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 DATA SCIENCE AND
INNOVATIONS FOR
INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
Demystifying Technologies for Computational
Excellence: Moving Towards Society 5.0
Series Editors: Vikram Bali and Vishal Bhatnagar

This series encompasses research work in the field of Data Science, Edge Computing, Deep
Learning, Distributed Ledger Technology, Extended Reality, Quantum Computing,
Artificial Intelligence, and various other related areas, such as natural-language processing
and technologies, high-level computer vision, cognitive robotics, automated reasoning,
multivalent systems, symbolic learning theories and practice, knowledge representation and
the semantic web, intelligent tutoring systems, AI and education.
The prime reason for developing and growing out this new book series is to focus on the
latest technological advancements-their impact on the society, the challenges faced in im-
plementation, and the drawbacks or reverse impact on the society due to technological
innovations. With the technological advancements, every individual has personalized access
to all the services, all devices connected with each other communicating amongst them-
selves, thanks to the technology for making our life simpler and easier. These aspects will
help us to overcome the drawbacks of the existing systems and help in building new systems
with latest technologies that will help the society in various ways proving Society 5.0 as one
of the biggest revolutions in this era.

Data Science and Innovations for Intelligent Systems

Computational Excellence and Society 5.0
Edited by Kavita Taneja, Harmunish Taneja, Kuldeep Kumar, Arvind Selwal, and
Ouh Lieh
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Data Science Technologies
Future Impact and Well-Being for Society 5.0
Edited by Neeraj Mohan, Ruchi Singla, Priyanka Kaushal, and Seifedine Kadry
Transforming Higher Education Through Digitalization
Insights, Tools, and Techniques
Edited by S. L. Gupta, Nawal Kishor, Niraj Mishra, Sonali Mathur, and Utkarsh Gupta
A Step Towards Society 5.0
Research, Innovations, and Developments in Cloud-Based Computing Technologies
Edited by Shahnawaz Khan, Thirunavukkarasu K., Ayman AlDmour, and Salam
Salameh Shreem
Computing Technologies and Applications
Paving Path Towards Society 5.0
Edited by Latesh Malik, Sandhya Arora, Urmila Shrawankar, Maya Ingle, Indu Bhagat

For more information on this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/Demystifying-

Technologies-for-Computational-Excellence-Moving-Towards-Society-5.0/book-series/
CRCDTCEMTS
 DATA SCIENCE AND
INNOVATIONS FOR
INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
Computational Excellence and
Society 5.0

Edited by
Kavita Taneja, Harmunish Taneja
Kuldeep Kumar, Arvind Selwal, and
Eng Lieh Ouh
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The
MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s
use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute
endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or
particular use of the MATLAB® software.
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Kavita Taneja, Harmunish Taneja, Kuldeep Kumar,
Arvind Selwal and Eng Ouh Lieh; individual chapters, the contributors
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author
and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
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been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
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reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-0-367-67627-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-67628-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-13208-0 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003132080

Typeset in Times
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents
Editors ......................................................................................................................vii
Contributors ..............................................................................................................ix

Chapter 1 Quantum Computing: Computational Excellence for

Society 5.0 ........................................................................................... 1
Paul R. Griffin, Michael Boguslavsky, Junye Huang,
Robert J. Kauffman, and Brian R. Tan

Chapter 2 Prediction Models for Accurate Data Analysis: Innovations in

Data Science ......................................................................................33
Balwinder Kaur, Anu Gupta, and R. K. Singla

Chapter 3 Software Engineering Paradigm for Real-Time Accurate

Decision Making for Code Smell Prioritization...............................67
Randeep Singh, Amit Bindal, and Ashok Kumar

Chapter 4 Evaluating Machine Learning Capabilities for Predicting Joining

Behavior of Freshmen Students Enrolled at Institutes of Higher
Education: Case Study from a Novel Problem Domain..................95
Pawan Kumar and Manmohan Sharma

Chapter 5 Image Processing for Knowledge Management and Effective

Information Extraction for Improved Cervical Cancer
Diagnosis .........................................................................................111
S. Jaya and M. Latha

Chapter 6 Recreating Efficient Framework for Resource-Constrained

Environment: HR Analytics and its Trends for Society 5.0..........139
Kamakshi Malik, Rakesh K. Wats, and Aman Khera

Chapter 7 Integration of Internet of Things (IoT) in Health Care

Industry: An Overview of Benefits, Challenges, and
Applications ..................................................................................... 165
Afshan Hassan, Devendra Prasad, Meenu Khurana,
Umesh Kumar Lilhore, and Sarita Simaiya

v
vi Contents

Chapter 8 Cloud, Edge, and Fog Computing: Trends and Case

Studies.............................................................................................. 181
Eng Lieh Ouh, Stanislaw Jarzabek, Geok Shan Lim, and
Ogawa Masayoshi

Chapter 9 A Paradigm Shift for Computational Excellence from

Traditional Machine Learning to Modern Deep
Learning-Based Image Steganalysis ...............................................209
Neelam Swarnkar, Arpana Rawal, and Gulab Patel

Chapter 10 Feature Engineering for Presentation Attack Detection in

Face Recognition: A Paradigm Shift from Conventional to
Contemporary Data-Driven Approaches.........................................241
Deepika Sharma and Arvind Selwal

Chapter 11 Reconfigurable Binary Neural Networks Hardware Accelerator

for Accurate Data Analysis in Intelligent Systems........................ 261
A. Kamaraj and J. Senthil Kumar

Chapter 12 Recommender System: Techniques for Better Decision making

for Society 5.0 .................................................................................281
Asha Rani, Kavita Taneja, and Harmunish Taneja

Chapter 13 Implementation of Smart Irrigation System Using Intelligent

Systems and Machine Learning Approaches .................................299
Raghuraj Singh, Ashutosh Deshwal, and Kuldeep Kumar

Chapter 14 Lightweight Cryptography Using a Trust-Based System for

Internet of Things (IoT) ..................................................................319
Amit Chadgal and Arvind Selwal

Chapter 15 Innovation in Healthcare for Improved Pneumonia Diagnosis

with Gradient-Weighted Class Activation Map Visualization.......339
Guramritpal Singh Saggu, Keshav Gupta, and
Palvinder Singh Mann

Index......................................................................................................................365
Editors
Kuldeep Kumar works at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, India. He received his Ph.D. degree in
computer science from the National University of Singapore in 2016. Prior to
joining the institute, he worked for two years in the Birla Institute of Technology
and Science, Pilani, India. He received his Ph.D. in computer science from the
School of Computing, National University of Singapore (NUS SoC), Singapore in
2016. He has several publications in reputed international journals/conferences.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1160-9092

Eng Lieh Ouh received his Ph.D. in computer science (software engineering) from
the National University of Singapore. He is involved in several large-scale infor-
mation technology industry projects for a decade at IBM Singapore and Sun
Microsystems before joining academia as an educator. His research areas are software
reuse, software architecture design, design thinking, and software analytics. He has
experiences delivering courses for the postgraduate students, undergraduate students, and
industry participants in the software engineering areas including design thinking, practical
software architecture design, security engineering, and mobile development. He received
multiple teaching excellence awards and industry projects recognition awards throughout
his career. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7759-348X

Arvind Selwal works as an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science

and Information Technology, Central University of Jammu, India. His research
interests include machine learning, biometric security, digital image processing, and
soft computing. He has contributed more 25 research articles in reputed international
journals and he has authored a book titled Fundamentals of Automata Theory and
Computation. He is an active member of the Computer Society of India (CSI) and he
is undertaking two research projects from DRDO, New Delhi, India. https://orcid.org/
0000-0002-1075-6966

Harmunish Taneja is an assistant professor at DAV College, Sector 10, Panjab

University, Chandigarh. He received his Ph.D. in computer science and applications
from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. He has more than 21 years of teaching
and research experience. He has guided 05 M.Phil. students and more than 90 PG
students of various universities. Four students are pursuing their Ph.D. under his
guidance. He is a reviewer of many reputed journals and has been a review committee
member of many conferences. His research interests are information computing,
mobile ad hoc networks, image processing, data science, recommender systems, and
system simulation. He has published and presented over 55 papers in international
journals/conferences of repute. He has also authored books of computer science and
applications. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1745-0748

vii
viii Editors

Kavita Taneja is an assistant professor at Panjab University, Chandigarh. She

received her Ph.D. in computer science and applications from Kurukshetra
University, Kurukshetra, India. She has published and presented over 60 papers in
national/international journals/conferences and has had best paper awards in many
conferences including IEEE, Springer, Elsevier, ACM, and many more. She is a
reviewer of many reputed journals and has been a technical program committee
member of many conferences. She has also authored and edited computer books. She
has more than 18 years of teaching experience in various technical institutions and
universities. She is also member of BoM, Academic Council, and Board of Studies
of many universities and institutions. She has guided scholars of Ph.D./M.Phils.,
more than 100 PG students of various universities, and currently four students are
pursuing a Ph.D. under her guidance at Panjab University. Her teaching and research
activities include mobile ad hoc networks, simulation and modeling, and wireless
communications. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9348-3587
Contributors
Amit Kumar Bindal is an associate professor in the Department of Computer
Science & Engineering, M. M. Engineering College, M. M. (Deemed to be University)
Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India. He received Ph.D. from Maharishi Markan-
deshwar University, M. Tech (Computer Engineering) from Kurukshetra University
and a B. Tech. in computer engineering from Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra. He
has been in teaching and research and development since 2005. He has published about
60 research papers in international, national journals, and refereed international con-
ferences. His current research interests are in wireless sensor networks, underwater
wireless sensor networks, sensors, and IoT etc. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2624-8077

Michael Boguslavsky is presently the head of AI and is leading the AI team developing
ML credit analytics for a start-up trade finance platform. The team builds predictive
models for SME credit risk and develops trade credit event prediction models based on
supply chain graph flows analysis. Prior to this he was an advisor for Blackstone
Alternative Asset Management, advising the leading alternative asset manager on fund
structuring, portfolio optimization, risk modelling, and placement for alternative, private,
and illiquid credit, hedge funds, infrastructure, and emerging market debt funds. He has
also worked in banks and asset management companies over 15 years as acting head of
EMEA Equity Derivatives Structuring and head of ALM and Quantitative Analytics, as
well as being a trader and quantitative analyst. He holds a Ph.D. in mathematics from the
University of Amsterdam; a Ph.D. in computer sciences from the Russian Academy of
Sciences, Moscow; and a master’s degree in mathematics and applied mathematics.
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8423-9403

Amit Chadgal completed the M.Tech. in 2020 at the Department of Computer Science
and Technology, Central University of Jammu. Prior to M.Tech., he completed a B.
Tech. in 2018 at the Department of Information Technology, National Institute of
Technology Srinagar, India. The research topic of his M. Tech. was “light-weight
cryptography techniques in IoT” at the Department of Computer Science and
Technology, Central University of Jammu. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9013-308X

Ashutosh Deshwal is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in computer science and engineering

at Thapar Institute of Engineering, Patiala, Punjab, India, since July 2019. His areas of
interest include blockchain, machine learning, Internet of Things, embedded system,
and product analysis. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8444-1572

Paul R. Griffin is a member of the faculty of Singapore Management University (SMU)

teaching postgraduate and undergraduate students in IT and FinTech as an associate
professor of information systems. He gained a Ph.D. at the Imperial College London
in 1997 on quantum well solar cells and thermophotovoltaics and is now researching
disruptive technologies applications and impact. In particular, his research covers
decentralized solutions and the application of quantum computing focusing on

ix
x Contributors

financial applications. With a number of projects ongoing for consensus, trade

finance, and portfolio optimization, he has been advising companies since 2014 and
presenting at events, judging hackathons and moderating panel discussions on
FinTech. Prior to SMU he was leading application development on global,
regional, and local projects for over 15 years in the United Kingdom and Asia in
the finance industry. During this time, as well as leading internal IT development
teams, he worked on outsourcing, off-shoring projects, and IT support. With a Black
Belt in Six Sigma, he is keen on quantifying quality and ensuring efficiency in current
processes and during change. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2294-5980

Anu Gupta, has been working as a professor in computer science and applications
at the Panjab University, Chandigarh since July 2015, where she has been working as
a faculty member since 1998. She has the experience of working on several platforms
using a variety of development tools and technologies. Her research interests include
open-source software, software engineering, cloud computing, and data mining. She
is a life member of the “Computer Society of India” and “Indian Academy of
Science.” She has published more than 25 research papers in various journals and
conferences. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1403-5023

Keshav Gupta is a pre-final year student at the Indian Institute of Information

technology, pursuing an integrated postgraduate in information technology. He has been
associated with machine learning and data science for the better part of the last three
years. He also has experience working with various machine learning based start-ups.
He has worked as a research scholar in his institute for research project related
multimodal AI and has formidable ranks in various data science challenges and
hackathons. His research interests include computer vision, natural language processing,
and time series forecasting analysis. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5763-0690

Afshan Hassan is a Ph.D. research scholar in Chitkara University, Punjab, India.

She has completed her B.Tech. (Computer Science & Engineering) degree from
Islamic University of Science & Technology, J&K, India in 2014 and M.Tech.
(Computer Science & Engineering) degree from Chandigarh Group of Colleges,
Landran, India in 2019. She is a gold medalist in B.Tech. (CSE). She has several
research publications in Scopus – Indexed journals of high repute. Her research
interests include wireless sensor networks, ad hoc networks, machine learning,
and IoT security. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5133-2927

Junye Huang is a quantum developer advocate at IBM. He is part of the Qiskit

community team whose mission is building an open, diverse, and inclusive quantum
community. He is focusing on promoting quantum education in the Asia Pacific
region. He organized the first Qiskit university hackathon in the world and is a guest
lecturer for two quantum computing courses at National University of Singapore. In
addition, he is supporting regional and global educational initiatives such as the IBM
Quantum Challenge and the Qiskit Global Summer School. His passion for quantum
computers drives him to create educational games for quantum computers such as
QPong, a quantum version of Pong which he created at the first Qiskit camp. QPong
Contributors xi

was subsequently ported to a physical Quantum arcade machine and toured around
Europe, including the EU Quantum Flagship Event in Helsinki in October 2019. He is
a Ph.D. candidate in experimental low temperature physics at the National University
of Singapore. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7896-0595

Stan Jarzabek received a M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Warsaw University. He has been a
professor at Bialystok University of Technology since 2015; in 1992–2015 he was
an associate professor at the Department of Computer Science, National University
of Singapore; in 1990–92 he was a research manager of CSA Research Ltd in
Singapore. Before, Stan taught at McMaster University, Canada, and worked for an
industrial research institute in Warsaw. Stan’s research interest is software engineering
(software reuse and maintenance), and in recent years mHealth – the use of mobile
technology for psychotherapy support, patient monitoring, and data collection/analysis.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7532-3985

S. Jaya is current Ph.D. research scholar (Full Time) in the Department of Computer
Science at Sri Sarada college for Women (Autonomous), Salem-16, Tamilnadu, India.
She has published three papers and one chapter in IGI Global. Her area of interest is
digital image processing. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0361-8052

A. Kamaraj received his B.E. degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering

from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India in 2003. He completed his
post graduation from Anna Universiy, Chennai in the field of VLSI Design in 2006.
He completed his Ph.D. at Anna University, Chennai in 2020. Currently he is an
associate professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
MepcoSchlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, India. His research interests include
digital circuits and logic design, reversible logic and synthesis, and advanced
computing techniques. During his 14 years of teaching, he has published 21 papers
in international journals and 23 papers in national and international conferences. He
has filed two patents and was granted one copyright. He has been member of IETE and
ISTE. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6952-2374

Robert J. Kauffman holds the Endowed Chair in Digitalization at the Copenhagen

Business School, sponsored by Danske Bank, Copenhagen Airport A/S, and the Danish
Society for Education and Business. He earlier served at Singapore Management
University’s School of IS as professor of IS Management and Associate Dean (Research,
Faculty). He was the W.P. Carey Chair in IS at Arizona State until 2011, and professor
and director of the MIS Research Center, Carlson School of Management, University
of Minnesota until 2007. His graduate degrees are from Cornell and Carnegie Mellon.
His research focuses on senior management issues in strategy, information, technology,
economics and society, digital commerce, the FinTech Revolution, and resource and
energy sustainability. His past employment was in international lending, payment
networks, trade services, investments and trading, technology innovation, and other
financial services. His funded research has spanned these and hospitality services,
digital entertainment, IT consulting, airlines, and agribusiness. https://orcid.org/0000-
0002-3757-0010
xii Contributors

Balwinder Kaur, is a research scholar in computer science and applications,

Panjab University, Chandigarh where she has been working as an assistant
professor since 2011. She has working experience of more than 14 years. She
received her MCA degree from Kurukshetra University. Her research interest is in
educational data mining. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-2222-5903

Aman Khera received his Ph.D. (Business Laws) from Panjab University, Chandigarh
in the year 2014 and Ph.D. (Business Management & Commerce) from Panjab
University, Chandigarh in the year 2018. He did his MBA (HRM) at Punjab Technical
University in the year 2004 and LLB at Panjab University Chandigarh in the year 2009
and LLM at Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra in the year 2011. He has seven years
of corporate experience in HR. He has published 23 research papers in both national and
international journals and has presented various papers at national and international
conferences. He has guided one Ph.D. student and is guiding two Ph.D. students.
Presently he is working as an assistant professor in University Institute of Applied
Management Sciences (UIAMS), Panjab University, Chandigarh since 2011. His area of
specialization is HRM and business law. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4909-2332

Meenu Khurana has a Ph.D. in computer science and engineering at Chitkara

University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Punjab, India. She has won scores of academic awards during her graduate
and post-graduate studies. She is a certified programmer for Java 2 Platform
from Sun Systems, USA and also a certified programmer from Brain bench,
USA. She has over 26 years of experience in industry, academics, research, and
administration to her credit. Her areas of expertise are mobile ad-hoc networks,
vehicular ad-hoc networks, wireless technologies, network security, sensor networks,
machine learning, cloud computing, curriculum designing and development, and
pedagogical innovation. Her areas of interest include artificial intelligence, machine
learning, and algorithms. She has guided research candidates in areas of expertise.
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6515-7939

Ashok Kumar is an ex-professor in the Department of Computer Science &

Engineering, M. M. Engineering College, M. M. (Deemed to be University) Mullana,
Ambala, Haryana, India and former professor of Kurukshetra University. He was in
teaching and research and development for more than 40 years. He has published
many research papers in international, national journals, and refereed international
conferences. His current research interests are in software engineering and digital
image processing. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1240-7054

Pawan Kumar is pursuing Ph.D. from Lovely Professional University, Punjab,

India. He is serving as an assistant professor in the School of Computer Applications,
Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India. He has an experience of more than 14
years in academics. He has qualified UGC-NET and GATE in 2012. His research
interests include machine learning and data analytics. He is a lifetime member of
Computer Society of India (CSI) and Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA).
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1698-3286
Contributors xiii

J. Senthil Kumar received his B.E. degree in electronics and communication

engineering from M.S. University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India in 2003. He has
completed his post graduation from Anna Universiy, Chennai in the field of Communi-
cation Systems in 2005. He has completed his Ph.D. at Anna University, Chennai in
2017. Currently he is an associate professor in the Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, MepcoSchlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, India. His
research interests include robotics, Internet of Things, and embedded systems. During
his 15 years of teaching career, he has published 24 papers in international journals and
nine papers in national and international conferences. He has published five patents and
granted one copyright. He has completed three sponsored research projects worth of 78
Lakhs. He has been member of IETE and ISTE. http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9516-0327

M. Latha is currently working as associate professor of computer science in Sri

Sarada College for Women (Autonomous), Salem-16, Tamilnadu, India. She has
24 years of teaching experience. Her area of research includes software engineering
and digital image processing. Her h-index is 5 and i10 index is 4. https://orcid.org/
0000-0002-2648-765X

Umesh Kumar Lilhore is an associate professor in Chitkara University Institute of

Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India. He is Ph.D. in
computer science engineering and M. Tech. in computer science and engineering. He
has research publications in SCI-Indexed international journals of high repute. His
research area includes AI, machine learning, computer security, computational
intelligence, and information science. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6073-3773

Kamakshi Malik is working as an assistant professor in the Department of Management

and Commerce in DAV College, Chandigarh. She has a total teaching experience of
more than a decade. Her research interests include employee engagement, organi-
zational behavior, and human resource management and is currently pursuing a Ph.D.
from IKG, Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar. She has published 16 research and
review articles. She has also presented her work at various national and international
conferences.

Palvinder Singh Mann received his bachelor’s degree (B.Tech.) with honors
(Institute Gold Medal) in information technology from Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, Haryana, India, M.Tech. in computer science and engineering from IKG
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India, and Ph.D. in computer science
and engineering from IKG Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India.
Currently, he is working as an assistant professor at DAV Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India. He has published more than 50 research papers
in various international journals, international conferences, and national conferences. His
research interests include wireless sensor networks, computational intelligence, and
digital image processing. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9859-6193

Ogawa Masayoshi graduated from Singapore Management University with degrees

in economics and information systems. He is passionate about developing greater
xiv Contributors

understanding of the world and never passes up the opportunity to learn. Currently, he
is a pricing actuarial executive in the life insurance industry. https://orcid.org/0000-
0002-1605-6477

Gulab Kumar Patel received his master's in mathematics and computing from Indian
Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India, in 2017. Currently, he is pursuing his
doctoral work on queuing theory in the faculty of Mathematical Sciences from Indian
Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. His
area of research interests fall into realms of deep learning, statistics, and queuing theory.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5641-8532

Devendra Prasad is a professor in Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India. He has received his M.Tech. (Computer
Science and Engineering) and Ph.D. (Computer Science and Engineering). He has
supervised several M.Tech. and Ph.D. students. He has research publications in SCI-
Indexed international journals of high repute. His research interest includes network
security and fault-tolerant mobile ad-hoc, wireless sensor networks, and machine
learning. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1771-4670

Asha Rani is an assistant professor at Gujranwala Guru Nanak Khalsa College,

Ludhiana (Punjab). She is a research scholar in the Department of Computer
Science and Applications Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. She has published
and presented over 12 papers in national/international journals/conferences. She has
more than seven years of teaching experience in various institutions. Her teaching and
research activities include recommendation systems, multi-criteria decision making
methods, and data mining techniques. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5481-2141

Arpana Rawal is chairman, Board of Studies; faculty of computer science and

engineering; former head, Department of Information Technology; professor, Department
of Computer Science and Engineering at Bhilai Institute of Technology; Durg affiliated to
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Bhilai, India. Her graduation is in
the discipline of computer technology from Nagpur University (1994) and post-
graduation in the same discipline from Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur
(2003). She was awarded a doctoral degree in the faculty of computer science and
engineering in 2013. She has teaching experience of more than 20 years and research
experience of 15 years with current areas of research interest in innovative machine
learning techniques to combat high obfuscation levels of plagiarism detection, natural
language processing, text mining, temporal sequence mining, educational data mining,
machine-assisted recommender systems, recognition of text document images, universal
image steganalysis, and database forensics. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6819-6498

Guramritpal Singh Saggu is pursuing an integrated M.Tech. in information technology

from Indian Institute of Information Technology, Gwalior. He has been working and
exploring the domains of data science and machine learning for the past few years and
has prior experience of working with multiple organizations in developing their machine
learning and backend pipelines. He has worked as a research scholar in his institute for
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several times as great as the port of Liverpool including the
Birkenhead Docks, yet the tonnage of overseas freight handled in
each of these two ports is roughly the same.
The same comparison can be made with many other European
ports, which are all far smaller than New York although several equal
or exceed New York in the tonnage of transoceanic freight handled.
But let us take New York and describe it, in order that other ports
may be compared with it.

A MAP OF THE PORT OF CAPE TOWN

Table Bay is open to the force of north and northwest
winds. Before the bay could protect ships from the
frequent storms blowing from these directions a series of
breakwaters had to be built, in the lee of which ships could
anchor.
 Entering New York Bay from the ocean a ship passes between
Coney Island on the right and Sandy Hook on the left. Within these
two points lies the Lower Bay, a great and largely undeveloped body
of water around which practically none of the port’s equipment is
placed. Standing on up the channel, with Long Island on the right
and Staten Island on the left, the ship enters the Narrows, a
restricted passage connecting the Lower and the Upper bays. Once
through the Narrows the port begins to show itself. The Upper Bay is
smaller than the Lower and is roughly rectangular, while at each
corner a river or a strait connects it with other bodies of water. Of
these the Narrows, just mentioned, is the most important, for through
it flows far and away the greatest stream of shipping. The Hudson
River is second in importance, for this great and navigable stream
penetrates far into the interior and is connected with the Great Lakes
by the Erie Canal, or, as the newly finished improvement on the Erie
Canal is called, the State Barge Canal. The other two exits from the
Upper Bay are the East River—a strait connecting the Bay with Long
Island Sound—and, least important, the Kill von Kull, leading from
the Upper Bay to Newark Bay.
Piers and huge railroad terminals are to be found on every side,
and, more important still, they line the Hudson River for four or five
miles on each side from its mouth at the Battery, to Fifty-ninth Street
on the Manhattan side, and to Fort Lee in New Jersey. Similarly, but
to a less extent, the East River is lined with piers while a great
railroad terminal is located on Long Island Sound just beyond where
the East River ends. Yet thriving as it is, this great port, compared
with some other great ports, is an inefficient place.
Marseilles is a smaller port than New York, yet Marseilles, for
every linear foot of equipped quay, averages annually 1,500 tons of
cargo transferred as against 150 at New York.
The reason for this is that the ports are two different types. In New
York the piers are long and narrow and are built on piles from the
shore line out into the water to the pier line. Such structures are
inefficient in many ways. The piers being narrow, they make it
difficult for a roadway to be kept open throughout their entire length,
and force the handlers of freight to store it high on both sides.
Furthermore, the strength of the structures will seldom permit of the
erection of numerous cranes along each side in order to expedite the
loading and unloading of ships.

A MAP OF THE PORT OF MARSEILLES

In this case the city grew up practically without a
harbour. Finally a breakwater was erected parallel to the
shore in order that ships might be protected from the sea.

In Hamburg there are quays 1,500 feet long with 3-ton cranes
spaced every 100 feet. In all of New York Harbour there is no
installation similar to this. It is true that at the Bush Terminals there is
an excellent installation of warehouses, piers, railroad facilities, and
other port equipment—an installation comparable to the best—but
New York as a whole could be greatly improved, although it is only
fair to say that the difficulties and expense would be great.
But while foreign ports are likely to be more lavishly equipped with
loading and unloading machinery, it must be remembered that they,
long since, have developed the small areas at their disposal and
cannot readily expand, while New York, great as it is, still has room
for expansion and could add many times its present equipment to
what it now has.
Furthermore, New York labours under another, and a very serious,
handicap. It has grown to be one of the world’s great manufacturing
centres. It abounds in factories. The wholesale houses, the stores,
and other places of business handle huge stocks of goods, and the
railroad facilities are limited. Every port should have a “belt line”
railroad, that is, a railroad circling it about, crossing all the lines that
come to it from any direction. With such a railroad, freight could be
brought into the city by any line, turned over to the Belt Line, and
switched to almost any of the industrial sections or quays. But New
York has no such railroad. To begin with, New York proper is on the
Island of Manhattan, and only one freight line comes into the city.
The others all have their terminals in New Jersey, save for one on
the north shore of Long Island Sound and one in Brooklyn.
Therefore, it is necessary to transfer the freight intended for New
York by means of “car ferries.” Furthermore, all the freight landed on
New York piers must be transported by trucks, or reëmbarked on
canal boats and barges. Except on the New Jersey side of the Bay
and the Hudson River, on Staten Island and at the Bush Terminals,
there are few places in the entire port where railroads can run their
cars to warehouses conveniently placed for the reception of cargoes.
Busy as are the piers on Manhattan Island they are devoted
almost exclusively, so far as freight is concerned, to the shipments
intended for the business houses located in Manhattan. The
congestion always noticeable along West Street is due to the
unfortunate location of the principal borough of New York City on an
island, and little of this busy district is given over to the handling of
foreign commerce.
 A TUG BOAT
The bows of these boats are often protected by pads to which
much wear often gives an appearance of a tangled beard.

Were the facilities for handling freight more highly developed, a

large percentage of the cost of shipment would be eliminated. While
the port of New York is fortunate in many respects, its plan is such
that it is difficult to see how a highly efficient system of freight
transfer could be installed without disproportionate expense. Lacking
this system, there is a great deal of freight handled in the most
expensive possible way—by hand—which could be handled more
cheaply were it practicable to instal the most highly developed
mechanical assistance. This manual labour necessitates higher rates
for the shipment of freight. How great these costs are is apparent
when one realizes that once aboard ship, a cargo of coal could be
carried from New York to Rio de Janeiro for what it would cost, to
move by hand, a pile of coal the same size as the cargo, a distance
of sixty feet. Such a statement gives one a little grasp on the huge
costs of unnecessary freight handling.
What I have termed the “American type” of ports are those that
have piers built on piles out from the shore line. Alongside these
piers the ships are tied up, and largely with their own derricks they
hoist their cargoes from their holds and deposit them on the pier.
Sometimes these piers are two stories high, with one floor intended
for incoming and the other for outgoing freight. These piers may be
from a few hundred to a thousand or more feet in length, and the
longer they are the broader they must be in order that there may be
enough space between the freight on both sides for the trucks that
cart the freight to or from them, for the longer the pier the more
freight it will have and the more trucks it will need to accommodate in
order to have it moved.
But piers are not the best arrangement for handling freight. A more
nearly ideal arrangement is a warehouse served on one side by
ships and on the other by a railroad and trucks. In this case the
warehouse becomes a reservoir capable of taking quickly into
storage the huge cargoes of many ships. From this reservoir of
imports freight trains can be loaded conveniently without congestion.
On the other hand, exports sent to the warehouse by rail can arrive
in trainload or carload or even less-than-carload shipments and can
be stored conveniently until a cargo is on hand, when it can quickly
be put aboard ship. In such a port as New York such a warehouse
would need, as well, to be equipped to load and unload lighters and
canal boats. Were all of the piers of the port of New York rebuilt
along these lines—and that is practically impossible—the port could
handle with ease and the minimum of expense many times its
present tonnage.
 A NEW YORK HARBOUR FERRY
While these double-ended ships are large, they do not
compare in size with the liners. Yet they carry hundreds of
thousands of passengers to and fro across the Hudson
and the Upper Bay.

What I have called the “European type” of port is one in which

piers, such as those in New York, are practically unknown. Many
European ports have a handicap that does not trouble ports of the
United States. This handicap is the high tide. While the tide at New
York has a range of 4½ feet, at Boston 9½ feet, at Baltimore 1 foot,
Liverpool is troubled with a range of 25 or 30 feet, and many other
ports have as much, or almost as much. This means that while a
ship may be tied up to a pier at New York and not be bothered by an
extreme movement up and down great enough to make her any
difficulty in the handling of her cargo, ships in Liverpool cannot be
berthed at unprotected piers, for if they were they would find their
decks far below the deck of the pier at low tide, while at high tide the
water would raise them until their decks would be above it.
There are two ways of overcoming this difficulty. At Liverpool great
landing stages are built, floating in the water parallel to the shore.
Running from these to the shore are great hinged gangplanks which
permit the landing stage to rise and fall with the tides while these
gangplanks, which are really more like bridges, hold them parallel to
the shore and serve as bridges as well. A ship, made fast to one of
these landing stages, rises and falls as the stage does, and the two
maintain their relative positions to each other regardless of the stage
of the tide. In Liverpool these stages are largely used for passenger
ships.
The other method, which is also in use at Liverpool as well as at
many other ports, is to build a sea wall across the entrance to the
docks, and in this sea wall to build a “lock,” or a water gate. When
the tide is in, the water gate is opened and the harbour or the dock is
flooded to the level of high tide. As the tide recedes this lock is
closed and the water level behind it remains the same. Ships pass in
and out, either at high tide, when the lock or gate can be left open for
a time, or, if at other stages of the tide, by means of the lock, which,
being made up of two gates at the opposite ends of a long, narrow,
canal-like passageway, makes it possible for the ship to pass into the
lock, where the water level can be made to coincide with the level of
the dock or of the water outside. Then, by opening the inner or the
outer gate, as the case may be, the ship can enter the dock or the
unprotected waters outside.
Equipment of both these types is to be found at a number of
European ports, while still other ports, not troubled with a great
range of tide, do not find it necessary to instal them.
 A NEW YORK HARBOUR LIGHTER
Lighters take various forms and perform various tasks.
European lighters are more likely to have pointed ends.
American lighters very often have square ends.
Occasionally they have engines of their own, but
generally they depend on tugs for power.

But the principal difference between the European and American

types is to be found in the use by the former of huge quays,
sometimes more or less similar in general shape to the American
piers, but infinitely larger. Also they are surrounded by stone sea
walls and are of dry land. On these great quays are warehouses,
railroad tracks, derricks, cranes, and even great railroad yards. They
are of various sizes and various shapes, but all of them, by
comparison with piers, are very large. At Manchester, for instance,
where a harbour has been built in that inland city and connected with
the Irish Sea by the Manchester Ship Canal, there are only eleven or
twelve quays, but their area is 152 acres, and they have a water
frontage of more than five miles. The railways and sidings on and
immediately adjacent to the quays have a total length of well over
thirty miles. Great warehouses, some as many as thirteen stories
high, are built on these quays, with berthing space for ships on one
side and railroad sidings on the other. Inland canals as well as
railroads serve this port and, of course, much local freight is moved
by truck. Manchester is an excellent example of what I have termed
the European type of port.
But as I have said, no two ports are identical. Each port has
advantages and disadvantages, problems and solutions of its own.
Descriptions of a few scattered ports may be of some service in
giving an idea of the variety of problems and solutions that may
arise, before I turn to a description of the details of port equipment.
I have given a little space to the arrangement of the ports of New
York and Manchester, and Liverpool has been mentioned. Let us
turn, then, to Rio de Janeiro, a port very different from these.
Rio is on one of the most magnificent harbours in the world, and is
becoming an increasingly important port. It labours, however, under
a very serious handicap in that it has no waterway leading into the
vast interior of Brazil. Furthermore, other easy routes inland from Rio
are interfered with by the mountain ranges that lie close to the coast.
Railroads have been built across these mountains for some distance
into the interior, but the grades are heavy, and by present methods it
would be expensive and difficult to send great quantities of freight by
these routes. For this reason Rio is not likely ever to become a
South American New York. Here, then, is a case of a magnificent
harbour that will probably never be used to its capacity.
The harbour itself is about sixteen miles long and is from two to
eleven miles in width. It is deep enough to accommodate the world’s
greatest ships and could readily be equipped with an almost perfect
arrangement of terminal facilities. As it stands the port is excellent,
but by comparison with other large ports its tonnage of freight is
limited. Quays similar to those so often used in European ports are
in use in Rio, and in the development of the port the European
system is being followed.

A MISSISSIPPI RIVER STERN-WHEELER

Capetown is less fortunate in its harbour than Rio, for Table Bay,
upon which Capetown is situated, is twenty miles wide at its
entrance and is fully exposed to the north and northwest gales. This
handicap necessitated the construction of huge breakwaters which
enclose two basins of a total area of about seventy-five acres. In
addition there is a good anchorage in the lee of one of the
breakwaters, and the port is expanding in order to utilize this
protected spot. Here again the several miles of quays are of the
European type.
Marseilles, on the other hand, can hardly be said to have a
harbour at all. It is situated on an indentation of the coast which is
slightly protected by Cape Croisette, but which is entirely
unprotected from the west. This has necessitated the erection of a
breakwater parallel to the shore line behind which are a series of
basins in which are a dozen or so docks and quays. The
Mediterranean is practically tideless, so the basins at Marseilles do
not require locks, but the basins, in almost every respect, except for
the absence of dock gates, are similar to those, for instance, at
Liverpool. A glance might suggest that Marseilles would be an
inefficient port, but the contrary is the case.
I could go on almost indefinitely listing ports that differ as greatly
from these as these differ from one another, but I could hardly show
more clearly how diverse are the problems to be solved by the
designers and builders of ports. There are many books, of which
“Ports and Terminal Facilities,” by Roy S. MacElwee, Ph. D., is one,
that discuss the numerous economic, engineering, and structural
phases of ports, and to these I refer the person interested in the
technicalities of port design, construction, and operation. This
outline, being consciously non-technical and limited, must pass on to
other things.
What is most obvious to the casual observer at a busy port is the
great and varied stream of shipping that seems for ever on the
move. For a moment I shall turn to this collection of ships in order to
explain the uses of the different types and the necessity for them.
A ship arrives in a busy port from a foreign country. The ship is
large and is designed so as to be easily handled at sea. She is not,
however, easy to handle in the restricted and crowded waters of a
port. It takes a quarter- or a half-mile circle for her to turn around in,
if she is under way, and she is not entirely to be trusted if the tide
catches her in narrow waters. A collision may result, and so there
are tugboats which, among their numerous duties, are employed to
tow her about the harbour, or to assist in turning her, or to push her
awkward nose across the sweep of the tide in order that she may
enter a dock or swing into a narrow slip.
 A MODERN VENETIAN CARGO BOAT
This is hardly more than a barge, with a sail
plan of a modified form, somewhat suggesting
the lateen rig common in the Mediterranean,
and something like the lug sails common in
French waters.

Tugs are even more necessary when sailing ships appear, for a
large sailing ship without auxiliary power is hard to handle in a
crowded and narrow harbour. Barges, too, require outside power,
which the tugs furnish, for few barges have power of their own.
Canal boats are barges of a sort, and once in a port can no longer
depend upon the mule teams that tow them through canals. So the
tug’s life is a busy and a varied one. It swings on the end of a huge
hawser in its attempt to keep the Leviathan or the Majestic from
sideswiping a pier. It tows barges loaded with coal, or piled high with
any other kind of cargo. It tows a string of empty and wall-sided
canal boats up the river, or steams along with one lashed to each
side. Tugs carry no cargo, but they are for ever straining at hawsers
in their energetic furthering of commerce.
Lighters are of any size and of a great variety of shapes. In New
York they are likely to be capable of carrying from three hundred to
six hundred or seven hundred tons of freight, and are merely huge
scows, their sides parallel, their ends square, their decks slightly
overhanging the water at bow and stern. Often there is a small deck
house for the accommodation of the “crew,” which generally consists
of one man, who serves as watchman, and also handles the lines as
the lighter is made fast to tugs or piers or to the sides of other
vessels. Other ports have other types of lighters. In Hamburg they
range in size from comparatively small boats to comparatively large
ones. The small ones, and even some of the larger, are often
propelled along the shallow canals of the port by poles, or are pulled
along the quays by men to whom lines are passed. These Hamburg
lighters are often built of steel (the New York lighters are usually of
wood) and have pointed bows and sometimes pointed sterns. They
are broad and sturdy, some have decks, some covered decks, and
some are open. In bad weather the freight on these open lighters is
covered by tarpaulins. It is interesting that the largest Hamburg
lighters about equal in size the smallest New York lighters. In vessels
so simple as lighters are, there can be few differences save those of
size and general shape, so one will find that most lighters fall into
one or the other of the types I have mentioned. They are sometimes
loaded directly from ships. They may be loaded from freight put
ashore on piers, quays, at grain elevators and ore pockets. At some
ports where the draft of water does not permit a heavily laden ship to
enter, the lighters are sent out to where the ship is at anchor and
“lightens” her, if she is discharging, or takes her her cargo if she is
loading. Lighters, then, are floating delivery wagons, subject to many
uses.
Canal boats hardly require much space. They are merely barges
whose uses are largely restricted to canals. They have no power of
their own, and their journeys are generally at the end of a towline
hitched to a mule or a team which walks along a tow path beside the
canal. They are unbeautiful but useful, and usually have a deck
house for the use of the bargeman, who is often accompanied by his
wife and children. There are no masts from which to spread sails or
fly signal flags, but in lieu of this, one sometimes sees the housewife
hanging out her washing on a clothesline stretched wherever she
can place it. In their attempt to secure the comforts of home the
bargeman’s family is likely to have with it a dog or a couple of pigs,
and sometimes both. Such a collection of human and animal
passengers can live on a canal boat with a considerable degree of
comfort, for the dangers of the sea are not for them. Although life on
a canal boat is subject to some handicaps, at least it does not
include danger from high seas and uncharted reefs.
The introduction of the gasolene engine has made possible
successful small boats, of almost every size and shape, speedy,
slow, seaworthy, or cranky, depending on their design or lack of
design. They scoot everywhere on a thousand errands and add a
nervous note to ports that otherwise would seem to be calm and self-
possessed. These motor boats are infinite in number and are put to
every use. Here, however, I shall not do more than recognize the
very apparent fact that they exist.
These vessels I have named are all a port would need to take care
of its overseas commerce. Most ports, however, are busy with an
infinite number of other ships engaged in coastwise or inland trade.
River steamers, fishermen, ferryboats, and coasting freighters are
perhaps commoner than ocean-going ships. Then, too, one
sometimes sees a floating grain elevator, not dissimilar in
appearance to some grain elevators ashore. There are water barges,
which supply ships with fresh water. There are dredges, seemingly
for ever at work. There are glistening yachts and frowning warships.
There is everything that floats rubbing elbows with everything else
that floats, and yet despite the seeming confusion, the whole port is
orderly, and seldom indeed are there collisions or accidents to mar
the smoothness of the flow of commerce.
 CHAPTER IX
THE ART OF SEAMANSHIP

S EAMANSHIP is the art of handling ships and is not to be

confused with navigation, which is the mathematical science of
determining ships’ positions and their courses. Only sailors who
have had experience at sea can be adept at seamanship, but it is
quite possible for a person who has never seen a ship to learn all the
intricacies of navigation. Neither is a knowledge of one requisite to
the mastery of the other.
In this chapter I shall devote myself to a few of the more obvious
phases of seamanship, leaving navigation for the next chapter,
where I shall also touch upon piloting, a related science.
Seamanship, being an art, can be acquired only by practice, and
seamen being formerly an all-but-unlettered class, jealous of their
calling, wrote no textbooks of their art until Captain John Smith, the
famous old adventurer in Virginia, and Sir Henry Mainwayring, of the
Elizabethan navy, wrote their treatises on the subject in the early part
of the 17th Century. It is difficult, therefore, to say with any degree of
certainty just what were the general practices of seamen of earlier
times.
Because of this lack of definite information concerning ancient
seamanship, I shall discuss the art only in its more modern aspects.
It is interesting to mention again, however, what I have mentioned
elsewhere, that the ancients were coasters rather than deep-sea
sailors, who, until Columbus’s time, were unaccustomed to making
long voyages out of sight of land save here and there, as, for
instance, between Aden, at the mouth of the Red Sea, and India. On
such a route they came and went with the monsoons, which blow
alternately at different seasons of the year from and to the Indian
coast. But, aside from such exceptions, the ancients, able seamen
though they may sometimes have been, seldom sailed far out of
sight of land. In ancient times a sailor, it would seem, was anxious to
stay near shore, for then he could readily follow his route, indirect
though that might be. To-day the sailor is more at ease if he is well
away from land, for the perils of the deep sea are trifling by
comparison with the perils of the coast. Storms at sea can usually be
ridden out without danger. Storms that blow as ships approach the
shore are cause for apprehension. The ancient sailor kept his eyes
open for heavy weather and if he saw it coming he made straightway
for the beach, and, if possible, pulled his little ship high and dry until
it had passed. The sailor of to-day, too, keeps his eyes open for
storms, but if they come he would rather be safely far out at sea than
near the coast, unless he could ride it out in some safe harbour.
These differences between the ancient and the modern seaman are
due to the increase in the size and seaworthiness of ships, and to
the universal use nowadays of the compass, an instrument unknown
to the ancients. Nowadays, too, steam has changed things, for ships
that carry, in their hulls, powerful engines capable of successfully
combating the wind need fear that danger of the sea far less.
A PAGE OF KNOTS IN COMMON USE
 Many books on seamanship have been written since Captain John
Smith and Sir Henry Mainwayring published theirs. “Modern
Seamanship,” by Admiral Austin M. Knight, U. S. N., is a deservedly
popular work, even though it is largely given over to the art in its
connection with ships of war. The fact, too, that it contains 250,000
or more words shows how great the subject is, and how superficial
my brief discussion must be.
The first duty of a sailor is to be familiar with his ship and the
apparatus he is called upon to use. In the days of the clippers every
sailor had to know how to perform almost every task. Many ships of
that time carried cooks, sailmakers, and carpenters, it is true, and
the duties of these men were for them alone. But every sailor was
likely to be called upon to reef or steer, to handle an oar in a small
boat, to splice lines and tie knots of all sorts, to re-rig spars and
masts, man the pumps, paint, scrub, scrape woodwork, and perform
a thousand other tasks with precision and rapidity. He had
sometimes to “lay aloft” and in the blackness of bitter wintry nights to
find his way along the foot-rope of a swaying spar far above the deck
in order to reef sleet-covered sails that whipped repeatedly from his
stiffening fingers. He had to know each of a thousand lines by name
so as to belay or release the right one at a moment’s notice, even in
the blackness of a night of storm. He had sometimes to make his
way far out along the bowsprit to the jib boom or the flying jib boom
in order to release some tangle of wind-whipped line, and to hold on
for dear life as mountainous seas dashed their angry foam-flecked
crests viciously at him as he maintained his precarious hold. He had
to know what strain the whistling rigging could hold up under, and
how to repair the damage wrought by storm. He had to beach his
ship in far-distant ports and between the tides to scrape her bottom
and calk her leaking seams. He had to know his ship from bow to
stern, from truck to keel, and must ever have been ready to turn his
hand to whatever task might momentarily have required him. It is no
wonder that it took years to make a sailor. The wonder is that men
were found to risk their lives in storm, to eat the disgusting food that
such ships too often fed their crews, to toil for months—for years—
for trifling pay, beaten by their officers for minor as well as major
breaches of discipline, yet willing, once a voyage was done, to spend
their little savings in one wild fling and ship once more.
But most of that is gone. Sailors on the steamships that circle the
earth to-day are mechanics and workmen. The man at the wheel can
be taught his job passably well in a few hours. The men on deck are
often not sailors at all, in the old meaning of the word, but merely
labourers, who work at their appointed tasks under the direction of
the officers, many of whom would be all but helpless if called upon to
handle a square-rigged ship under sail.

BEARINGS AND POINTS OF SAILING

But that is no reflection on the sailors of to-day. Their jobs are

different and the wide experience and knowledge of the sailor of
earlier days would benefit them little. Of what use is the ability to reef
a sail to a sailor on a ship where there is nothing made of canvas
save tarpaulins and awnings? Why know the intricacies of a sailing
ship’s complicated rigging when one comes in contact only with