVE hybrid model for coastal wave propagation. J Hydraul Res 2023;294:116554.
2010;48:85–93.

27