Electrical & Electronic Measurement

(EE 402)
Module-1: Measurements

4th Sem
Department of Electrical Engineering
Govt. College of Engg. & Textile Technology, Berhampore
Introduction:
Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations used to
measure electrical quantities. Measurement of electrical quantities may be
done to measure electrical parameters of a system. Using transducers, physical
properties such as temperature, pressure, flow, force, and many others can be
converted into electrical signals, which can then be conveniently measured and
recorded. High-precision laboratory measurements of electrical quantities are
used in experiments to determine fundamental physical properties such as the
charge of the electron or the speed of light, and in the definition of the units for
electrical measurements, with precision in some cases on the order of a few
parts per million. Less precise measurements are required every day in
industrial practice.
Method of Measurement
Methods of Measurement:-
There are two methods of measurement:
1) Direct comparison with the standard, and
2) Indirect comparison with the standard.
Direct Comparison with the Standard
In the direct comparison method of measurement, we compare the quantity directly
with the primary or secondary standard. Say for instance, if we have to measure the
length of the bar, we will measure it with the help of the measuring tape or scale that
acts as the secondary standard.
Indirect Method of Measurement
There are number of quantities that cannot be measured directly by using some
instrument. For instance we cannot measure the strain in the bar due to applied force
directly. We may have to record the temperature and pressure in the deep depths of
the ground or in some far off remote places. In such cases indirect methods of
measurements are used.
Measurement System

Measurement involves the use of instruments as a physical means of determining quantities

and variables. In simple cases, an instrument consists of a single unit which gives an output
reading or signal according to the unknown variable applied to it. In more complex
measurement situations, however, a measuring instrument may consist of several separate
elements. These elements may consist of transducing elements which convert the measurand
to the analogous form.
The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and then fed to the end
devices to present the results of the measurement for the purposes of display and or control.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories, that are;
1. Absolute instruments,
2. Secondary instruments.
Absolute Instruments
• These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities(or
some constants) of the instruments and their deflections.
• In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary.
• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by electricians
and engineers. They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and are
maintained lay national laboratories and similar institutions.
• Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:
o Tangent galvanometer
o Raleigh current balance
o Absolute electrometer.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Secondary Instruments
• They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these
instruments can be determined from the deflection of the instruments.
• They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute
instruments or with those which have already been calibrated.
• The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless until it is
not calibrated.
• These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.
• Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter,
wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified
according to the kind of quantity, kind of current,
principle of operation of moving system.

CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

Secondary instruments can be classified into three
types;
i. Indicating instruments;
ii. Recording instruments;
iii. Integrating instruments.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an
electrical quantity at the time when it is being
measured. The indications are given by a pointer
moving over a graduated dial.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a
continuous record of the variations of the magnitude
of an electrical quantity to be observed over a defined
period of time.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the
total amount of either quantity of electricity or electrical
energy supplied over a period of time. For example
energy meters.
 Characteristics of Measurement System Performance
• Static Characteristics: Some applications involve the measurement of quantities
that are either constant or varies slowly with time. Under these circumstances it is
possible to define a set of criteria that gives a meaningful description of quality of
measurement without interfering with dynamic descriptions that involve the use of
differential equations. These criteria are called static characteristics.

• Dynamic Characteristics: Many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying

quantities and therefore, for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations
which exist between the output and the input. This is normally done with the help of
differential equations. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute
the dynamic characteristics.
 Static Characteristics
Accuracy:
The accuracy of an instrument is defined as the degree of closeness of the measured
value to its true value.
Accuracy is usually expressed in term of percentage error with respect to full scale
reading.

Tolerance:-
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is
to be expected in some value. When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum
deviation of a manufactured component from some specified value. For instance, crankshafts
are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many microns (10-6m), and electric
circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps 5%. One resistor chosen at
random from a batch having a nominal value 1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual
value anywhere between 950W and 1050 W.
 Static Characteristics
Precision/repeatability/reproducibility:
Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from random errors. If a
large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision instrument, then
the spread of readings will be very small.
Precision is often, though incorrectly, confused with accuracy. High precision does not imply
anything about measurement accuracy. A high precision instrument may have a low accuracy.
Low accuracy measurements from a high precision instrument are normally caused by a bias
in the measurements, which is removable by recalibration.
The terms repeatability and reproducibility mean approximately the same but are applied in
different contexts as given below. Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings
when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same
measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of
use maintained throughout.
 Static Characteristics
Resolution:
When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the
magnitude of the change in the input measured quantity that produces an observable change in
the instrument output. Like threshold, resolution is sometimes specified as an absolute value
and sometimes as a percentage of f.s. deflection. One of the major factors influencing the
resolution of an instrument is how finely its output scale is divided into subdivisions. Using a
car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h. This means
that when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately
than to the nearest 5 km/h. This figure of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the
instrument.
 Static Characteristics
problem:
A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and gives a full-scale
reading of 5 A. The instrument can read up to 1/4 th of a scale division with a fair
degree of certainty. Determine the resolution of the instrument in mA.

Solution
Full-scale reading = 5 A
Number of divisions on scale = 50
1 scale division=(5/50)x1000=100 mA
Resolution= 1/4th of a scale division=(1/4)x100=25 mA
 Static Characteristics
Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs
when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:
Scale deflection/Value of measurand producing deflection
The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn on Figure
shown below. If, for example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a
pressure transducer, the sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the
deflection is zero with zero pressure applied).
 Static Characteristics

Dead Space:
In some instruments it is possible that till input increases beyond certain value, the output
does not change. So for a certain range of input values there is no change in output. This range
of input is called dead space.
 Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of response:
It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to be
measured. It gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the
input. It indicates activeness of the system.

Fidelity:
It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input. It is the
ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape of input w.r.t time.
Lag:
Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be, to respond to the changes in the
measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a system is called as lag.
The lags are of two types:-
Retardation lag: In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a
change in the variable has occurred.
Time delay: In this case, response begins after some time called dead time, after the
application of input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence, causes the
dynamic error.
 Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic Error:
It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing with time,
and the value indicated by the measurement system, assuming zero static error.
 Error in Measurement
In order to understand the concept of errors in measurement, following two terms defines
the error.
True Value
It is not possible to determine the true of quantity by experiment means. True value may be
defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured values when average deviation
due to various contributing factor will approach to zero.
Measured Value
It may be defined as the approximated value of true value. It can be found out by taking
means of several measured readings during an experiment, by applying suitable
approximations on physical conditions.
 Error in Measurement
Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors
The concept of guarantee errors can better clear following example. Suppose there is a
manufacturer who manufacture an ammeter, now he should promises that the error in the
ammeter he is selling not greater the limit he sets. This limit of error is known as limiting
errors or guarantee error.

Absolute Error
 Error in Measurement
Relative Error or Fractional Error:
It is defined as the ratio of the error and the specified magnitude of the quantity.
Mathematically we write as,
Error in Measurement

A wattmeter reads 25.34 watts. The absolute error in the measurement

Problem:
is –0.11 watt. Determine the true value of power.

Measured value Am = 25.34 W

Absolute error δA = –0.11 W
Solution: True value A = Measured value - Absolute error
= 25.34 – (–0.11),
= 25.45 W
 Error in Measurement
Problem: The measured value of a capacitor is 205.3 fiF, whereas its
true value is 201.4 µF. Determine the relative error.

Solution:
Measured value Am = 205.3 × 10-6 F
True value, A = 201.4 × 10-6 F
Absolute error, ε0 = Am – A
= 205.3 × 10-6 — 201.4 × 10-6
= 3.9 × 10-6 F
= 3.9 × 10-6 F
 Error in Measurement
Problem: A 0-250 V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2% of full-scale
reading. The voltage measured by the voltmeter is 150 volts. Determine
the limiting error in percentage.

Solution: The magnitude of the limiting error of the instrument,

δA = εrV = 0.02 ˣ 250 = 5.0 V
The magnitude of the voltage being measured is 150 V.
The percentage limiting error at this voltage
 Types of Errors
Basically there are three types of errors on the basis they may arise from the source.

Gross Errors
This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while reading, recording. Mistakes in
calculating the errors also come under this category.
i. A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also calculation of error
should be done accurately.
ii. By increasing the number of experimenters we can reduce the gross errors. If each
experimenter takes different reading at different points, then by taking average of more
readings we can reduce the gross errors.
Random Errors:
After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors in
measurement are left. These errors are known as random errors. Some of the reasons of the
appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons are unknown. Hence we cannot
fully eliminate these kinds of error.
 Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
In order to understand these kinds of errors, let us categorize the systematic errors as
(i) Instrumental Errors: These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the
measuring instruments. These types of error may be arises due to friction or may be due to
hysteresis. These types of errors also include the loading effect and misuse of the instruments.
Misuse of the instruments results in the failure to adjust the zero of instruments. In order to
minimize the gross errors in measurement various correction factors must be applied and in
extreme condition instrument must be re-calibrated carefully.
(ii) Environmental Errors: This type of error arises due to conditions external to instrument.
External condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or it may include external
magnetic field. Following are the steps that one must follow in order to minimize the
environmental errors:
a) Maintain the temperature and humidity of the laboratory constant by making
some arrangements.
b) Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or electrostatic field
around the instrument.
 Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
(iii) Observational Errors: As the name suggests these types of errors are due wrong
observations. The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX. In order to minimize the
PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are required, provided with mirrored scales.
Loading Effects