CALCULUS NOTES

Limits
Example 1: What is 𝒍𝒊𝒎(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)?
𝒙→𝟓
This is equivalent to asking, “what happens the value of 2𝑥 + 3 as the value of 𝑥 gets closer and
closer to 5”?

Solution 1: Substitute “5” for 𝑥, giving an answer 2(5) + 3 = 13.

𝒙−𝟕
Example 2: What is 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒙𝟐−𝟒𝟗 ?
𝒙→𝟕
0
Solution 2: Substituting “7” for 𝑥, gives an indeterminate answer, . (There is no answer to this.)
0
𝒙−𝟕 𝟏 𝟏
But we can factorise, giving us: 𝒍𝒊𝒎 (𝒙−𝟕)(𝒙+𝟕) = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 =
𝒙→𝟕 𝒙→𝟕 (𝒙+𝟕) 𝟏𝟒

The laws of Limits: [Looks complicated, but all fairly obvious anyway, don’t learn off or anything , just understand]

𝒍𝒊𝒎[𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒈(𝒙)

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝒍𝒊𝒎[𝒇(𝒙). 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) . 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒈(𝒙)

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙)

𝒍𝒊𝒎 [ ] = 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂

𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝟐𝟓
Example 3: What is 𝒍𝒊𝒎 ?
𝒙→𝟐𝟓 √𝒙−𝟓

0
Solution 3: (Substituting “25” for 𝑥, gives an indeterminate answer, 0. We need another method!)
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝟐𝟓 (𝒙−𝟐𝟓)(𝒙+𝟐𝟓) (√𝒙+𝟓)
𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 [Multiplying above and below by conjugate of below]
𝒙→𝟐𝟓 √𝒙−𝟓 𝒙→𝟐𝟓 (√𝒙−𝟓) (√𝒙+𝟓)
(𝒙−𝟐𝟓)(𝒙+𝟐𝟓) (√𝒙+𝟓)
= 𝒍𝒊𝒎 [Denominator is equal to the difference of two squares]
𝒙→𝟐𝟓 𝒙−𝟐𝟓
(𝒙+𝟐𝟓) (√𝒙+𝟓) (𝟐𝟓+𝟐𝟓) (√𝟐𝟓+𝟓)
= 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟏
= 𝟏
= (𝟓𝟎)(𝟏𝟎) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎.
𝒙→𝟐𝟓
It is interesting to check limit results by substituting a value very close to the given value, e.g. 24.9 or 24.99 in
this case.
𝟐𝟒.𝟗𝟐 − 𝟔𝟐𝟓 −𝟒.𝟗𝟗 𝟐𝟒.𝟗𝟗𝟐 − 𝟔𝟐𝟓 −𝟎.𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟗
Using 24.9: = −𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏
= 𝟒𝟗𝟔. 𝟓. Using 24.99: = −𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏
= 𝟒𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟓
√𝟐𝟒.𝟗−𝟓 √𝟐𝟒.𝟗𝟗−𝟓

𝒙𝟐
Example 4: What is 𝒍𝒊𝒎 (𝟖−𝟏𝟐𝒙)− (𝟐−𝒙)𝟑 ?
𝒙→𝟏

𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏
Solution 4: 𝒍𝒊𝒎 (𝟖−𝟏𝟐𝒙)− (𝟐−𝒙)𝟑 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 (𝟖−𝟏𝟐𝒙)−(𝟖−𝟏𝟐𝒙+𝟔𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟑) = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒙𝟑−𝟔𝒙𝟐 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒙−𝟔 = 𝟓
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝟏

𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟐 𝟎.𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟏
[Note: Substituting 0.99 for x, (𝟖−𝟏𝟐(𝟎.𝟗𝟗))− (𝟐−𝟎.𝟗𝟗)𝟑
= = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟔 ≈ −𝟎. 𝟐]
−𝟒.𝟗𝟏𝟎

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 4

CALCULUS NOTES

Trigonometric Limits
𝜽 (in radians) Sin 𝜽 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝜽 (in degrees)
𝜽

10o 0.1745329252 0.1736481777 0.9949307662

1o 0.01745329252 0.01745240644 0.9999492312

0.1o 0.001745329252 0.001745328366 0.9999994923

0.0001745329243 0.9999999949
0.01o 0.0001745329252
0.00001745329252 0.9999999999
0.001o 0.00001745329252

This table shows that as the angle 𝜃 (in radians) gets smaller and smaller and closer and closer to 0, then the ratio
of the Sine of the angle to the angle gets closer and closer to 1.
(This topic is also dealt with in Trigonometry notes (see page 19, Trigonometry Notes.)

sin 
Mathematically, we write this important result as: lim = 1.
 →0 

Differentiation from First Principles

dy
Example 5: Find from first principles if 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥.
dx

Solution 5: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 5 ( 𝑥 + ℎ)

= 2𝑥 2 + 4ℎ𝑥 + 2ℎ2 + 5𝑥 + 5ℎ

⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 2 + 4ℎ𝑥 + 2ℎ2 + 5𝑥 + 5ℎ) − (2𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥)

= 4ℎ𝑥 + 2ℎ2 + 5ℎ

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓(𝑥)
⇒ ℎ
= 4𝑥 + 2ℎ + 5 [Dividing both sides of equation by ℎ]

dy 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓(𝑥)
But = lim ℎ
= lim (4𝑥 + 2ℎ + 5) = 4𝑥 + 5
dx h→ 0 h→ 0

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 5

CALCULUS NOTES

The Rules of Differentiation

𝑑𝑓
Example 6: Prove by induction that if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.

𝑑𝑓
Solution 6: (i) If 𝑛 = 1: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 1 , is 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝑥 1−1 = 𝑥 0 = 1? (i.e. Is the differential of 𝑥 = 1?)
We know that the differential of 𝑥 is 1 and therefore the proposition is true for 𝑛 = 1.
[But, this would have to be proved separately using first principles. Why?]

(ii) We now assume that the proposition is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.

𝑑𝑓
If 𝑛 = 𝑘: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑘 , then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 .
We must now prove that the proposition is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
𝑑𝑓
If 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1: To prove: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑘+1, then = (𝑘 + 1) 𝑥 𝑘 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑘+1 = (𝑥)(𝑥)𝑘
𝑑𝑓
Using product rule: LHS = 𝑑𝑥
= (𝑥)(𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 ) + (𝑥)𝑘 1 [Using proposition k, already assumed]
= 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘 = RHS
𝑘

(iii) But, proposition 1 is true and therefore, by induction, the proposition is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.

𝑑𝑓
The general rule for differentiation in example 6 above ( if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , then = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 ), is in fact true for
𝑑𝑥
𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 (but we only need to be able to prove it for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁).
It is a really important rule and we use it very often to differentiate functions by rule, rather than by first
principles, which is far too tedious, unless specifically asked for.
𝑑𝑓
For instance, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 then it can also be said that 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥
𝑂𝑅 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 (7)(𝑥)−1 = 0
𝑑
Thus, the 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) = 0 𝐴𝐿𝑊𝐴𝑌𝑆.

df du dv
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥), then = + [The differential of a sum is the sum of the differentials of each]
dx dx dx

df dv du
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥), then =u +v [The differential of a Product]
dx dx dx

Differential of a Product = 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 × 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 + 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 × 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡

du dv
v −u
𝑢(𝑥) df dx dx
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑣(𝑥), then = 2
[The differential of a Quotient]
dx v
(𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚) (𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑝) − (𝑇𝑜𝑝) (𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚)
Differential of a Quotient = (𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚)2

𝑑𝑦
The CHAIN rule of differentiation (next page): If 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)] [Chain Rule]

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 6

CALCULUS NOTES

PRACTISING the Rules of Differentiation

𝑑𝑦
Example 7: If 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (7𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 3), find 𝑑𝑥
. [The Product Rule]
Solution 7:
𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒙
= (First) × (Differential of Second) + (Second) × (Differential of First)
= (𝑥2 ) (21𝑥2 − 2) + (7𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥)
= 21𝑥 4 − 2𝑥2 + 14𝑥 4 − 4𝑥2 + 6𝑥
= 35𝑥 4 − 6𝑥2 + 6𝑥
Alternative: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (7𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 𝑦 = 7𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥2
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 35𝑥 4 − 6𝑥2 + 6𝑥

5𝑥2 − 7𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Example 8: If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 11
, find 𝑑𝑥
. [The Quotient Rule]
Solution 8:
𝒅𝒚 (𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚) (𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑝) − (𝑇𝑜𝑝) (𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚)
𝒅𝒙
= (𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚)2

(2𝑥 + 11) (10𝑥 − 7) − (5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥) (2) 20𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 110𝑥 − 77 − 10𝑥 2 + 14𝑥
= =
(2𝑥 + 11)2 (2𝑥 + 11)2

10𝑥 2 + 110𝑥 − 77
=
(2𝑥 + 11)2

𝑑𝑦
The CHAIN rule of differentiation: If 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ⇒ = 𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥

3 𝑥 2 −1
Example 9: Differentiate (i) √7𝑥 − 11 , (ii) √2𝑥+1
1
Solution 9: (i) 𝑓(𝑥) = √7𝑥 − 11 = (7𝑥 − 11)2 [Always re-write question in calculus friendly form]

−1
1
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
(7𝑥 − 11) 2 (7) [“7” is the differential of what is in the brackets]
7
= 2 √7𝑥−11

3 𝑥2− 1 𝑥2− 1 1
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ = ( 6𝑥 + 1 )3 [Always re-write question in calculus friendly form]
6𝑥 + 1
−2
′ (𝑥) 1 𝑥 2 −1 3
⇒ 𝑓 = 3
(6𝑥+1) × (differential of what is in the brackets)
−2
1 𝑥2− 1 3 (6𝑥+1) (2𝑥)−(𝑥 2 −1)(6)
= 3
(6𝑥+ 1) [ (6𝑥+1)2
]
−2
1 𝑥2− 1 3 12𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 + 6
= 3
(6𝑥+ 1) [ (6𝑥+1)2
]
−2 −2
1 𝑥2− 1 3 6𝑥 2 +2𝑥+6 2 𝑥2− 1 3 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3
= 3
(6𝑥 + 1) [ (6𝑥 + 1)2
] = 3
(6𝑥 + 1) [ (6𝑥 + 1)2
]

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 7

CALCULUS NOTES

Differentiating trigonometric functions

𝑑𝑦
Example 10: If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3), find 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
Solution 10: 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3) (3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3).

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Example 11: If 𝑦 = 7+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥
, find 𝑑𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑑𝑦 (7+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥)(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥) − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) (3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥)
Solution 11: 𝑑𝑥
= (7 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥)2
𝑑𝑦 (7 + 0)(0) − (0)(3)
𝑑𝑥
at 𝑥 = 0: 49
= 0

5𝑥
Example 12: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝑥−1 find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 1.
5𝑥 (3𝑥 − 1) (5) − (5𝑥) (3)
Solution 12: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( ) ×
3𝑥−1 (3𝑥 − 1)2
5 (3−1) (5) − (5) (3) 5 10 − 15 −5 5
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (1) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (3 − 1 ) × (3 − 1)2
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (2 ) × 4
= 4
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (2) ≈ −0.80

Differentiating exponential functions

2
Example 13: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 17𝑒 −2𝑥 find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
2 2
Solution 13: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (17 𝑒 −2𝑥 ) × (−4𝑥) = −68𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 .

𝑑𝑦
Example 14: If 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3𝑥 find at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Solution 14: = (𝑥 5 ) (𝑒 −3𝑥 ) (−3) + (𝑒 −3𝑥 ) (5𝑥 4 ) = 𝑒 −3𝑥 (−3𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
at 𝑥 = 2: 𝑒 −6 (−3(2)5 + 5(2)4 ) = 𝑒 −6 (−96 + 80) = −16⁄ 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑒

2𝑥
Example 15: Differentiate 𝑒 ⁄ 2 with respect to 𝑥.
3𝑥
(3𝑥 2 ) (2 𝑒 2𝑥 )− (𝑒 2𝑥 )(6𝑥) (6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)(𝑒 2𝑥 )
Solution 15: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = =
(3𝑥 2 )2 9𝑥 4

Differentiating logarithmic functions

𝑑𝑦 𝜋
Example 16: If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥), find 𝑑𝑥 at 𝑥 = 12.
𝑑𝑦 𝑓′ (𝑥) 2 (3) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 3
Solution 16: 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥)
= 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 3 3
𝑑𝑥
at 𝑥 = 12 : 𝜋 =
1
= 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛
4

Example 17: If 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑙𝑛 (13𝑥 − 5)]3 , find (i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and (ii) 𝑓 ′ (2) correct to two places of decimal.
13 39 [𝑙𝑛 (13𝑥−5)]2
Solution 17: (i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 [𝑙𝑛 (13𝑥 − 5)]2 ((13𝑥−5)) = 13𝑥−5
39 [𝑙𝑛 (26−5)]2 39 [𝑙𝑛 (21)]2 13 (3.044522)2 13 (9.26912)
(ii) 𝑓 ′ (2) = = = = ≈ 5.74
26−5 21 21 21

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 8

CALCULUS NOTES

2𝑥 2
Example 18: Differentiate 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 √𝑥 2 +1

2𝑥 2 1 2𝑥 2 1
Solution 18: 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 √𝑥 2 +1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 2 +1 = 2
[𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (2𝑥 2 ) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑥 2 + 1)]
[Using rules of logs]
𝑑𝑦 1 4𝑥 2𝑥 1 2 2𝑥 1 𝑥
= [ − ]= [𝑥 − ] = −
𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +1 2 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 𝑥 2 +1
2
(1)(𝑥 +1) − (𝑥)(𝑥)
= [ (𝑥) (𝑥 2 +1)
]
(𝑥 2 + 1) − (𝑥 2 )
= (𝑥) (𝑥 2 +1)
1
= (𝑥) (𝑥 2 +1)

Differentiating inverse trigonometric functions like 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 and 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙

𝑥 1
Page 25 of the Mathematical Tables tell us that if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , where 𝑎 is a constant.
𝑎 √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 1
It also tells us that if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎
then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
, where 𝑎 is a constant.

𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑑 𝑥 𝑎
(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑎) = (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎) = 𝑎2 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1
If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑥), = × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) AND If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑥), = 1 + [𝑓(𝑥)]2 × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 √1−[𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥

𝑥
Example 19: If (𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3
, find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
3 3
Solution 19: Method 1: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 32 + 𝑥 2
= 9 + 𝑥2
[Because 𝑥 has been replaced by “3”]
1 1 9 1 3
Method 2: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 × = 9 + 𝑥2
× = 9 + 𝑥2
1 +( )2 3 3
3

Example 20: If (𝑥) = (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 3𝑥)5 , find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).

1 15(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 3𝑥)4
Solution 20: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 3𝑥)4 × ×3 =
√1− (3𝑥)2 √1− (3𝑥)2

3𝑥 −3
Example 21: If (𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) , show that 𝑓 ′ (0) = .
2𝑥−7 7

1 (2𝑥−7)(3)−(3𝑥)(2) (2𝑥−7)2 6𝑥−21−6𝑥

Solution 21: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 × (2𝑥−7)2
= (2𝑥−7)2 +(3𝑥)2
× (2𝑥−7)2
1+( )
2𝑥−7

−21 −21
= =
(2𝑥−7)2 +(3𝑥)2 4𝑥 2 −28𝑥+49+9𝑥 2

−21
=
13𝑥 2 −28𝑥+49

−21 −3
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 49
= 7

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 9

CALCULUS NOTES

Second Derivatives
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then = ( ) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example 22: If 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥 , show that 𝑑𝑥 2
−8 𝑑𝑥
+ 16𝑦 = 0.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
Solution 22: = (𝑒 4𝑥 ) = 4𝑒 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⇒ = (𝑑𝑥 ) = (4𝑒 4𝑥 ) = 16𝑒 4𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥 2
−8 𝑑𝑥
+ 16𝑦

= 16𝑒 4𝑥 − (8)(4𝑒 4𝑥 ) + 16 (𝑒 4𝑥 )

= 𝑒 4𝑥 (16 − 32 + 16)

= (𝑒 4𝑥 ) 0 = 0 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦
Example 23: Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 , find the value of ( ) − 𝑒 3𝑥 when 𝑥 = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
Solution 23: 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= (𝑥)(3𝑒 3𝑥 ) + (𝑒 3𝑥 )(1)

= 𝑒 3𝑥 (3𝑥 + 1)

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑
⇒ = [𝑒 3𝑥 (3𝑥 + 1)]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

= (𝑒 3𝑥 )(3) + (3𝑥 + 1) (3𝑒 3𝑥 )

= (3𝑒 3𝑥 ) (1 + 3𝑥 + 1)

= (3𝑒 3𝑥 ) (3𝑥 + 2)

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦
∴ ( ) − 𝑒 3𝑥 = [𝑒 3𝑥 (3𝑥 + 1)]2 − (𝑒 3𝑥 )(3𝑒 3𝑥 )(3𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦
∴ ( ) − 𝑒 3𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

= [1(1)]2 − (1)(3)(2)

= 1 − 6 = −5

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 10

CALCULUS NOTES

Finding the slope and equation of a tangent to a curve

A vital application of differentiation is the following:

𝑑𝑦
is the slope of a tangent to a curve at any point on the curve.
𝑑𝑥

To find the equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) on the curve, take the following steps:

𝑑𝑦
1) Find 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2) Evaluate 𝑑𝑥
at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 [This gives 𝑚, the slope of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1) ]
3) Use equation 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) to find the equation of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

𝜋
Example 24: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 10 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 at the point ( , 0)
2

Solution 24: 𝑦 = 10 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 0 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑑𝑥
@𝑥 = 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 1 [This gives 𝑚, the slope of the tangent to the curve at ( 2 , 0 )]
⇒ Eqn of tangent: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ Eqn of tangent: 𝑦 − 0 = 1 (𝑥 − 2
) ⇒ 𝑦=𝑥− 2

Example 25: The equation of a curve is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑍.

The curve passes through the points (0, 15) and (2, −15) and at these points the slopes of the
tangents are both −13.
(i) Find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑
(ii) Show that the graph cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at the point 𝑥 = 5.
(iii) Find the coordinates of the other two points where the curve cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
(iv) Hence, sketch the curve.

Solution 25: (i) (0, 15) ∈ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ⇒ 15 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 𝑑 ⇒ 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟓

(2, −15) ∈ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ⇒ −15 = 8𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 15
⇒ 8𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 = −30
⇒ 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = −15 … eqn 1

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 11

CALCULUS NOTES

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = 0: 0 + 0 + 𝑐 = −13 ⇒ 𝒄 = −𝟏𝟑
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = 2: 3𝑎(2)2 + 2𝑏(2) + (−13) = 12𝑎 + 4𝑏 + (−13) = −13
𝑑𝑥
⇒ 12𝑎 + 4𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 … eqn 2
From eqn 1: 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 13 = −15 ⇒ 2𝑎 + 𝑏 = −1
Using 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 and 2𝑎 + 𝑏 = −1
⇒ −𝒂 = −𝟏 ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝟏 and 𝒃 = −𝟑

(ii) If 𝒙 = 𝟓: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑦 = 1𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 15
⇒ If 𝒙 = 𝟓: ⇒ 𝑦 = 1(5)3 − 3(5)2 − 13(5) + 15 = 125 − 75 − 65 + 15 = 140 − 140 = 0
⇒ the graph cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at (5, 0).
(iii) 𝒇(𝟓) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒙 − 𝟓 is a factor
(𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 15) ÷ (𝑥 − 5) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 3)
⇒ other two points where the curve cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 ∶ (1, 0) and (−3, 0).
(iv) Sketch

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 12

CALCULUS NOTES

Finding maxima, minima and points of inflection of a curve

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Local Maximum At local maximum: 𝑑𝑥
= 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2
< 0.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
At local minimum: 𝑑𝑥
= 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2
> 0.
𝑑2 𝑦
At point of inflection: 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0.
𝑑𝑦
Point of Inflection Curves are increasing when 𝑑𝑥 > 0.
𝑑𝑦
Curves are decreasing when 𝑑𝑥 < 0.
At turning points, the slope of the tangent to
𝑑𝑦
the curve is parallel to the x-axis, i.e. 𝑑𝑥
= 0.
Local Minimum

Example 26: Find the local maximum, the local minimum and a point of inflection of the curve
𝑦 = − 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 3. Use this information to sketch the curve.

Solution 26: If 𝑦 = − 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= −3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 9 Local Max (3, 3)
𝑑𝑦
To find turning points, we must solve 𝑑𝑥 = 0
∴ −3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0
∴ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ Turning points @ (3, 3) & (1, –1) Point of Inflection (2, 1)
𝑑2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
= −6𝑥 + 12 [𝑦 coordinate is calculated from original equation]
𝑑2𝑦
@𝑥 = 3: − 6(3) + 12 = −6 < 0 ⇒ Max (3, 3)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
@𝑥 = 1: − 6(1) + 12 = + 6 > 0 ⇒ Min (1, –1)
2
𝑑 𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0: ⇒ −6𝑥 + 12 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 =2, 𝑦 =1 Local Min (1, – 1)

∴ Point of inflection @ (2, 1)

Example 27: Find the coordinates of the one turning point of the curve 𝑦 = − 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 𝑒 𝑥 and determine
whether this turning point is a maximum or a minimum.

𝑑𝑦
Solution 27: If 𝑦 = − 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑥 = − 2𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦
Turning point when 𝑑𝑥
= − 2𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑒 2𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 = 0.
⇒ 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 − 1) = 0
⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑒 𝑥 = 1
𝑒 𝑥 = 0 has no solution and if 𝑒 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑥 = 0.
∴ Turning point at (0, 1) [If 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = − 𝑒 2(0) + 2𝑒 (0) = −1 + 2 = 1]
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
= −4 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
∴ @ 𝑥 = 0: − 4 𝑒 2(0) + 2𝑒 (0) = −4 + 2 = −2 < 0 ⇒ turning point (0, 1) is a Maximum.
𝑑𝑥 2
© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 13
CALCULUS NOTES

Sketching Curves with the help of calculus

𝑥−1
Example 28: 𝑦= 𝑥−2
is a curve.
(i) Find the equation of the vertical asymptote of this curve.
(ii) Find the equation of the horizontal asymptote of this curve.
(iii) Prove that the curve has no turning points
(iv) Sketch the curve.
(v) If the slopes of the tangents to this curve at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are parallel and 𝑥1 ≠
𝑥2 , prove that 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 4 .
Solution 28:
(i) Vertical asymptote is found by letting the denominator = 0.
∴ 𝑥−2=0 ⇒ 𝒙=𝟐 [This is the equation of vertical asymptote].
(ii) Horizontal asymptote is found by letting 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→∞
𝑥−1
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥−2
To find the limit as 𝑥 → ∞, divide above and below by highest power of 𝑥.
1 − 1⁄𝑥 1−0
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =1
𝑥→∞ − 2⁄𝑥
1 1−0
∴ Equation of horizontal asymptote: 𝒚 = 𝟏.
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥−2)(1)−(𝑥−1)(1) −1
(iii) = =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥−2)2 (𝑥−2)2
𝑑𝑦
There is no value of 𝑥 which will make 𝑑𝑥 = 0 ⇒ No turning points. asymptotes

(iv) Find coordinates of points to the left and right of 𝑥 = 2.

1 3
(0, 2
), (1, 0) (3, 2) and (4, 2
) are on the curve. [Graph paper should be used when sketching the curve (see graph)]
−1
(v) The slope (𝑚1 )of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ). But, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) = (𝑥1 −2)2
.
−1
The slope (𝑚2 ) of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥2 ). But, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥2 ) = .
(𝑥2 −2)2
But, (𝑚1 ) = (𝑚2 ) ⇒ (𝑥1 − 2)2 = (𝑥2 − 2)2 [But, 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 ⇒ (𝑥1 − 2) ≠ (𝑥2 − 2)]
∴ 𝑥1 − 2 = −(𝑥2 − 2) ⇒ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 4.

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

We often use the letter 𝑠 to represent displacement (distance travelled in a certain direction).
Velocity (𝑣)is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
𝑑𝑠
In calculus, we can write the previous sentence as 𝑣 = .
𝑑𝑡
Similarly, acceleration (𝑎) is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
𝑑𝑣
In calculus, we can write the previous sentence as 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
Thus, 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑 𝑡2
or, in English, acceleration is the second differential of displacement with respect to time.
Note: In calculus, if the “rate of change” of something is mentioned and there is no “with respect to …”, then it can
always be assumed that it is with respect to “time”. That is, “time” is the default if nothing else is mentioned.

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 14

CALCULUS NOTES

Example 29: An object moves in a straight line such that its distance from a fixed point, 𝐴 , is given by
s = 𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 2 + 21𝑡 + 5 , where 𝒔 is in metres and 𝒕 is in seconds.
(i) Find the displacement from the point 𝐴 at the start of the motion.
(ii) Find the greatest displacement of the object from 𝐴 (i.e. find local maximum)
(iii) When does the object come to instantaneous rest?
(iv) Find the speed of the object when 𝑡 = 10 seconds.
(v) Find the minimum velocity of the object.
(vi) Find the acceleration of the particle after five seconds.

Solution 29:
(i) Finding 𝑠, @ 𝑡 = 0:
s = 𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 2 + 21𝑡 + 5
∴ 𝑠 @ 𝑡 = 0: = (0)3 − 12(0)2 + 21(0) + 5 = 5 m
𝑑𝑠
(ii) Displacement is greatest when =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑡 2 − 24𝑡 + 21 = 0
2
⇒ 𝑡 − 8𝑡 + 7 = 0
⇒ (𝑡 − 7) (𝑡 − 1) = 0
⇒ 𝑡 = 7 or 𝑡 = 1 s
𝑑2 𝑠
Note: 𝑑𝑡 2
= 6𝑡 − 24
𝑑2 𝑠
At 𝑡 = 7: 𝑑𝑡 2
= 6(7) − 24 = 18 m/s > 0 ⇒ Minimum displacement at 𝑡 = 7
𝑑2 𝑠
At 𝑡 = 1: 𝑑𝑡 2
= 6(1) − 24 = −18 m/s < 0 ⇒ Maximum displacement at 𝑡 = 1
When 𝑡 = 1, 𝑠 = (1)3 − 12(1)2 + 21(1) + 5 = 15 m
(iii) Instantaneous rest ⇒ 𝑣 = 0.
𝑑𝑠
As in part (ii) above, 𝑣 = = 0 when 𝑡 = 1 and when 𝑡 = 7 s.
𝑑𝑡
(iv) Finding 𝑣, @ 𝑡 = 10
𝑑𝑠
𝑣= = 3𝑡 2 − 24𝑡 + 21
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑣, @ 𝑡 = 10: 3(10)2 − 24(10) + 21 = 81 m/s
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
(v) Velocity is minimum (or lowest) when 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 2
= 6𝑡 − 24 = 0
⇒ Velocity is minimum when 𝑡 = 4s
[obviously a minimum rather than a maximum here as the second differential = +6 > 0]
𝑣 = 3𝑡 2 − 24𝑡 + 21
⇒ 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3(4)2 − 24(4) + 21 = −27 m/s
𝑑𝑣
(vi) Acceleration (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑡
= 6𝑡 − 24
⇒ 𝑎 , @ 𝑡 = 5 = 6(5) − 24
⇒ 𝑎 = 6 m/s2

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 15

CALCULUS NOTES

Rates of Change
There are many examples in life where one quantity changes with another. The rate of how one quantity (like sale
of ice creams) varies with another (like temperature) is a very important application of Calculus.
Many problems on rates of change involve displacement, velocity and acceleration that we have seen above.
𝑑𝑠
Velocity (or speed) is the rate of change of displacement, i.e. 𝑣 = . It is measured in m/s.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, i.e. 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 2
. It is measured in m/s2.

Example 30: A ball is fired straight up in the air. The height, ℎ, of the ball above the ground is given
by ℎ = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 where 𝑡 is the time in seconds after the ball was fired.
(i) After how many seconds does the ball hit the ground?
(ii) Find the speed of the ball after 2 seconds.
(iii) Find the maximum height reached by the ball.
(iv) Find the constant deceleration of the ball.
(v) When is the speed of the ball equal to 15 m/s?

Solution 30: (i) When the ball hits the ground, ℎ = 0.

ℎ = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 ⇒ 0 = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 ⇒ 5𝑡 2 − 30 𝑡 = 0
⇒ 5𝑡 (𝑡 − 6) = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑡 = 6 seconds Answer: 𝒕 = 𝟔 seconds
𝑑ℎ
(ii) Speed of ball at any time = 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
= 30 − 10 𝑡
𝑑ℎ
∴ Speed of the ball after 2 seconds, 𝑣 or at 𝑡 = 2: 30 − 10(2) = 30 − 20 = 𝟏𝟎 m/s.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ
(iii) Height is maximum when 𝑣 or 𝑑𝑡 = 0 , i.e. 30 − 10 𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 3 seconds
2
Maximum height = ℎ at 𝑡 = 3: ℎ = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡
= 30(3) − 5(3)2 = 90 − 45 = 𝟒𝟓 m
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑
(iv) Acceleration = 𝑑𝑡
or 𝑑𝑡 2
= 𝑑𝑡
(30 − 10 𝑡) = −10 m/s2
∴ Deceleration = 𝟏𝟎 m/s2.
𝑑ℎ
(v) Speed of ball at any time = 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
= 30 − 10 𝑡
𝑑ℎ
Speed of ball = 15 m/s when = 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
= 30 − 10 𝑡 = 15
⇒ 15 = 10 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝟏. 𝟓 s

Example 31: A stone was dropped in a pond. The radius of a circle (or wave) produced increased at a rate of 75 cm/s.
Find the rate at which the area inside the circle increased when the radius of the circle was 5 m.

𝑑𝑟
Solution 31: Given: 𝑑𝑡
= 0.75 [We cannot have a mixture of units, so bring lengths to metres]
𝑑𝐴
Required to Find: 𝑑𝑡
@𝑟 = 5
Express one variable in terms of the other: 𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 [Formula for area of a disc/circle]
𝒅𝑨 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟 𝑑
∴ = × 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 0.75 [Differentiating using chain rule and (𝜋 𝑟 2 ) = 2𝜋𝑟 ]
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝒅𝑨 15𝜋
∴ 𝒅𝒕
@ 𝑟 = 5: 1.5 𝜋(5) = 2
m2/s.

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 16

 CALCULUS NOTES

Example 32: A large spherical balloon is being blown up and its radius is increasing at the rate of 5 cm/s.
When the radius of the balloon is 30 cm, find the rate of increase of (i) its volume and (ii) its surface area.

𝑑𝑟
Solution 32: (i) Given: 𝑑𝑡
=5 [All lengths are in cm, so there is no need to convert to metres]
𝑑𝑉
Required to Find: @𝑟 = 30
𝑑𝑡
4
Express one variable in terms of the other: 𝑉 = 3 𝜋 𝑟 3 [Formula for volume of a sphere]
𝒅𝑽 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 4
∴ 𝒅𝒕
= 𝑑𝑟
× 𝑑𝑡 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 × 5 = 20𝜋𝑟 2 . [Differentiating using chain rule and
𝑑𝑟 3
( 𝜋 𝑟 3 ) = 4𝜋 𝑟 2 ]
𝒅𝑽
∴ 𝒅𝒕
@ 𝑟 = 30: 20 𝜋(30)2 = 18 000 𝜋 cm3/s.

𝑑𝑟
(ii) Given: 𝑑𝑡
=5 [All lengths are in cm, so there is no need to convert to metres]
𝑑𝐴
Required to Find: @ 𝑟 = 30
𝑑𝑡
Express one variable in terms of the other: 𝐴 = 4 𝜋 𝑟 2 [Formula for surface area of a sphere]
𝒅𝑨 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟 𝑑
∴ = × 𝑑𝑡 = 8𝜋𝑟 × 5 = 40𝜋𝑟 . [Differentiating using chain rule and (4 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) = 8𝜋𝑟]
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝒅𝑨
∴ 𝒅𝒕
@ 𝑟 = 30: 40 𝜋 (30) = 1200 𝜋 cm2/s.

Maximum and Minimum Problems

The procedure for tackling maximum and minimum problems can be summarized as follows:
(1) Draw a diagram representing the problem (if appropriate) and label all the relevant details.
(2) Find a formula or equation for the quantity that is to be maximized or minimized.
(3) Express the quantity to be maximized (or minimized) in terms of one variable, using the conditions given
in the problem, if necessary, to eliminate any other variable(s).
𝑑𝑦
(4) Differentiate once to find where 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (i.e. maximum or minimum point).
(5) Differentiate a second time to distinguish between the maximum and the minimum.

Example 33: A farmer wishes to enclose a rectangular section in the middle of a field.
She uses all of 𝟒𝟎𝟎 m of an electric fence to construct the enclosure.
(a) If one side of the rectangular enclosure is 𝒙 metres long, what is the length of the adjacent side?
(b) Find, in terms of 𝒙, the area of the enclosure.
(c) Find the value of 𝒙 that makes the area of the enclosure a maximum.
(d) If the farmer constructs a circular enclosure instead of a rectangular one (as above), find the radius
of the enclosure correct to 2 decimal places, assuming she uses all 𝟒𝟎𝟎 m of the electric fence to
form the enclosure.
(e) Find the area of the circular enclosure to the nearest square metre.
(f) If the farmer wants the area of the enclosure to be a maximum (using exactly 𝟒𝟎𝟎 m of electric
fencing), should she construct a circular or a rectangular enclosure?

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 17

 CALCULUS NOTES

Solution 33: (a) 𝑦

1
𝑦 = 2
(400 − 2𝑥)
𝑥 = 200 − 𝑥
[using info given to express one variable in terms of the other]

(b) To be maximized: Area(A) = length × breadth = 𝑥(200 − 𝑥) = 200𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑨
(c) 𝒅𝒙
= 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝒙 , which is a maximum when 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎.
𝑑2 𝐴
𝑑𝑥 2
= −2 < 0 ⇒ Maximum @ 𝑥 = 100
(d) circumference length= 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ 400 = 2𝜋𝑟
400 200
⇒ 𝑟= 2𝜋
= 𝜋
= 63.66 m 𝑟
2 2 2
(e) Area = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋 (63.66) = 12 732 m
(f) Maximum rectangular area = 100 × 100 = 10 000 m2
⇒ biggest area formed by circle

Example 34: If two natural numbers add to give 𝟑𝟎, find the maximum product of these two numbers.

Solution 34: Let the two numbers be 𝑥 and 𝑦. But, 𝑦 = 30 − 𝑥 [using info given to express one variable in terms of the other]
To be maximized: Product (𝑃) = 𝑥 × (30 − 𝑥) = 30𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑥
= 30 − 2𝑥 , which is a maximum when 𝑑𝑥
= 30 − 2𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 15.
𝑑2𝐴
= −2 < 0 ⇒ Maximum @ 𝑥 = 15
𝑑𝑥 2
Maximum product 𝑥𝑦 = 15(30 − 15) = 225

Example 35: A cylindrical can is used to hold 𝟑𝟑𝟎 cm3 of orange drink. 𝑟
(i) Find the height (ℎ) of the can in terms of the radius (𝑟).
(ii) Find the dimensions of the can that will use the least amount
of metal in its manufacture.
ℎ
330
Solution 35: (i) Volume of cylinder= 330 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ ⇒ ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 2
(ii) To be minimized: Surface Area (𝐴) = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2(𝜋𝑟 2 )
330
= 2𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝑟 2
660
= 𝑟
+ 2𝜋𝑟 2 = 660𝑟 −1 + 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
∴ = −660 𝑟 −2 + 4𝜋𝑟, which is a maximum when = −660 𝑟 −2 + 4𝜋𝑟 = 0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
660
⇒ 𝑟2
= 4𝜋𝑟
⇒ 660 = 4𝜋𝑟 3
3 660 3 165
⇒ 𝑟= √ = √ = 3.745 cm
4𝜋 𝜋
𝑑2 𝐴 1320
Note: 𝑑𝑟 2
= 𝑟3
+ 4𝜋 which is > 0 when 𝑟 = 3.745 ⇒ Minimum @ 𝑟 = 3.745.
330 330 330
When 𝑟 = 3.745: ℎ= 𝜋𝑟 2
= 𝜋(3.745)2
= 44.06
= 7.49 cm

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 18

 CALCULUS NOTES

Example 36: An equilateral triangle of length 𝟖 cm has a rectangle inscribed in it.

(a) Find ℎ, the height of the triangle. 𝟖 cm ℎ
(b) Show that 𝒚 = √𝟑 𝒙.
(c) Find, in terms of 𝒙 the area of the rectangle. 𝑦
(d) Hence, find the maximum possible area of this rectangle.
(e) What percentage of the triangle is occupied by the maximum 𝑥 𝑥
sized rectangle? 8

Solution 36: (a) By Pythagoras’ theorem: ℎ2 = 82 − 42 = 64 − 16 = 48

⇒ ℎ = √48 𝑜𝑟 4√3 cm
𝑦 𝑦
(b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 60𝑜 = 𝑥
⇒ √3 = 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = √3 𝑥
(c) Area of Rectangle (𝐴) = (8 − 2𝑥) (𝑦)
= (8 − 2𝑥) (√3 𝑥)
= 8 √3 𝑥 − 2√3 𝑥 2 cm2
𝑑𝐴
(d) 𝑑𝑥
= 8 √3 − 4√3 𝑥,
𝑑𝐴
∴ Area is a maximum when = 8 √3 − 4√3 𝑥 = 𝟎
𝑑𝑥
8 √3
⇒ 𝑥= 4 √3
= 2
𝑑2 𝐴
But, = − 4√3 < 0 ⇒ Maximum @ 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥 2
∴ 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8 √3 (2) − 2√3 (2)2
= 16 √3 − 8 √3
= 8 √3 cm2
1
(e) Area of Triangle = (8)(4√3)
2
= 16 √3 cm2
8 √3 100
∴ % Area occupied by maximum rectangle = ×
16 √3 1
= 50%

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 19

 CALCULUS NOTES

Example 37: 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 is a rectangular ploughed field 𝟑𝟏𝟎 m long and 𝟏𝟐𝟎 m wide with a path around its sides.
Tom can run at a speed of 𝟏𝟑⁄𝟑 m/s along the path
and at a speed of 𝟓⁄𝟑 m/s across the ploughed field. 𝑫 310 𝑪
Tom wants to reach point 𝑪 from the point 𝑨 as quickly as possible.
He runs from 𝑨 to a point 𝑬 along the path and from 𝑬 to 𝑪 across 120
the field.
(a) If |𝑬𝑩| = 𝒙, express in terms of 𝒙 : 𝑨 𝑬 𝒙 𝑩
(i) |𝑨𝑬|
(ii) |𝑬𝑪|
(iii) the total time taken to travel from 𝑨 to 𝑪
(b) Find the value of 𝒙 for which the time is a minimum.
(c) Calculate the minimum time to travel from 𝑨 to 𝑪 (in seconds).

Solution 37: (a) (i) |𝑨𝑬| = 310 − 𝑥

(ii) |𝑬𝑪|2 = 𝑥 2 + 1202
⇒ |𝑬𝑪| = √𝑥 2 + 1202
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
(iii) time taken = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

(3) (310 − 𝑥) (3)√𝑥 2 + 1202

= +
13 5
(3) (310 − 𝑥) (3)√𝑥 2 + 1202
(b) To be minimized: time = 𝑡 = +
13 5
−𝟏
𝒅𝒕 −𝟑 𝟑 𝟏
⇒ 𝒅𝒙
= 𝟏𝟑
+ 𝟓 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 + 1202 ) 𝟐 (𝟐𝒙) = 𝟎 [when time is a minimum]
𝟑 𝟑 𝒙
⇒ =
𝟏𝟑 𝟓 √𝑥 2 + 1202
⇒ 𝟏𝟑𝒙 = 𝟓 √𝑥 2 +
1202
⇒ 𝟏𝟔𝟗𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓 (𝒙𝟐 + 1202 )
⇒ 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓 (1202 )
⇒ 𝟏𝟐𝒙 = ± 𝟓 (120)
⇒ 𝒙 = ± 𝟓 (10) = ± 𝟓𝟎
⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎
∴ time is a minimum when 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎 m
(3) (310 – 𝑥) (3)√𝑥 2 + 1202
(c) Minimum time = +
13 5
(3) (310 − 50) (3)√502 + 1202
= 13
+ 5
(3)130
= 60 + 5
= 60 + 78
= 138 s

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 20

CALCULUS NOTES

Sketching Derivative Curves

𝑑𝑦
If we are given the graph of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we can sketch the graph of its derivative, 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑥),
by examining the sign of the derivative and how the slope of the tangent is changing.

The diagram below shows a cubic function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), with turning points at (0, 8) and (1.1, 6).
Also shown are the functions 𝑓′(𝑥) and 𝑓′′(𝑥).

Note: 1) At a maximum or minimum of one curve, the derivative curve will cut the 𝑥-axis
𝑑𝑦
i.e. 𝑑𝑥
= 0 at a maximum and at a minimum
2) At a point of inflection of one curve, the derivative curve will have a turning point
and the second derivative curve will cut the 𝑥 −axis.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
i.e. 𝑑𝑥
= 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2
= 0 at a point of inflection
3) After that, check whether the slope of the original is positive or negative
and whether it is increasing or decreasing.
Minimum at (1.1, 6) ⇒ 𝑓′(1.1) = 0 ⇒ (1.1, 0) is on the derivative curve 𝑓′(𝑥).
Maximum at (0, 8) ⇒ 𝑓′(0) = 0 ⇒ (0, 0) is on the derivative curve 𝑓′(𝑥).
A point of inflection at 𝑥 = 0.55 on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ turning point at 𝑥 = 0.55 on 𝑓′(𝑥)
AND (0.55, 0) is on the second derivative curve 𝑓′′(𝑥)
Maximum at 𝑥 = 0 on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ (0, 0) is on the derivative curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥).
Slope of 𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥) is negative but decreasing negatively to the left of 𝑥 = 0.55, but is positive and increasing
to the right of 𝑥 = 0.55 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓′′(𝑥) has a positive slope, cutting 𝑥-axis at (0.55, 0).

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 21

CALCULUS NOTES

Implicit Differentiation (2015+)

[Syllabus Addition (2015): Use differentiation to find the slope of a tangent to a circle]
𝑑 (𝑥 2 ) 𝑑 (𝑦 2 )
It is easy to find . The answer is 2𝑥. But, what if we are asked to find .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The technique for doing this is known as implicit differentiation. We have to use the Chain Rule to help us out.
𝑑 (𝑦 2 ) 𝑑 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= ( i.e. multiply above and below by 𝑑𝑦) (not forgetting the sideways kick). The answer is: 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥
.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 (7𝑦 3 ) 𝑑 (7𝑦 3 ) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Examples: (i) = = 21𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 (√𝑦) 𝑑 (√𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
(ii) = = 𝑦 −1/2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Example 38: A circle has an equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 20 = 0 .

Using differentiation, find the equation of the tangent to this circle at the point (5, −5).

Solution38:

Step 1: Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 +2 − 0 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Step 2: Gather up all the terms with 𝑑𝑥
on one side of the equation and isolate 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 +2 = 4 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ (2𝑦 + 2) 𝑑𝑥
= 4 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4 − 2𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑦 + 2

𝑑𝑦
Step 3: Find the slope of the tangent at the given point [find 𝑑𝑥
at (𝑥, 𝑦) = (5, −5)]
𝑑𝑦 4 − 2(5) −6 3
𝑑𝑥
at (𝑥, 𝑦) = (5, −5) is: 2(−5) + 2
= −8
= 4

Step 4: Find the equation of the tangent, given a point on it (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and its slope (𝑚):
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
3
⇒ 𝑦 − (−5) = (𝑥 − 5)
4
3
⇒ 𝑦 + 5 = (𝑥 − 5)
4
⇒ 4𝑦 + 20 = 3𝑥 − 15
⇒ 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 35 = 0

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 22

 CALCULUS NOTES

POINTS TO REMEMBER
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1) If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) has many names. It can be called the differential of 𝒚 with
respect to 𝒙, the derivative of 𝒚 or 𝒇(𝒙), the derived function of 𝑓(𝑥), the differential coefficient of 𝑓(𝑥), the
slope of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥, 𝑦) or (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)), the gradient. [Note: 𝑓 ′ (2) is the value of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) when 𝑥 = 2]
2) 𝒍𝒊𝒎[𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
3) 𝒍𝒊𝒎[𝒇(𝒙). 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) . 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂
4) 𝒍𝒊𝒎 [𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

sin 
5) lim =1
 →0 
dy = 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓(𝑥)
6) lim ℎ
where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
dx h→ 0

𝑑𝑦
7) If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1. (*)
𝑑𝑦
8) 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥), = 𝑘 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), where 𝑘 is a constant. [Multiplying constants can be brought outside and left there.]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 , = 3 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 5 ) = 3 (5𝑥 4 ) = 15𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥

9) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥), then df = du + dv .

dx dx dx
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 3𝑥 9 + 5𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑥
= 27𝑥 8 + 10𝑥.
10) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥), then d f = u dv + v du . (*)
dx dx dx
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = (5𝑥 + 2)𝑥 3 , = (5𝑥 + 2)3𝑥 2 + (𝑥 3 )(5) ⇒ = 20𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
du dv
𝑢(𝑥) v −u
11) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑣(𝑥)
, then df = dx dx . (*)
dx v2
𝑥 2 − 5 𝑑𝑦 (7𝑥)(2𝑥) − (𝑥 2 −5)(7) 𝑑𝑦 7𝑥 2 + 35
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥
, 𝑑𝑥 = (7𝑥)2
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 49𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
12) If 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)].
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = (4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 1)7 , = 7(4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 1)6 (12𝑥 2 − 5) = (84𝑥 2 − 35) (4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 1)6
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
13) If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥. If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥)), 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑓(𝑥)] [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)].
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 14𝑥 2 , = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 14𝑥 2 ) (28𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
14) If 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥. If 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑓(𝑥)) , 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑓(𝑥)] [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)].
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = (−𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥) (5) or −5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
15) If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥. If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥)) , 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑓(𝑥)] [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)].
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 8𝑥 , = (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 8𝑥) (8) or 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 8𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1
16) If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = . 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑑𝑥 = × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1−[𝑓(𝑥)]2
−1
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1 1 1
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = × (𝑥) 2 = × = =
2 √1−𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 √1−𝑥 2 √𝑥−𝑥 2
√1 − (√𝑥 )2

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 23

 CALCULUS NOTES

𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1
17) If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑎, = .
𝑑𝑥 √𝑎 2
− 𝑥2
5𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 1
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 4 , 𝑑𝑥 = × 15𝑥 2
√16 − (5𝑥 3 )2
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1
18) If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥2
. 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑑𝑥
=1 + [𝑓(𝑥)]2
× 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑦 1 7 7
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (7𝑥 − 3) , 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + (7𝑥−3)2
× 7 = 1 + (7𝑥−3)2 = 49𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 10
𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑎
19) If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎, 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑎2+ 𝑥2
.
5𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 4 60𝑥 2
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 4 , 𝑑𝑥 = (16 + (5𝑥 3 )2
× 15𝑥 2 or 16 +25𝑥 6
.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
20) If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 . If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑒 −9𝑥+5 , = 𝑒 −9𝑥+5 × −9 = −9 𝑒 −9𝑥+5
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑓′ (𝑥)
21) If = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
. If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
. [i.e. the differential of the function over the function]
𝑑𝑦 10𝑥 4 −6
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (2𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 + 7), = .
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 + 7
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
22) If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥
(𝑑𝑥 ) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2.
23) Before attempting to differentiate difficult log functions, check if the question be made a easier by applying the
rules of logs.
𝑑𝑦
24) 𝑑𝑥 is the slope of a tangent to a curve at any point on the curve.
𝑑𝑦
25) To find a turning point on a graph , use = 0 and solve the resulting equation.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
26) At local maximum: 𝑑𝑥
= 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
27) At local minimum: 𝑑𝑥
= 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2
>0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
28) At point of inflection: 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
29) Curves are increasing when 𝑑𝑥 > 0. Curves are decreasing when 𝑑𝑥 < 0.
𝒑𝒙+𝒒 −𝒅
30) In reciprocal graphs such as 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒙+𝒅 , the vertical asymptote is got by letting the denominator = 0 ⇒ 𝒙 = .
𝒄
Horizontal asymptotes are got by letting 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) and dividing above and below by highest power of 𝑥.
𝑥→∞
𝑞
𝑝+ 𝒑+𝟎 𝒑
𝑥
Here, horizontal asymptote is: = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑑 = 𝒄+𝟎
⇒ 𝒚= 𝒄
.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑐+
𝑥
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
31) If 𝑠 = distance travelled or displacement, 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
= speed or velocity and 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 2
= acceleration.
32) With questions on rates of change of one variable with respect to another, always write down the “gimme”,
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴
(e.g. 𝑑𝑡 = 0.75) , then write down what you are trying to find (e.g. 𝑑𝑡
@ 𝑟 = 5), do the sideway kick
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
(e.g. 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑟 × 𝑑𝑡 , then express one variable in terms of the other (e.g. 𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) and differentiate
𝑑𝐴
(e.g. 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝜋𝑟).
Finally, put in the “at” value given.
33) Familiarise yourself with formulae available on pages 25 and 27 of Mathematical Formulae and Tables.

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 24

CALCULUS NOTES

© H Dorgan IOE Maths HL 25

 Interpretation Of Derivatives

In this section we learn what the first and second derivative of a function means.

Method

dy
=⇒ Gradient
dx

d2 y
=⇒ The nature of a stationary point.
dx2

Method
dy
is interpreted as the gradient of a curve, hence at a stationary point:
dx

dy
=0
dx

We solve this equation to find the value of x for which the stationary point
occurs.

The Second Derivative

Given a point x, the value of the second derivative tells us the nature of the
stationary point.

d2 y
<0 =⇒ x is a maximum point.
dx2

d2 y
>0 =⇒ x is a minimum point.
dx2

d2 y
=0 =⇒ x is a point of inflection.
dx2

Page 2
 d2 y
The logic of this arises from the fact that tells us what happens to the curve
dx2
after the stationary point. If the point is a minimum, the curve increases after
the minimum. If the point is a maximum, then the curve will decrease after the
d2 y
maximum. That is why if < 0 this implies that the curve decreases after the
dx2
point, hence the point is a maximum.

Example

The curve C has equation y = 23 x3 + 12 x2 − 10x + 4.

dy
a) Find
dx
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b) Find the coordinates of the stationary points of C.
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 Example (cont...)

c) Find the nature of the stationary points, are they maxima or minima?

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 Kinematics: An Application Of Calculus

In this section we learn how to apply the calculus we have learned to

kinematics.

Displacement
Displacement is a vector quantity that measures distance moved in a particular
direction. Displacement is often given as a function of time, for example,

s = 3t2 − 4t + 2

Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity that measures speed in a particular direction.
Another way of saying velocity is rate of change of displacement per unit time.

This leads to the equation,

ds
v=
dt

Which is the derivative of displacement with respect to time.

Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity that measures acceleration in a particular
direction. Another way of saying acceleration is rate of change of velocity per
unit time, or rate of change of rate of change of displacement per unit time.
This leads to the equations,

dv
a=
dt

Which is the (first) derivative of velocity with respect to time. And,

d2 s
a=
dt2

Which is the second derivative of displacement with respect to time.

Page 5
 Example

The displacement of a particle P is given by the equation s = 4t2 + 8t − 5.

Where displacement is in metres and time in seconds.

a) After what time is the particle at the origin?

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b) Find an expression for the velocity of P.
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c) What is the initial velocity of P?

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d) When is the velocity 32ms−1 ?
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 Example (cont...)

e) What is the acceleration of P?

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 Page 1

Algebra

 Indices for all rational exponents

a m  a n  a m n , a m  a n  a mn , a m   n
 a mn , a 0  1 ,
1 1
1 1
a 2  a , a n  n a , a n  , n
 an ,
an a
n n
a b
   
b a

a
m
n
 n am   a
n
m

1
 12 1 1 1
Example 83  3 8  2 Example 9  1
 
9 2 9 3

  4  4
3
2 2 3 3
x3  4  x3  x 8
2
Example 2

Simplify 2 x 1  3x   6 x 3
2
Example

18 x 2
2 x 1  3x   6 x 3 
2 1 3
 9x 2  3   2
2
4
x 6x 6x x

 Quadratic equations ax 2  bx  c  0


Examples (i) 4 x 2  9 (ii) 4 x 2  9 x (iii) 4 x 2  9 x  2

 Page 2

(i) (ii) (iii)

9 4x 2  9x  0 4x 2  9x  2  0
x2 
4
x(4 x  9)  0 (4 x  1)( x  2)  0
3
x   9 1
2  x  0 or x   x  2 or x 
4 4
Example Solve (i) 2 x 2  x  5  0 using the method of CTS
(ii) 5x 2  7 x  1  0 using the formula.
(i) 2 x 2  x  5  0
x 5
x2  
2 2
2 2
x 1 5 1
x      
2

2 4 2 4
x  14 2  52  161
x  14 2  1641
x  14   41
16

x   14  41
16

x  1.35,  1.85

 Simultaneous equations
Example Solve simultaneously 2 x  3 y  8, y  x 2  x  2
Here we substitute for y from the second equation into the first
 
2 x  3 y  8  2 x  3 x 2  x  2  8  3x 2  x  2  0

 3x  2x  1  0  x   23 , 1
 Page 3

when x   23 , y  94  23  2  28

when x  1 , y  1  1  2  2
9

} Solutions,

The geometrical interpretation here is that the straight line

2 x  3 y  8 and the parabola y  x 2  x  2 intersect at points

 23 , 28
9
 1, 2

(1,2)

 Intersection points of graphs to ‘solve’ equations. There are many

equations which can not be solved analytically. Approximate roots
to equations can be found graphically if necessary.
Example What straight line drawn on the same axes as the graph
of y  x 3 will give the real root of the equation x 3  x  3  0 ?

x3  x  3  0  x3  3  x
 draw y  3  x
As can be seen from the sketch there is 0 
only one real root .
 Page 4

Example
Obtain the points of intersection of the circle and the
line
𝑦

( )

( )( )

Using

Hence points are ( ) ( )

 Expansions and factorisation –extensions

Example
2 x  1x 2  x  3  2 x 3  2 x 2  6 x
 x2  x  3 Expanding
 2 x 3  3x 2  7 x  3
 Page 5

Example  
x 3  9 x  x x 2  9  xx  3x  3 Factorising

 The remainder Theorem

If the polynomial p(x) be divided by ax  b  the remainder will

be p ba 

Example When p( x)  2 x 3  3x  5 is divided by 2 x  1 the

remainder is p 12    14  32  5   154

Example Find the remainder when is

divided by .

f 1  41  31  111  2  10 remainder is 10

3 2

 The factor theorem Following on from the last item

p ba   0  ax  b is a factor of p(x)

Example Show that x  2 is a factor of 6 x 3  13x 2  x  2 and

hence solve the equation 6 x 3  13x 2  x  2  0

Let p( x)  6 x 3  13x 2  x  2

p(2)  62  132  2  2  48  52  2  2  0

3 2

 x  2 is a factor of p(x)

 
p( x)  x  2 6 x 2  x  1 …by inspection
 x  23x  12 x  1

 Solutions to the equation are x  2,  13 , 1

2
 Page 6

Geometry
 Gradient/ intercept form of a straight line Equation
y  mx  c y

Gradient = m (= tan )
c

0 x

 Distance between two points

Given A x1 , y1  B x2 , y 2  then

AB 2  x2  x1    y 2  y1 
2 2

 Gradient of a line through two points… Ax1 , y1  and Bx2 , y2 

say
y 2  y1
m
x 2  x1

 Equation of a line through (x’, y’) of gradient m

y  y   mx  x
 Page 7

 Equation of a line through two points

y 2  y1
Find the gradient using m  and use the formula as above.
x 2  x1

 Parallel and perpendicular lines

Let two lines have gradients m1 and m2

Lines parallel  m1  m2
1
Lines perpendicular  m1m2  1 or m1  
m2

 Mid-point of line joining … Ax1 , y1  and Bx2 , y 2  coordinates

are
12 x1  x2 , 1
2
 y1  y2 

 General form of a straight line

ax  by  c  0. To find the gradient, rewrite in gradient/intercept

form.
 Page 8

Example Given points A 2, 3 and B1,  1 find

(a) distance AB
(b) the coordinates of the mid-point M of AB
(c) the gradient of AB
(d) the equation of the line through C 5, 2
parallel to AB

AB 2  1  2   1  3  9  16  25  AB = 5
2 2
(a)

(b) M  12 , 1

1 3 4
(c) Gradient AB = 
1 2 3

(d) Point 5, 2 Gradient =  43

Equation y  2   43 x  5
3 y  6  4 x  20
3 y  4 x  26

Example Find the gradient of the line 2 x  3 y  12 and the

equation of a perpendicular line through the point
0,  4
 Page 9

2 x  3 y  12  3 y  2 x  12  y   23 x  4

 gradient =  23

1
Gradient of perpendicular =   3
 23 2

Equation y  32 x  4  y  mx  c

 The Circle

Angles in semicircle is 90

Perpendicular to a chord from centre of

circle bisects the chord.

 Centre, radius form of equation

x  a2   y  b2  r 2
Centre (a, b) radius = r

Centre (2, -1) radius 3 equation x  2   y  1  9

2 2
Example
 Page 10

Example Centre (1, 2) touching Equation

x  12   y  22  4

(1, 2)

 General form of equation

x  a2   y  b2  r 2 Circle centre ( ) with radius

To find centre and radius, use the method of CTS to change into
centre/radius form.

Example x 2  y 2  2x  3 y  3  0

x 2  y 2  2x  3y  3  0
x 2
 
 2x  y 2  3y  3
x 2
 
 2x  1  y  3y  
2

3 2
2
 3 1   3 2
2

x  12   y  32 2  254
 Centre 1, 32  radius = 5
2
 Page 11

 Tangents

Angle between tangent and radius drawn

to point of contact is 90

Tangents drawn from extended

point

Line of symmetry

Example Find the equation of the tangent to the circle

x 2  y 2  2 x  4 y  5  0 at the point P(2, 1)

x 2  y 2  2x  4 y  5  0
x 2
  
 2x  y 2  4 y  5
x  2 x  1  y  4 y  4  5  1  4
2 2

x  12   y  22  10
 Centre at  1, 2 , radius 10
 Page 12

Gradient CP =
(-1, 2)
 gradient of tangent at P = 3
Equation
0 P(2, 1)
 Page 13

Calculus
 Differentiation by rule Examples
d
dx
 x   dxd x  1
2 1
2 x
 12

1
2 x
d 4 d
 
dx  x  dx
  4
4 x 1  4 x  2   2
x
d  x d 1
  2 x  1
dx  2  dx 2
d
10  0
dx
d
dx
 
3x 2  x  5  6 x  1

 Vocabulary and more notation

dy
is the derivative of y (with respect to x)
dx
dy
is the differential coefficient of y (with respect to x).
dx
Example

x2  2 x2 2 3 1

Example f ( x)     x 2  2x  2
x x x
 Page 14

 f ( x)  32 x 2   12 2 x
1
 32 1 1 3 1
 32 x 2  3
 x
x 2 2 x x

dy
 The gradient of a curve at any point is given by the value of at
dx
that point.
Example Find the gradient at the point P(1, 5) on the graph of
y  x 2  2 x  2 . Hence find the equation of the tangent
at P.

y y  x 2  2x  2
dy
 2x  2
dx
P(1, 5)
 At P(1, 5) gradient = 4
Tangent at P
y  5  4x  1
0 x

 y  4x  1

 Stationary points on the graph of a function are points where the

gradient is zero.
 Page 15

STATIONARY POINTS

TURNING POINTS POINTS OF INFLEXION

_ + _
+
_
+
+
_

MAXIMUM POINT MINIMUM POINT TANGENT PASSING THROUGH THE CURVE

 To obtain coordinates of a SP. on the graph of y  f (x)

(i) Put f ( x)  0 and solve for x.
(ii) If x  a is a solution of (i) the SP will be a, f (a) .

(iii) If f (a)  0 there will be a minimum point at x  a

If f (a)  0 there will be a maximum point at x  a

If f (a)  0 there could be max or min or inflexion so the

second derivative rule fails. Investigate the gradient to the
immediate left and right of the stationary point. (see the + and -
signs on the diagrams in the previous section).

Example Find the stationary points on the graphs of

(i) y  x 2  2x  2

(ii) y  x 3  3x  2
and sketch the graphs.
 Page 16

(i) Here we have a quadratic function, which will have a true max
or min.
y  x 2  2x  2 y
dy
 2x  2
dx
2 Check point (0, 2)
 SP at 2 x  2  0
(-1, 1)
i.e. at x  1 0 x

i.e. at  1, 1

d2y
20
dx 2
y
 SP is a minimum.
(-1, 4) (2, 4)

(ii) y  x 3  3x  2
2
dy
 3x 2  3
dx 0
(-2, 0) (1, 0) x

For SP 3x 2  3x  0

 x2  1
x  1

 SPs at (1, 0) (-1, 4)

d2y
 6x
dx 2
 Page 17

d2y
At (1, 0)  6  0  Min
dx 2

d2y
At (-1, 4)  6  0  Max
dx 2

Check points (0, 2) (2, 4) (-2, 0)

Note that the turning points are Local Max and Local Min

d2y
 6x
dx 2

d2y
At (1, 0)  6  0  Min
dx 2

d2y
At (-1, 4)  6  0  Max
dx 2

Check points (0, 2) (2, 4) (-2, 0)

Note that the turning points are Local Max and Local Min
 Page 18

Trigonometry
 Trig ratios for 30, 60, 45

30
2 2 1
3

60 45
1 1 1

sin 30  cos 60  1
2 sin 45  cos 45  1
2

sin 60  cos 30  2
3
tan 45  1

tan 60  3 tan 30  1
3

 Trig ratios for all angles NB the CAST DIAGRAM

For the sign of a trig ratio
S A
All positive in first quadrant
Sine (only) in second quadrant T C
Etc…
 Page 19

Example Without using a calculator find

(i) cos 150  (ii) tan 210  
(iii) sin  240  
(i) (ii) (iii)
S A S A S A
150 210
30 60
30
-240

T C T C C
T

cos 150    cos 30 tan 210   tan 30  

sin  240   sin 60
 2
3  1
3  2
3

 Trig of Scalene triangles

Sine rule
B
a b  c 
  
A sin A sin B  sin C 
a

Given AAS use it to find a second side

Given SSA use it to find a second angle (but take care to choose the
angle size appropriately –it could be acute or obtuse).
 Page 20

Cosine rule
c B a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A
A b2  c2  a2
cos A 
a 2bc

b Both formulae with two more

sets.
C

Given SAS use it to find the third side

Given SSS use it to find an angle (no possible ambiguity here).

Example Triangle PQR has PR = 3cm, QR = 7cm and QPˆ R  36 

Find (i) QR using the cosine rule and then (ii) PQˆ R using
the sine rule.
Q

(i) QR 2  9  49  42 cos 36  24.021...

3 R
QR  4.901..  4.90

36 7 7 4.901..
(ii) 
sin PQR sin 36
P
7 sin 36
sin PQR   0.8394...
4.901..
 PQR  57.086.. or PQR  122.914..
 Page 21

It can’t be 57.08.. since R would be 86.92.. and would be the largest

angle in the triangle, but R faces the smallest side so is the smallest
angle. Hence PQR  122.91

 Area “ 12 absin C ” rule given SAS

Area of triangle = 12 absin C

 Graphs of trig functions (all periodic)

1. Graph of y  sin x

y
1
Period 360

0
x

-1

2. Graph of y  cos x
y
1
Period 360

0
x

-1
 Page 22

3. Graph of y  tan x
Period 180
y

0
x

Vertical asymptotes

 Boundary values of trig ratios

S=1
T- C=0 T

Verify these from graphs

S=T=0 S=T=0
C= -1 C=1

T S= -1 T-
C=0
 Page 23

 Two important trig identities

sin 
 tan sin 2   cos 2   1
cos 

Example Given  is obtuse and sin   178 find the values of cos 

and tan .

sin 2   cos 2   1  cos 2   1  sin 2 

S A
 1  289
64


 225
289

 cos    17
15

T C
sin  8
tan   tan  17
 8
cos   15
17
15

NB Learn how to rearrange the identities

sin 
sin   cos tan cos  
tan
cos 2   1  sin 2  sin 2   1  cos 2 

 Trig equations Remember that from your calculator sin 1 , cos 1

and tan 1 give the principal value (p.v.)
 Page 24

Example Solve the equations

(i) tan  1.5 for 0    360
(ii) sin 2  0.5 for  180    180

(iii) 2 cos 2   1  sin  for 0    360

(iv) 2 sin 2   sin  cos  for 0    360

(v) sin   80 

3
for  180    180
2

(i) A
S

tan  1.5 PV = -56.30

  124 , 304
  T C

(ii) sin 2  0.5 …..first solve for 2 for  360    360

2  30, 150;  210,  330 S A


  15 , 75 ;  105 ,  165
PV = 30
T
C
 Page 25

(iii) (In this example, use cos 2   1  sin 2  )

2 cos 2   1  sin 
 
2 1  sin 2   1  sin 
2  2 sin   1  sin 
2

2 sin   sin   1  0
2
S A
sin   12 sin   1  0
PV = -30
sin   1 sin    1
T
 C
2
or
  90 
  210 , 330
 

   90 , 210 , 330 

(iv) Don’t cancel out sin  . Bring to LHS and factorise

2 sin 2   sin  cos 

2 sin 2   sin  cos   0
sin  2 sin   cos    0

 sin   0 or 2 sin   cos  S A

sin  1
  0 , 180  PV = 26.56
cos  2 T C

1
tan 
2
  27  , 207 

   0  , 180  , 27  , 207 
 Page 26

(v) sin   80 

3
solve first for  260    100
2
S A
  80  60  ,  240  PV = 60
  140  ,  160 
T
C

Example Solve the following equations

(i) cos x  0.3 for 0  x  360 , answers correct to 2d.p.

x
(ii) tan  3 for 0  x  360 , answers in exact form
2

(i) cos x  0.3 .

S A
x  75.5, 287.5
PV = 72.5

T C

x
(ii) tan  3 … solve first for 0  x  360
2

x S A
 60  ,240 
2 PV = 60
 x  120  T C
 Page 27

 Matrices
1. Multiplying matrices
In general

 a b  x   ax  by
     
 c d    cx  dy
y

A 2x2 matrix multiplied by a 2x1 gives a 2x1 matrix

 a b  w x  aw  by
    
ax  bz

 c d  y z  cw  dy cx  dz 

A 2 by 2 matrix multiplied by a 2 by 2 gives a 2 by 2 matrix

Example If A = ( ) and B = ( )

Work out (i) AB (ii) AA

(i) AB = ( )( )

=( )
Worked out by the sum
-1x2 +3x-1

(ii) AA = ( )( )

=( )
Worked out by the sum
2x3 +1x1
 Page 28

Example Find the values of a and b when

  2  3  a   5 
     
 3 5  b    2 

From the first row

From the 2nd row
Now solve simultaneously
X5
X3

And

2. Multiplying a matrix by a number.

Example

Given ( ) work out

( )

( )

Each element in the matrix is multiplied by the constant 3.

 Page 29

3. Using matrices for transformations

Example
Which transformation is equivalent to a reflection in the x-axis?
y
B
Making use of the 1
unit square reduces
the amount of work
required.

1A x
If we look at the movement of A(1, 0)
And B(0, 1) when the transformation is about

1 1 the origin then we can obtain the matrix

A   A 
 0  0

 0 0
B   B 
1   1

A’ B’

Hence 
 x    1 0  x 
     
 y    0  1 y 
Example  0  1
Which transformation is defined by the matrix   1 0  ?
 
 Page 30

Again drawing the unit square and looking at where A(1,0) and B(0, 1)
moves to will help identify this matrix.
y B
1
1 0
A   A 
 0   1
B’ A
-1 1 x
 0   1
B   B 
1 0
-1 A’

 A reflection in the line –

4. Combinations of transformations.
 0  1
M represents the transformation given by  
 1 0 
 1 0 
N represents the transformation given by  
 0 1

a) Describe matrix M.
b) Describe matrix N.
c) Find the single transformation for the transformation MN and
its description.
 Page 31

a) y B
1
1 0
A   A 
 0   1
B’ A
-1 1 x
 0   1
B   B 
1 0

-1 A’

Hence M represents a reflection in

b)
y B
1   1
1 A   A 
 0 0

A’ A
-1  0  0
1 x B   B  
1 1

Hence N represents a reflection in the axis

  1 0   0  1
c)    
 0 1   1 0 
 0 1
 
  1 0
 Page 32

y B
1
1 0
A   A 
 0   1
B’
A
-1 1 x  0 1
B   B  
1  0

-1 A’

Hence MN represents a rotation of clockwise centre (0,0)

Page 33

Notes
Page 34

Notes
Page 35

Notes