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MCTS Self Paced Training Kit Exam 70 667 Configuring
Microsoft SharePoint 2010 Dan Holme Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Dan Holme, Orin Thomas, Alastair Matthews, Bob Castle
ISBN(s): 9780735638853, 0735638853
Edition: Pap/Cdr
File Details: PDF, 20.95 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
Exam 70-667: Pro: Configuring Microsoft
SharePoint 2010
OBJECTIVE LOCATION IN BOOK
INSTALLING AND CONFIGURING A SHAREPOINT ENVIRONMENT
Deploy new installations and upgrades. Chapter 1, Lessons 1, 2, and 3
Chapter 2, Lesson 2
Chapter 9, Lessons 1 and 2
Configure SharePoint farms. Chapter 1, Lessons 2 and 3
Chapter 2, Lesson 2
Chapter 3, Lessons 1, 2 and 3
Chapter 8, Lesson 2
Chapter 9, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 11, Lesson 1
Configure service applications. Chapter 5, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 6, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 8, Lessons 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6
Chapter 9, Lessons 1 and 2
Configure indexing and search. Chapter 7, Lessons 1, 2 and 3
MANAGING A SHAREPOINT ENVIRONMENT
Manage operational settings. Chapter 4, Lesson 1
Chapter 12, Lessons 1, 2, and 3
Manage accounts and user roles. Chapter 1, Lessons 2 and 3
Chapter 2, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 4, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 9, Lesson 2
Manage authentication providers. Chapter 3, Lesson 2
DEPLOYING AND MANAGING APPLICATIONS
Manage Web Applications. Chapter 1, Lesson 3
Chapter 2, Lesson 2
Chapter 3, Lesson 1, 2 and 3
Chapter 4, Lessons 1 and 2
Manage site collections. Chapter 1, Lesson 3
Chapter 2, Lesson 2
Chapter 4, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 5, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 9, Lessons 1 and 2
Chapter 10, Lessons 1, 2 and 3
Chapter 12, Lesson 4
Deploy and manage SharePoint solutions. Chapter 10, Lessons 2 and 3
MAINTAINING A SHAREPOINT ENVIRONMENT
Back up and restore a SharePoint environment. Chapter 11, Lesson 2
Monitor and analyze a SharePoint environment. Chapter 12, Lessons 1, 2 and 3
Optimize the performance of a SharePoint environment. Chapter 9, Lesson 2
Chapter 12, Lesson 4

Exam Objectives The exam objectives listed here are current as of this book’s publication date. Exam objectives
are subject to change at any time without prior notice and at Microsoft’s sole discretion. Please visit the Microsoft
Learning Web site for the most current listing of exam objectives: http://www.microsoft.com/learning/en/us/Exam
.aspx?ID=70-667#tab2.
PUBLISHED BY
Microsoft Press
A Division of Microsoft Corporation
One Microsoft Way
Redmond, Washington 98052-6399
Copyright © 2011 by Alistair Matthews (Content); Alistair Matthews (Sample Code); Dan Holme (Content);
Dan Holme (Sample Code); GrandMasters (Content); GrandMasters (Sample Code); Orin Thomas (Content);
Orin Thomas (Sample Code)
All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means without the written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011934666
ISBN: 978-0-7356-3885-3

Printed and bound in the United States of America.

First Printing

Microsoft Press books are available through booksellers and distributors worldwide. If you need support related
to this book, email Microsoft Press Book Support at [email protected]. Please tell us what you think of
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Trademarks/EN-US.aspx are trademarks of the Microsoft group of companies. All other marks are property of
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events depicted herein are fictitious. No association with any real company, organization, product, domain name,
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distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused either directly or indirectly by
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Technical Reviewer: Bob Hogan; Technical Review services provided by Content Master, a member of CM
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Copyeditor: Becka McKay
Indexer: Maureen Johnson
Cover: Twist Creative • Seattle
Contents at a Glance

Introduction xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet 1

CHAPTER 2 Administering and Automating SharePoint 53
CHAPTER 3 Managing Web Applications 107
CHAPTER 4 Administering and Securing SharePoint Content 213
CHAPTER 5 Service Applications and the Managed Metadata Service 283
CHAPTER 6 Configuring User Profiles and Social Networking 341
CHAPTER 7 Administering SharePoint Search 393
CHAPTER 8 Implementing Enterprise Service Applications 453
CHAPTER 9 Deploying and Upgrading to SharePoint 2010 521
CHAPTER 10 Administering SharePoint Customization 571
CHAPTER 11 Implementing Business Continuity 625
CHAPTER 12 Monitoring and Optimizing SharePoint Performance 675

Answers 741

Index 773
Contents

Introduction xxiii
System Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

Using the Companion CD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix

Support & Feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix

Chapter 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet 1

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Prepare the Server Infrastructure 3
Prepare User Accounts for SharePoint Administration
and Services 8
Install SharePoint Prerequisites 12
Lesson Summary 19
Lesson Review 19

Lesson 2: Install and Configure SharePoint 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Prepare for Installation and Configuration 21
Install the SharePoint Binaries 22
Configure the SharePoint Server 26
Configure the Farm 28
Perform Post-Installation Configuration 31
Lesson Summary 37
Lesson Review 37

What do you think of this book? We want to hear from you!

Microsoft is interested in hearing your feedback so we can continually improve our
books and learning resources for you. To participate in a brief online survey, please visit:

www.microsoft.com/learning/booksurvey/
vii
 Lesson 3: Create a SharePoint Intranet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
SharePoint Logical Structure 39
Request a Page from a SharePoint Site 40
Create a Web Application 41
Create a Site Collection 43
Create a List or Library 45
Lesson Summary 49
Lesson Review 50

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Case Scenario: Deploying SharePoint Servers and Farms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Chapter 2 Administering and Automating SharePoint 53

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Lesson 1: SharePoint Administrative Roles and Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Administrative Roles 55
SharePoint Administrative Tools 61
Stsadm 61
Windows PowerShell 62
SharePoint 2010 Management Shell 62
Central Administration 62
Lesson Summary 66
Lesson Review 66

Lesson 2: Automate SharePoint Operations with

Windows PowerShell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Introducing Windows PowerShell 69
SharePoint 2010 Management Shell 70
cmdlets 70
Get-Help 71
Objects 72
Pipeline 73
Aliases 75

viii Contents
 Examine and Document the SharePoint Logical
Structure Using Windows PowerShell 76
Create a SharePoint Intranet Using Windows PowerShell 87
Variables 89
Iterate with ForEach-Object (Aliases: %, ForEach) 90
Create Multiple Websites with a Windows PowerShell Script 92
Iterate with the For-Each Statement 92
Windows PowerShell Scripts 93
Local, Global, and Remote Commands 95
The SharePoint Management Shell Windows
PowerShell Profile 96
Delegate Permissions to Use Windows PowerShell 96
Lesson Summary 102
Lesson Review 102

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Case Scenario: Reporting Properties of the SharePoint Farm. . . . . . . . . . 105

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Practice 1: Explore the Security-Trimmed Administrative
Interfaces 105
Practice 2: Administer User Roles Using Windows PowerShell 105

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Chapter 3 Managing Web Applications 107

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Lesson 1: Configure Web Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Understand Web Applications and IIS Web Sites 110
Configure a New Web Application 113
Delete a Web Application 119
Secure Communication with a Web Application Using SSL 120
Configure Web Applications 123
Lesson Summary 137
Lesson Review 137

Contents ix
 Lesson 2: Configure Authentication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Configure Anonymous Access 139
Understand Authentication Types 144
Configure Classic Mode Authentication 144
Windows Authentication Methods 148
Configure Kerberos Authentication 151
Additional Windows Authentication
Methods 155
Understand Claims Based Authentication 157
Configure Windows-Claims Authentication 162
Configure Forms Based Authentication 165
Configure SAML Token Authentication 173
Multiple Authentication Providers 175
Choose an Authentication Type 175
Convert Web Applications to Claims
Authentication 176
Lesson Summary 181
Lesson Review 182
Lesson 3: Configure Authentication Zones and Alternate
Access Mappings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Requesting SharePoint Content: Access Mappings,
Zones, and URLs 185
Access Mappings 189
Manage Zones 195
Multiple Zones 198
Lesson Summary 204
Lesson Review 208

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Case Scenario: Troubleshooting Web Application

Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Manage Web Applications 212

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

x Contents
Chapter 4 Administering and Securing SharePoint Content 213

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Lesson 1: Manage Site Collections and Content Databases. . . . . . . . . . . 215

Manage Site Collections 215
Configure Site Collections Using Central Administration 223
Configure Site Collections Using Site Settings 232
Multiple Sites vs. Multiple Site Collections 234
Managed Paths 237
Content Databases 240
Designing Sites, Site Collections, and Content Databases 241
Lesson Summary 247
Lesson Review 248

Lesson 2: Secure SharePoint Sites and Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Overview of SharePoint Site Security 250
Administer SharePoint Groups 252
SharePoint Group Management Features 257
Active Directory and SharePoint Groups 259
Configure Permission Levels 261
Understand Inheritance 265
Implement SharePoint Roles and Role Assignments 266
Manage Web Policy 270
Audit Access to SharePoint Content 273
Lesson Summary 277
Lesson Review 277

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Case Scenario: Configure Site Collections and Content Databases. . . . . 280

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Practice 1: Configure and Apply Quota Templates 280
Practice 2: Explore Site Settings 281
Practice 3: Security 281

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Contents xi
 Chapter 5 Service Applications and the Managed
Metadata Service 283
Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Lesson 1: Administer Service Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Service Instance 285
Service Applications 288
Service Application Endpoint 289
Service Application Connections (Proxies) 292
Service Application Connection Groups
(Proxy Groups) 292
Application Associations 295
Assign Administrators of a Service
Application 297
Restrict Access to a Service Application 297
Share Service Applications across Farms 301
Service Application Design 307
Lesson Summary 309
Lesson Review 310

Lesson 2: Configure the Managed Metadata

Service Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Metadata and Information Architecture 311
Using Terms 313
Information Architecture and the Managed Metadata
Service Application 314
Create and Use Terms: The Big Picture 314
Keywords 320
Manage Terms 321
Manage Term Sets 323
Manage the Term Store 325
Local Term Sets 326
Term Store Design 327
Content Type Syndication 329
Design Content Type Syndication 331
Lesson Summary 335
Lesson Review 336

xii Contents
 Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Case Scenario: Configure Service Applications
and the Managed Metadata Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

Practice 1: Configure Open Term Sets 338
Practice 2: Configure Enterprise Keywords 339
Practice 3: Publish a Service Application 339

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Chapter 6 Configuring User Profiles and Social Networking 341

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Lesson 1: Configure User Profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Social Networking for Business 343
Social Networking Example Scenarios 345
User Profiles and the User Profile Service Application 346
The Business Case for User Profiles 351
The Role of the User Profile Service Application 353
The Architecture of the User Profile Service Application 355
Configuring the User Profile Service Application 357
Synchronizing User Profiles with External Sources 361
Lesson Summary 369
Lesson Review 369

Lesson 2: Configure My Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Giving Users Their Own Sites 371
Social Tagging 375
Configuring My Sites 379
Creating Your Own My Site 384
Lesson Summary 387
Lesson Review 388

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Contents xiii
 Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Case Scenario: Configuring User Profiles

and Social Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Practice 1: Configure Synchronization with Other Sources
of User Data 390
Practice 2: Configure Segmented My Sites 391

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Chapter 7 Administering SharePoint Search 393

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

Lesson 1: Configure Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Why Do You Need Search? 395
SharePoint Search Architecture 402
Configuring Search 408
Lesson Summary 415
Lesson Review 416

Lesson 2: Refine Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

The Need for Adaptation 418
Ways to Refine Search Results 419
Configuring Refinements 424
Lesson Summary 431
Lesson Review 432

Lesson 3: Manage Enterprise Search Topology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

Planning a Large-Scale Search Architecture 433
Using Multiple Search Service Applications 437
Adding FAST Search Server 2010 for SharePoint 438
Lesson Summary 445
Lesson Review 446

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Case Scenario: Optimizing an Enterprise Search Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

xiv Contents
 Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Practice 1: Configure SharePoint to Index Exchange
Public Folders 450
Practice 2: Configure Federation with a Second Search
Service Application 450

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

Chapter 8 Implementing Enterprise Service Applications 453

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

Lesson 1: Implement Business Connectivity Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Connecting SharePoint to Other Business Systems 455
BCS Architecture 457
Connecting to External Data 460
Using BCS Web Parts 463
Lesson Summary 467
Lesson Review 468

Lesson 2: Implement InfoPath Forms Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

SharePoint and InfoPath 469
InfoPath Forms Architecture 472
Administering InfoPath Forms Services 473
Creating Sandboxed InfoPath Forms 476
Lesson Summary 480
Lesson Review 481

Lesson 3: Implement Excel Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

Excel and SharePoint 482
Excel Services Architecture 485
Configuring Excel Services 486
Using Excel Services 487
Lesson Summary 491
Lesson Review 491

Lesson 4: Implement Access Web Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

Access and SharePoint 493
Implementing and Configuring Access Web Services 496
Using Access Web Services 498

Contents xv
 Lesson Summary 500
Lesson Review 500

Lesson 5: Implement Visio Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

Visio and SharePoint 502
Plan Visio Services Connections 504
Configuring Visio Services 505
Using Visio Services 506
Lesson Summary 509
Lesson Review 509

Lesson 6: Implement Office Web Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

The Role of Office Web Applications 510
Office Web Applications Architecture 512
Deploying Office Web Applications 513
Testing Office Web Applications 514
Lesson Summary 516
Lesson Review 517

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

Case Scenario: Configuring User Profiles

and Social Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

Practice 1: Set Up a BCS Connection to
the Adventure Works Sample Database 519
Practice 2: Build a Business Intelligence Dashboard 520

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

Chapter 9 Deploying and Upgrading to SharePoint 2010 521

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

Lesson 1: Upgrade to SharePoint 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

Understanding Upgrade and Migration Approaches 523
Upgrade Requirements 525
Pre-Upgrade Check 527
Managing Customizations 528
xvi Contents
 In-Place Upgrade 529
Database Attach Upgrade 530
Database Attach Upgrade with Read-Only Databases 531
In-Place Upgrade with Detached Databases 532
Using a Temporary Upgrade Farm 532
Other Upgrade Approaches 532
Visual Upgrade 533
Upgrading Services Using In-Place Upgrade 534
Upgrading Services Using Database Attach Upgrade 536
Post-Upgrade Steps 538
Reviewing and Troubleshooting Upgrade Results 540
Additional Upgrade Paths 540
Upgrade Notes 541
Lesson Summary 544
Lesson Review 545

Lesson 2: Scale and Manage SharePoint 2010 Farms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

SharePoint Server Roles 547
Determine Topology 548
Add a Web or Application Server to the Farm 549
Configure the Server Role 552
Add a Database Server to the Farm 552
Remove a Server from the Farm 553
Track the Creation of SharePoint Farms 553
Block SharePoint Installation 555
Managed Accounts 556
Support Multiple Languages 561
Lesson Summary 565
Lesson Review 566

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

Case Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

Case Scenario 1: Determining an Upgrade Strategy 569
Case Scenario 2: Managing SharePoint Farms in the Enterprise 569

Contents xvii
 Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Managing SharePoint Farms 569
Practice 1: Manage Service Accounts 570

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

Chapter 10 Administering SharePoint Customization 571

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

Lesson 1: Customize SharePoint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

Introduction to SharePoint Customization 573
SharePoint Customization Techniques 574
SharePoint Customization Roles 576
SharePoint Customization Tools 577
Customization Scenarios and Example Approaches 578
Customizable Objects 580
Administrator Customization Tasks 585
Lesson Summary 593
Lesson Review 593

Lesson 2: Deploy and Manage Solutions and Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

Introducing Solutions and Features 595
Feature Management 600
User Solution Management 601
Farm Solution Management 603
Lesson Summary 607
Lesson Review 607

Lesson 3: Support Custom Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609

Introducing Supporting Custom Solutions 609
Supporting User Solutions 611
Security and Stability Considerations 615
Configuring Search to Support Customizations 618
Lesson Summary 620
Lesson Review 621

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

xviii Contents
 Case Scenario: Deploying a Third-Party Custom
Relationship Management Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Practice 1: Create Your Own Custom User Solution 623
Practice 2: Configure Sandboxed Code Load Balancing
in a Multi-Server Farm 624

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Chapter 11 Implementing Business Continuity 625

Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

Lesson 1: Configure High Availability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

What Is High Availability? 627
High-Availability Hardware Architectures 633
High-Availability SharePoint Architectures 635
High-Availability Database Architectures 641
Example Farms 642
Lesson Summary 649
Lesson Review 649

Lesson 2: Back Up and Restore SharePoint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

The Importance of Backup and Restore 651
Planning a Disaster Recovery Strategy 653
Backup and Restore Tools and Techniques 654
Lesson Summary 669
Lesson Review 669

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672

Case Scenario: Improving Resilience

and Recovery Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672

Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673

Practice 1: Set Up a Multi-Server SharePoint Farm
in the Lab 673
Practice 2: Using Backups to Migrate Data 674

Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

Contents xix
 Chapter 12 Monitoring and Optimizing SharePoint
Performance 675
Before You Begin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

Lesson 1: Monitor Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677

Introduction to Monitoring SharePoint 677
Sources of Information 681
Preparing for Monitoring 682
Using Performance Monitor 686
Using the Developer Dashboard 690
Lesson Summary 694
Lesson Review 695

Lesson 2: SharePoint Health Analyzer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

Introducing SharePoint Health Analyzer 697
Health Analyzer Configuration 700
Lesson Summary 703
Lesson Review 704

Lesson 3: Usage Reports and Web Analytics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706

Introducing SharePoint Web Analytics Reports 706
Configuring and Using Usage Reports and Logs 712
Configuring and Using Web Analytics 713
Configuring SSRS 716
Lesson Summary 721
Lesson Review 721

Lesson 4: Optimize Content Storage and Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

Introducing Optimization 723
High-Performance SharePoint Configuration 724
Optimizing Storage 728
Lesson Summary 734
Lesson Review 734

Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736

Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737

Case Scenario: Monitoring Web Part Deployment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738

xx Contents
Suggested Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Practice 1: Deploy SSRS 738
Practice 2: Test How Caching and Resource Throttling
Affect Performance 739
Take a Practice Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

Answers 741

Index 773

Contents xxi
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Microsoft is interested in hearing your feedback so we can continually improve our
books and learning resources for you. To participate in a brief online survey, please visit:

www.microsoft.com/learning/booksurvey/

xxii Contents
Introduction
T his training kit is designed for information technology (IT) professionals who support or
plan to support SharePoint Server 2010 and who also plan to take the Microsoft Certified
Technology Specialist (MCTS) exam 70-667, TS: Microsoft SharePoint 2010, Configuring.
The material covered in this training kit and on exam 70-667 relates to SharePoint
products and technologies, which enable business collaboration in an enterprise and on the
web. It is assumed that before you begin using this training kit, you have a solid, foundation-
level understanding of Microsoft Windows client and server operating systems and common
Internet technologies. The MCTS exam and this book assume that you have at least one year
of experience configuring SharePoint and related technologies, including Internet Information
Services (IIS), Windows Server 2008, Active Directory, DNS, SQL Server, and networking
infrastructure services.
The topics in this training kit cover what you need to know for the exam, as described
on the Skills Measured tab for the exam, which is available at http://www.microsoft.com/
learning/en/us/exam.aspx?ID=70-667&locale=en-us#tab2.
By using this training kit, you will learn how to do the following:
n Deploy SharePoint Server 2010 farms.
n Create a logical architecture of web applications, content databases, site collections,
and sites.
n Manage security of SharePoint content by configuring authentication and access
­controls.
n Configure SharePoint services including search, user profiles, and the managed
­metadata service.
n Optimize, monitor, and troubleshoot performance of SharePoint servers and services.
n Ensure that data is protected and highly available.
n Deploy and manage customized SharePoint functionality and solutions.
Refer to the Objective map in the front of this book to see where in the book each exam
objective is covered.

System Requirements
Practice exercises are a valuable component of this training kit. They allow you to experience
important skills directly, reinforce material discussed in lessons, and even introduce new
concepts.

xxiii
 Each lesson and practice describes the requirements for exercises. Many lessons require
only two computers, one configured as a domain controller for a sample domain named
contoso.com and the second configured as a SharePoint server running Microsoft SQL
Server 2008 R2 and SharePoint Server 2010. However, some lessons require additional
computers acting as a second server in the SharePoint farm.
The companion media includes the “Lab Environment Build Guide” document, which
contains detailed setup instructions for the computers used throughout this training kit.
Lessons that require additional computers provide guidance regarding the configuration of
those computers.

Hardware Requirements
You can perform exercises on physical computers. Each computer must meet the minimum
requirements for RAM, free hard disk space, and processor cores shown here:
n Domain Controller 1.5 GB RAM, 40 GB free disk space, and at least 1
processor core.
n SharePoint server 6 GB RAM, 128 GB free disk space, and at least 2
processor cores.
n Additional SharePoint server 4 GB RAM, 128 GB free disk space, and at least 2
processor cores.
To minimize the time and expense of configuring the computers required for this training
kit, it’s recommended that you perform the practices in this training kit on virtual machines.
The training kit assumes you will use virtualization software that supports snapshots, so that
you can roll back to a previous state after performing an exercise.
You can create virtual machines by using Hyper-V—a feature of Windows Server 2008
and Windows Server 2008 R2—or other virtualization software, such as VMware Workstation.
The Lab Environment Build Guide details the configuration of the virtual machines required
for this training kit. Refer to the documentation of your selected virtualization platform for
hardware and software requirements, for instructions regarding host setup and configuration.
If you choose to use virtualization software, you can run more than one virtual machine on
a host computer. The host computer must have sufficient RAM for each virtual machine that
you will run simultaneously on the host, plus sufficient RAM to meet the RAM requirements
of the host operating system.
If you plan to run all virtual machines on a single host, the host must have at least
12 GB of RAM. For example, one of the most complex configurations you will need is one
domain controller using 512 MB of RAM, and two SharePoint servers using 6 GB and 4 GB of
RAM. On a host computer with 12 GB of RAM, this would leave just over 1 GB for the host.

xxiv Introduction
The host computer must have sufficient disk space for each virtual machine plus snapshots.
We recommend that you have at least 512 GB of free disk space if you want to run all virtual
machines on a single host computer. Note that you never use more than three virtual
machines together at the same time.
If you encounter performance bottlenecks while running multiple virtual machines on
a single physical host, consider running virtual machines on more than one physical host.
Ensure that all machines—virtual or physical—that you use for exercises can network with
each other. It is highly recommended that the environment be totally disconnected from
your production environment. Refer to the documentation of your virtualization platform for
network configuration procedures.
We recommend that you preserve each of the virtual machines you create until you have
completed the training kit. After each chapter, create a snapshot of the virtual machines used
in that chapter so that you can reuse them, as required in later exercises.
Finally, you must have a physical computer with a CD-ROM drive with which to read
the companion media. (If you have the eBook, you can retrieve the companion media from
the book’s web page.) You must also have Internet connectivity so that you can download the
evaluation versions of software, as specified in the “Lab Environment Build Guide.”

Software Requirements
The following software is required to complete the practice exercises:
n Windows Server 2008 R2
n SQL Server 2008 R2 (64-bit)
n SharePoint Server 2010 (Enterprise Client Access License features)
n SharePoint Designer 2010
n Office Professional Plus 2010
n Silverlight
You can download evaluation versions of the products from the TechNet Evaluation
Center at http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/evalcenter. If you use evaluation versions of
the software, pay attention to the expiration date of the product. The evaluation version of
Windows Server 2008 R2, for example, can be used for up to 60 days.
If you have a TechNet or MSDN subscription, you can download the products from the
subscriber downloads center. These versions do not expire. If you are not a TechNet or MSDN
subscriber, it is recommended that you subscribe so that you can access benefits such as
product downloads.

Introduction xxv
 To configure the computers and to access files on the companion media, the following
software is required:
n If you are not using virtualization software, you need software that allows you to
handle .iso files. This software needs to perform either of the following functions:

• Burn .iso files to CDs or DVDs. (This solution also requires CD/DVD recording
­hardware.)

• Mount .iso files as virtual CD or DVD drives on your computer.

n A web browser such as Internet Explorer version 8 or later.
n An application that can display PDF files, such as Adobe Acrobat Reader, which can be
downloaded at http://www.adobe.com/reader.

IMPORTANT LAB ENVIRONMENT BUILD GUIDE

Be sure to read the “Lab Environment Build Guide” on the companion media for detailed
instructions regarding the setup of computers for this training kit.

Using the Companion CD

A companion CD is included with this training kit. The companion CD contains the following:
n Practice tests You can reinforce your understanding of the topics covered in this
training kit by using electronic practice tests that you customize to meet your needs.
You can run a practice test that is generated from the pool of Lesson Review questions
in this book. Alternatively, you can practice for the 70-667 certification exam by using
tests created from a pool of more than 200 practice exam questions, which give you
many practice exams to ensure that you are prepared.
n Practice files Some practices in this training kit refer to files in the Practice Files folder
on the companion media. When you prepare for practices by following the instructions
in the Lab Environment Build Guide, these files are copied to the C:\70667TK folder on
the disk drive of the SharePoint server, so that during the practices you can access the
files without the companion media.
n An eBook An electronic version of this book is included for when you do not want to
carry the printed book with you.
n Practice answers At the end of each lesson, one or more hands-on practice exercises
challenge you to apply the concepts and skills discussed in the lesson to real-world
scenarios. Each exercise presents high-level instructions, similar to what you might
receive from a manager, colleague, or end user in an enterprise environment. We
recommend that you try to complete the exercise by recalling and reviewing what

xxvi Introduction
 you’ve learned in the lesson. If you cannot complete a step or exercise, you can use the
practice answers on the companion CD, which include detailed, step-by-step instructions
for each exercise.

NOTE COMPANION CONTENT FOR DIGITAL BOOK READERS

If you bought a digital-only edition of this book, you can enjoy select content from the
print edition’s companion CD. Visit http://go.microsoft.com/FWLink/?Linkid=223198 to get
your downloadable content.

How to Install the Practice Tests

To install the practice test software from the companion CD to your hard disk, perform the
following steps:
1. Insert the companion CD into your CD drive and accept the license agreement. A CD
menu appears.

NOTE IF THE CD MENU DOES NOT APPEAR

If the CD menu or the license agreement does not appear, AutoRun might be disabled on
your computer. Refer to the Readme.txt file on the CD for alternate installation instructions.

2. Click Practice Tests and follow the instructions on the screen.

How to Use the Practice Tests

To start the practice test software, follow these steps:
1. Click Start, All Programs, and then select Microsoft Press Training Kit Exam Prep.
A window appears that shows all the Microsoft Press training kit exam prep suites
installed on your computer.
2. Double-click the lesson review or practice test you want to use.

NOTE LESSON REVIEWS VS. PRACTICE TESTS

Select the (70-667) TS: Microsoft SharePoint 2010, Configuring lesson review to use
the questions from the “Lesson Review” sections of this book. Select the (70-667)
TS: Microsoft SharePoint 2010, Configuring practice test to use a pool of 200 questions
similar to those that appear on the 70-667 certification exam.

Introduction xxvii
 Lesson Review Options
When you start a lesson review, the Custom Mode dialog box appears so that you can
configure your test. You can click OK to accept the defaults, or you can customize the number
of questions you want, how the practice test software works, which exam objectives you want
the questions to relate to, and whether you want your lesson review to be timed. If you are
retaking a test, you can select whether you want to see all the questions again or only the
questions you missed or did not answer.
After you click OK, your lesson review starts.
n To take the test, answer the questions and use the Next and Previous buttons to move
from question to question.
n After you answer an individual question, if you want to see which answers are
correct—along with an explanation of each correct answer—click Explanation.
n If you prefer to wait until the end of the test to see how you did, answer all the
questions and then click Score Test. You will see a summary of the exam objectives you
chose and the percentage of questions you got right overall and per objective. You can
print a copy of your test, review your answers, or retake the test.

Practice Test Options

When you start a practice test, you choose whether to take the test in Certification Mode,
Study Mode, or Custom Mode:
n Certification Mode Closely resembles the experience of taking a certification exam. The
test has a set number of questions. It is timed, and you cannot pause and restart the timer.
n Study Mode Creates an untimed test during which you can review the correct
­answers and the explanations after you answer each question.
n Custom Mode Gives you full control over the test options so that you can customize
them as you like.
In all modes, the user interface when you are taking the test is basically the same but
with different options enabled or disabled depending on the mode. The main options are
­discussed in the previous section, “Lesson Review Options.”
When you review your answer to an individual practice test question, a “References”
section is provided that lists where in the training kit you can find the information that relates
to that question and provides links to other sources of information. After you click Test Results
to score your entire practice test, you can click the Learning Plan tab to see a list of references
for every objective.

xxviii Introduction
How to Uninstall the Practice Tests
To uninstall the practice test software for a training kit, use the Program And Features option
in Windows Control Panel.

Acknowledgments
Although the authors’ names appear on the cover of this book, we are but one part of the
incredible team that has brought this—the first training kit for SharePoint administration
published by Microsoft Press—to fruition. Our technical reviewer is Bob Hogan, and the copy
editor is Becka McKay. Both of them went well beyond the call of duty, and their attention
to detail and to accuracy added tremendous value to this work. Christian Holdener is our
project manager. He coordinated the many reviews and, more important, kept the production
schedule moving despite the challenges we threw at him. Most important is the astounding
Karen Szall, our editor extraordinaire, with whom I’ve worked on many Microsoft Press titles.
She has earned herself a place in editorial heaven with this one. We the authors are deeply
grateful for the efforts of this talented group of colleagues. Dan also extends a big mahalo to
Wyatt, Keith, Maddie, Jack, and the team at AvePoint for their support and soul-nourishment
over the course of this project.

Support & Feedback

The following sections provide information on errata, book support, feedback, and contact
information.

Errata
We’ve made every effort to ensure the accuracy of this book and its companion content.
Any errors that have been reported since this book was published are listed on our Microsoft
Press site at oreilly.com:

http://go.microsoft.com/FWLink/?Linkid=223199

If you find an error that is not already listed, you can report it to us through the same page.
If you need additional support, email Microsoft Press Book Support at
[email protected].
Please note that product support for Microsoft software is not offered through the
addresses above.

Introduction xxix
 We Want to Hear from You
At Microsoft Press, your satisfaction is our top priority, and your feedback our most valuable
asset. Please tell us what you think of this book at:

http://www.microsoft.com/learning/booksurvey

The survey is short, and we read every one of your comments and ideas. Thanks in
­advance for your input!

Stay in Touch
Let us keep the conversation going! We are on Twitter: http://twitter.com/MicrosoftPress.

xxx Introduction
Preparing for the Exam
M icrosoft certification exams are a great way to build your resume and let the world know
about your level of expertise. Certification exams validate your on-the-job experience
and product knowledge. While there is no substitution for on-the-job experience, preparation
through study and hands-on practice can help you prepare for the exam. We recommend
that you round out your exam preparation plan by using a combination of available study
materials and courses. For example, you might use the Training Kit and another study guide
for your “at home” preparation, and take a Microsoft Official Curriculum course for the
classroom experience. Choose the combination that you think works best for you.

Introduction xxxi
CHAPTER 1

Creating a SharePoint 2010

Intranet

M icrosoft SharePoint Server 2010 offers a broad range of functionality that

­addresses a vast number of business collaboration scenarios. In this Training Kit,
you will learn to configure and support SharePoint Server 2010,
but of course you must begin at the ­beginning, and in this imp ortant
chapter you will learn what it takes to get ­SharePoint
Have you read
up and ­running—from ­preparing your ­infrastructure, to page xxxi?
­configuring ­related ­technologies and ­products, to ­deploying
It contains valuable
­SharePoint ­servers and farms using both out-of-the-box information regarding
­installation wizards and scripts, and finally to ­creating a simple the skills you need to
web application to serve as a corporate intranet. pass the exam.

Exam objectives in this chapter:

n Deploy new installations and upgrades.
n Configure SharePoint farms.
n Manage accounts and user roles.
n Manage web applications.
n Manage site collections.

Lessons in this chapter:

n Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 3
n Lesson 2: Install and Configure SharePoint 2010 21
n Lesson 3: Create a SharePoint Intranet 39

Before You Begin

To complete the lessons in this chapter, you must build your lab environment according to
the instructions found in the Introduction to this Training Kit.

CHAPTER 1 1
 REAL WORLD
Dan Holme

N othing could be easier than installing SharePoint Server 2010, right? Not so
fast. SharePoint 2010 relies on a deep, rich stack of technologies, including
64-bit versions of Windows Server, SQL Server, Internet Information Services
(IIS), the .NET Framework, and Windows PowerShell. There’s also a lengthy list
of ­software and configuration prerequisites. So although it’s possible to log on
as a ­domain administrator, pop the SharePoint Server 2010 DVD into a server, and
have a stand-alone installation of SharePoint up and running in less than an hour,
that doesn’t mean it’s a production-ready farm that meets all of the ­technical,
security, and business requirements of your SharePoint governance plan. Even
something as seemingly straightforward as SharePoint installation requires ­careful
preparation, consideration for least privilege and other security best practices,
and preferably a small investment in scripting and automation to ensure a smooth
and consistent installation in both test and production environments.

2 CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010
Microsoft SharePoint Server 2010 is a platform that relies on a wide range of other ­Microsoft
technologies. Before you can install SharePoint 2010, you must prepare your hardware
and software environment to support the dependencies and interactions with SharePoint
­products and technologies.

After this lesson, you will be able to:

n Identify the roles and topologies of SharePoint farms.
n Describe the infrastructure requirements for installing SharePoint 2010.
n Describe the client browser and application requirements for installing
­SharePoint 2010.
n Describe the interaction between SharePoint services, Active Directory,
and Microsoft SQL Server.
n Create the user accounts required to install SharePoint.
n Assign permissions and rights required to install SharePoint.
n Describe the software and configuration prerequisites for installing ­SharePoint 2010.
n Install the software prerequisites for SharePoint.

Estimated lesson time: 60 minutes

Prepare the Server Infrastructure

Before you can install SharePoint Server 2010, you must prepare one or more servers to host
the SharePoint farm. The following sections outline the considerations and requirements for
your SharePoint server infrastructure.

SharePoint Components and Topologies

A SharePoint implementation consists of numerous components, including web applications,
services, and databases. Web applications are websites with which users interact, such as your
corporate intranet. Services include the crawler that indexes content for search. All SharePoint
content and most SharePoint configurations are stored in databases hosted by one or more
instances of SQL Server.
These components can be hosted by one or more servers in a SharePoint farm. The
c­ onsolidation or distribution of components determines the farm’s topology. A single-server
farm runs both SQL Server and SharePoint—and all SharePoint components—on one server.
A single-server farm is often appropriate for training and development environments,
and may be used for sites with low utilization patterns, such as a small, remote office.
SQL Server performance is critical to the overall performance of a SharePoint farm. For that
reason, most organizations choose to run SQL Server on a server or cluster that is ­separate from

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 CHAPTER 1 3

 the servers running the SharePoint farm. A farm with a dedicated server ­running all SharePoint
components, separate from the SQL Server server or cluster, can support higher levels of utilization.
However, a SharePoint farm with only one server running SharePoint offers no
­redundancy for SharePoint itself. If the server fails, SharePoint sites are not available. For
this reason, it is a best practice to have at least two servers running SharePoint in a farm, and to
run ­components on both servers that are important to the operations of your ­organization,
based on the service-level agreements (SLAs) specified by your ­SharePoint ­governance plan.
For ­example, most organizations would want search services to be ­available in the event of the
failure of a single server. To achieve this service ­objective, you must ensure that a search ­query
component is installed on both servers in the ­SharePoint farm. Similarly, if it is ­important that
the intranet web application is available even if a ­server fails, you must ensure that the web
application is accessible on both servers in the farm.
By distributing and load balancing web applications, and by installing services on m
­ ultiple
servers, you also gain performance efficiencies. Load balancing distributes requests for
­content from web applications across servers. SharePoint automatically distributes requests to
services across the servers that run those services.

BEST PRACTICES SCALING OUT THE FARM

You might imagine that the best practice to scale out a farm is simply to add more ­servers
and to continue adding all services to each server. In fact, in larger and more complex
environments performance is optimized by dedicating servers to specific tasks. For
example, indexing content from numerous content sources is a performance-­intensive
task. It is therefore common for organizations to configure a SharePoint server with only
the search index component, allowing the server to focus its resources on this task.
As you scale out your farm, you should first ensure that services and web applications are
redundant to a level that meets the SLAs of your governance plan. You must also ­ensure
that performance is optimized. By balancing availability and ­performance, you can
­determine the correct topology for your SharePoint implementation.

Topology Terminology

I n previous versions of SharePoint, much documentation referred to web front-end

(WFE) servers, which hosted only user-facing web applications, and application
servers, which hosted services such as indexing. In SharePoint 2010, although you can
still create a topology in which user-facing web applications and SharePoint services run
on separate servers, the range of available topologies is much greater. It will therefore
be more common to mix services and web applications on the same server, with the
goal of optimizing availability and performance. However, old habits are hard to break,
and the SharePoint community, SharePoint resources and documentation, and even this
Training Kit are likely to continue referring to WFE and application servers.

4 CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet

Hardware and Software Requirements
SharePoint Server 2010 is a powerful platform that can scale to meet the most ­demanding
­enterprise scenarios. As such, the hardware requirements for SharePoint begin with a ­minimum
hardware base with at least four processor cores running 2.5 GHz and 8 GB of RAM.
SharePoint 2010 is a 64-bit platform, and therefore you must use 64-bit versions of the
operating system on each SharePoint server and for SQL Server. Windows Server 2008 with
Service Pack 2 (SP2) (64-bit) or Windows Server 2008 R2 (which is only 64-bit) is required.
SQL Server is the required database platform. SharePoint 2010 requires one of the ­following:
n SQL Server 2005 with Service Pack 3 (SP3) with Cumulative Update 3 (64-bit)
n SQL Server 2008 SP1 with Cumulative Update 2 or Cumulative Update 5 or later (64-bit)
n SQL Server 2008 R2 (which is only 64-bit)

MORE INFO MINIMUM HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

You can find the minimum hardware and software requirements for SharePoint Server 2010
in a Microsoft TechNet article at http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc262485.aspx.

It is highly recommended that you use the latest versions of the operating system and SQL
Server to take advantage of the maximum number of features. For example, you need SQL
Server 2008 R2 to take advantage of failover, PowerPivot, and Access Services reporting
features.

EXAM TIP
While it is recommended that you use the latest versions of the operating system
and SQL Server in a production environment, the exam may test your awareness of
­minimum supported versions as well.

If you are investing in infrastructure for Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007, ­invest
in 64-bit servers, operating systems, and software now to reduce the number of steps
required to migrate to SharePoint Server 2010. Migration from 32-bit to 64-bit platforms is
detailed in Chapter 9, “Deploying and Upgrading to SharePoint 2010.”
Microsoft allows you to install SharePoint on a client operating system to support
­development. The following are supported, with at least 4 GB of RAM:
n Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 (SP1) or later (64-bit)
n Windows 7 (64-bit)
Such platforms should not be used for production purposes.

MORE INFO PREPARING A DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

You can learn more about installing SharePoint on a Windows client in a Microsoft TechNet
article at http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=164557.

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 CHAPTER 1 5

 You can also access SharePoint through a hosted service such as one of the following
­offerings from Microsoft and its partners:
n Microsoft Online (http://www.microsoft.com/online) offers Office 365, a per-user
­subscription to SharePoint as well as to Microsoft Exchange and Microsoft Office
­LiveMeeting. Microsoft Online also offers dedicated SharePoint hosting to large
­customers.
n Microsoft will offer customers the ability to serve their public-facing web sites on
­hosted instances of SharePoint Server 2010. Details are not available at the time
of publication.
n Microsoft’s consumer and small business services, such as Windows Live, provide
some SharePoint functionality. For example, Windows Live SkyDrive allows users
to edit Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and OneNote documents in the browser, which is
­functionality provided by Office Web Apps.
You can mix and match internally hosted farms with externally hosted services to meet
varied business requirements.

SharePoint Licensing
SharePoint licensing is complex because of the number of products that are involved. It is
important that you consult with your licensing representative to ensure compliance for your
SharePoint implementation.
The most typical implementation involves purchasing licenses for Windows Server 2008 or
Windows Server 2008 R2 for each SharePoint server and a quantity of per-user client access
licenses (CALs) for each SharePoint user. SQL Server is typically installed with a per-processor
license, which does not require CALs for users.
If you are using SharePoint Foundation 2010, no additional license is required. If you are
using SharePoint Server 2010, however, you need a server product license for each SharePoint
server and CALs for each user. SharePoint Standard CAL provides access to the basic level
of SharePoint Server 2010 functionality including My Sites and search. With the Enterprise
CAL, which is an add-on to the Standard CAL, you can deploy features such as Excel Services
and Office Web Applications.

MORE INFO SHAREPOINT EDITIONS

You can learn more about and compare the features of SharePoint Foundation,
Standard, and Enterprise at http://sharepoint.microsoft.com/en-us/buy/Pages/
Editions-Comparison.aspx.

If you provide content to users or devices that cannot be counted—for example, if you
expose SharePoint content to the Internet for public access—you must use the SharePoint
server-only license model, in which you purchase licenses to SharePoint Server for Internet
Sites, Standard or Enterprise. If these servers provide content to both public and internal
­users, the licensing becomes more complex.

6 CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet

 MORE INFO SHAREPOINT LICENSING
You can learn more about SharePoint licensing at http://sharepoint.microsoft.com/en-us/
buy/Pages/Licensing-Details.aspx.

To minimize the cost of an enterprise SharePoint implementation, you should consider

implementing multiple SharePoint farms, each with a level of functionality that supports
the business requirements of users in different scenarios. For example, you might build
a ­SharePoint farm in your enterprise datacenter on which you host your enterprise search,
user My Sites, and Excel Services for business insights. This farm would support Enterprise
features of SharePoint, and would be licensed accordingly.
If you also have a remote office where users require support for collaboration
around ­documents and lists, you might build a farm running SharePoint Foundation
in that ­remote site, instead of hosting the users’ collaboration sites at the enterprise
­datacenter, across the wide area network (WAN) link. Users in the remote office would
continue to use the ­enterprise SharePoint farm for search and My Site functionality, but their
day-to-day ­collaboration would take place on the local SharePoint Foundation farm, which
would provide optimal performance and availability without increasing the cost of SharePoint
licensing.

Browser and Application Requirements

SharePoint 2010 generates most of its content using web-standard eXtensible Hypertext
Markup Language (XHTML) that renders well across most browsers. Microsoft categorizes
browsers into two categories—Level 1 and Level 2—to help customers align browser choice
with the desired level of functionality.
Level 1 browsers support ActiveX and all SharePoint functionality on user
and ­administrative pages, as shown in Table 1-1.

TABLE 1-1 Level 1 Browser Requirements

OPERATING SYSTEM BROWSER

n Windows XP n Internet Explorer 7 (32‑bit)

n Windows Vista n Internet Explorer 8 (32‑bit)
n Windows Server 2003 n Mozilla Firefox 3.5*
n Windows Server 2008
n Windows 7 n Internet Explorer 8 (32-bit)
n Windows Server 2008 R2 n Mozilla Firefox 3.5
*Note : Features provided by ActiveX controls, such as list Datasheet view and the control that displays
user presence information, do not work in Mozilla Firefox 3.5, which does not support ActiveX.

Level 2 browsers support basic read, write, and administrative activities, as shown in
Table 1-2.

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 CHAPTER 1 7

 TABLE 1-2 Level 2 Browser Requirements

OPERATING SYSTEM BROWSER

n Apple Mac OS X Snow Leopard n Apple Safari 4.x

n Mozilla Firefox 3.5
n Windows XP n Internet Explorer 7 (64-bit)
n Windows Vista n Internet Explorer 8 (64-bit)
n Windows Server 2003
n Windows Server 2008
n Windows 7 n Internet Explorer 8 (64-bit)
n Windows Server 2008 R2
n UNIX/Linux 8.1 n Mozilla Firefox 3.5

Other standards-based browsers work with SharePoint with the same limitations as Level 2
browsers. However, Microsoft has not done extensive testing on browsers other than those
listed, and does not support use of other browsers. If you want to use a browser other than
one listed in the preceding tables, you should perform testing to ensure that the browser
delivers an acceptable user experience.
For published sites, page designers can apply Web Content Management features to
control markup and styling so that published sites are compatible with additional browsers,
including Microsoft Internet Explorer 6. However, it is the page designer’s responsibility to
create pages that target the browsers that are designated for support. Page designers and
content authors must use a standards-based browser, such as Internet Explorer 8 or Firefox 3.5
to author content.
SharePoint compatible applications can provide a rich, client-side interaction with
­SharePoint. Microsoft Office 2003 and later are compatible with SharePoint.

MORE INFO PLANNING BROWSER SUPPORT

The following article provides additional details regarding browser support for SharePoint
2010: “Plan Browser Support” at http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc263526.aspx.

Prepare User Accounts for SharePoint Administration

and Services
SharePoint has close relationships with, and dependencies on, SQL Server and Active Directory.
Active Directory provides identity and authentication services. In other words, it stores
user accounts (user names and passwords) and validates account logons. These services
­support users logging on to SharePoint sites. They also support the accounts used by
­SharePoint and SQL services themselves.

8 CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet

 SQL Server stores almost all of the configuration and content of a SharePoint farm. SQL
Server services, like all Windows services, run using an identity and log on with credentials
consisting of a user name and password.
SharePoint services also run with Active Directory credentials. The credentials are used by
SharePoint to access data in SQL Server. These accounts must have SQL logins so that SQL can
authorize the access. These SQL logins are created automatically by SharePoint during setup
and the creation of web applications.
To support the administration and services of SQL and SharePoint, you must create
­identities in Active Directory, and you must ensure that appropriate permissions have been
granted. It is important that you adhere to the security practice of least privilege, in which
an account is given only the permissions required to perform its tasks. The following accounts
enable a least-privilege implementation of SharePoint in a typical environment:
n SQL Server administrator account: SQL_Admin
n SQL Server service account: SQL_Service
n SharePoint setup user and administrator account: SP_Admin
n SharePoint farm account: SP_Farm
n Web and service application pool account(s): SP_WebApps and SP_ServiceApps
n Search indexer (crawler) account: SP_Crawl
n User profile synchronization account: SP_UserSync
The following sections provide detail about each of these accounts. Because these
­accounts are privileged, they should be dedicated for the indicated purpose, and should not
be used for any other purpose in the enterprise.

SQL Server Administrator Account: SQL_Admin

To install SQL Server, an identity must be a member of the local Administrators group on the
server that will host SQL Server. It is recommended that you use a unique account to install
SQL Server instead of using your own account. This allows for future growth and change in
the enterprise—when you get promoted or leave the organization, your account is not tied to
the ownership of SQL Server or its databases. For example, you can create an account named
SQL_Admin and add it to the local Administrators group of the server. Log on as SQL_Admin
and install SQL Server. The SQL_Admin account will thus become the first administrator of the
SQL Server instance, and the owner of several components and databases of SQL Server.
During or after the installation, you can specify additional administrators of SQL Server. At that
time, add your account as an additional SQL Server administrator. You thus gain ­administrative
privileges to SQL Server without registering your account as the owner of the SQL Server instance.

SQL Server Service Account: SQL_Service

SQL Server services use identities, or accounts. Like most Windows services, you can
­configure SQL Server services to use special identities such as System, Network Service, or Local
Service, but it is a highly recommended best practice to use a domain user account. If SQL Server is

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 CHAPTER 1 9

 running on a different server than SharePoint, you are required to use a domain account. The SQL
Server service account is used as the identity for the MSSQLSERVER and ­SQLSERVERAGENT
services. For example, create an account named SQL_Service. During ­installation of SQL Server,
configure two services, MSSQLSERVER and SQLSERVERAGENT, to log on as SQL_Service.

SharePoint Administrator and Setup User Account: SP_Admin

The setup user account—for example, SP_Admin—is used by a human being to install
and configure SharePoint.
During setup and configuration, SharePoint creates SQL databases and logins,
and ­modifies the server itself (for example, by creating local groups). SharePoint setup
and ­configuration use the credentials of SP_Admin to perform such tasks, so SP_Admin must
be a domain user account that has been assigned the securityadmin and dbcreator roles on
the SQL server. The account must also be a member of the local Administrators group of any
server that will run SharePoint.
SP_Admin is the only account for which a SQL login must be manually created, and to
which SQL roles must be assigned. During installation of SharePoint, the credentials of ­
SP_Admin are used by the setup routines to automatically create SQL logins for—and to
­assign roles to—other accounts, such as SP_Farm.

SharePoint Farm Service Account: SP_Farm

During installation and configuration, the setup user, SP_Admin, assigns an account to the
SharePoint farm. This account—for example, SP_Farm—is used by the Central ­Administration
site’s application pool and as the identity for the Timer service. It must be a domain user ­account.
The permissions required by SP_Farm are assigned automatically during farm setup by
the SharePoint Products Configuration Wizard. Specifically, the account is given a SQL Server
login that is assigned the dbcreator and securityadmin fixed server roles. The account is also
associated with the dbo login or assigned the db_owner fixed database role for all SharePoint
databases in the farm. When additional servers are added to a farm, SP_Farm is automatically
given the permissions it requires on those servers.
Both the SP_Admin and SP_Farm accounts are highly privileged. SP_Admin is used by
a ­human being to install SharePoint, configure the farm, and add servers to or remove ­servers
from the farm. On a day-to-day basis, SP_Farm acts as the service account for the farm,
­supporting Central Administration, timer jobs, and other components.

Web and Service Application Pool Accounts: SP_WebApps

and SP_ServiceApps
Each web application runs in an application pool. The application pool identity is a domain
user account that is functionally equivalent to a service account, with permissions to access
the content database for the web application on the SQL Server. Service applications
and services, such as Search or the Office Web Applications, also use domain user identities
for application pool and service accounts.

10 CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet

 When you assign an account to a web application, service, or service application, ­SharePoint
2010 automatically grants the account the permissions it needs. For example, when you assign
an account as the default crawl account, which is used to index SharePoint content for search,
SharePoint automatically grants the account permission to read all content in all sites.
You can use one or more accounts for web applications, service applications, and ­services
based on your requirements for manageability and security. By using unique accounts
for each application and service, you can create a least-privileged environment in which
each application or service account has only the permissions required for that component.
­Additionally, you can more easily audit and troubleshoot because logs will clearly identify the
account—and therefore the service—in question.
By using a single account for all applications and services, you eliminate the need to
­ anage multiple accounts. However, the account will have the cumulative permissions
m
­required for all applications and services, which means that any one application or service
process will run with more permissions than it needs. And it will become more difficult to
audit and troubleshoot certain scenarios, because logs will identify a single account and you
cannot directly associate that account with a specific service or application.
In many products, it is difficult to manage service accounts because of password ­synchronization.
When a service account’s password is changed in Active Directory, you must manually update the
logon information for the service on each system on which the service is installed.
SharePoint 2010 introduces managed accounts, a feature that reduces the management
overhead for service accounts. A managed account is a domain user account that is ­registered
with SharePoint and assigned to one or more web applications, service applications, or
­services. When you change the password of a managed account, SharePoint ­automatically
updates the logon information of the associated components. Additionally, SharePoint
can automatically manage password changes so that changes are made just prior to the
­expiration of the password based on domain password policy.
As a result, managing service accounts for SharePoint 2010 is significantly easier than in
previous versions of SharePoint, or in other products. By reducing the management burden
of service accounts, SharePoint 2010 makes it possible for you to use one account per service
or application. You will learn more about managed accounts in Chapter 9.
In this Training Kit, a single account, SP_ServiceApps, will be used for most service
­ pplications, and another account, SP_WebApps, will be used as the application pool identity
a
for user-facing web applications. In a production environment, you should define accounts
based on your requirements for security and manageability, with the understanding that
defining unique accounts for each service and web application is a best practice.

Search Indexer (Crawler) Account: SP_Crawl

The search crawler account is used to index content. It is automatically given permissions to
read all SharePoint content. It should be a unique account that cannot access content at any
higher level. You must manually give it permission to read any other content source that you
configure it to index, such as shared folders on servers.

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 CHAPTER 1 11

 User Profile Synchronization Account: SP_UserSync
SharePoint user profile synchronization uses an account to synchronize profile attributes
between Active Directory and SharePoint. This account will be detailed in Chapter 6,
“­Configuring User Profiles and Social Networking.”

Install SharePoint Prerequisites

You must apply a long list of software and configuration prerequisites before you install
SharePoint. The following are required:
n Microsoft SQL Server
n The Web Server (IIS) server role
n The Application Server server role
n Hotfix for Microsoft Windows (KB976394 for Windows Server 2008, KB976462 for
­Windows Server 2008 R2)
n Windows Identity Foundation (KB974405)
n Microsoft Sync Framework Runtime v1.0 (x64)
n Microsoft Chart Controls for Microsoft .NET Framework 3.5
n Microsoft Filter Pack 2.0
n Microsoft SQL Server 2008 Analysis Services ADOMD.NET
n Microsoft Server Speech Platform Runtime (x64)
n Windows PowerShell 2.0 (for Windows Server 2008)
n Microsoft Server Speech Recognition Language (Optional component supports
­phonetic search)
n Microsoft SQL Server 2008 R2 Reporting Services (SSRS) Add-in for SharePoint
­Technologies (Optional component supports reporting services integration and Access
Web services reporting)
The following sections will equip you to install these prerequisites. Details and links to all
prerequisites can be found in the article “Hardware and software requirements (SharePoint
Server 2010)” at http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc262485.aspx.

Install SQL Server

You must install one of the versions of SQL Server discussed earlier in this lesson before
you can ­install other SharePoint prerequisites. The Lab Environment Build Guide on the
­companion media provides instructions for preparing the lab environment for the practices
in this ­Training Kit. The instructions include procedures for installing SQL Server. To install
SQL Server in a production environment, you must follow the guidance in the SQL Server
­documentation. See Microsoft SQL Server 2008 Administrator’s Pocket Consultant, Second
Edition by William R. Stanek for more information.

12 CHAPTER 1 Creating a SharePoint 2010 Intranet

Microsoft SharePoint 2010 Products Preparation Tool
Microsoft SharePoint 2010 Products Preparation Tool (Preparation Tool), also known as the
prerequisite installer, can download and install all of the prerequisites for you automatically.
To run the Preparation Tool, log on as the setup user account—for example, SP_Admin.
The setup user account is described earlier in this lesson. Then, launch the tool from the Install
Software Prerequisites link on the SharePoint Server 2010 Start page (default.hta), shown in
Figure 1-1, or launch the tool directly by starting PrerequisiteInstaller.exe from the root of the
installation media.
The Preparation Tool scans for each prerequisite. If a prerequisite is not found, the tool
downloads, installs, and configures the prerequisite.

FIGURE 1-1 SharePoint Server 2010 Start page

In the event of an error—for example, if downloading a prerequisite fails—the tool stops

and produces an error message that indicates which prerequisite failed. You can find the
details of the failure in the error log, which is located in the %TEMP% folder, or by clicking
the Review The Log File link in the wizard. The tool displays a link to the log. After you have
remedied the problem, rerun the tool. Repeat the process until all prerequisites have been
installed and configured successfully.
Two prerequisites are optional: Microsoft Server Speech Recognition Language and
­Microsoft SQL Server 2008 R2 Reporting Services (SSRS) Add-in for SharePoint Technologies.
If the Preparation Tool cannot find or install these prerequisites, it generates an error, but you
can continue to the next step in installing SharePoint Server 2010.

Lesson 1: Prepare for SharePoint 2010 CHAPTER 1 13

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
SCOTLAND. Cost of Erection Cost of Rent of Cottages. &c. Proportion of Rent
Cottages, &c. Repairs. per Annum. paid by Labourer to
his total
Expenditure.
Aberdeen Houses for 6 families, 1l. per year Garret or cellar, 25s. to From 8 to 14 per cent.
250l. to 300l. 30s.; room and closet
50s. to 80s.; two rooms,
5l.; ditto and closet, 6l.;
cottages, &c., 4l. to 6l.
Aberdour One or two rooms. 1l. to About 4½ per cent.
2l.; cottage, 2l. to 3l.
Arbroath 60l. to 80l. 2 per cent. 3l. to 6l.; garrets, 20s. to From 11 to 16½ per
30s. cent.
Alloa Houses for 3 families, One apartment, 1l. to 3l.; From 10 to 12½ per
200l. to 300l.; two ditto, 3l. to 5l.; 1l. cent.
Cottage, 20l. to 30l. 10s. to 3l. cottage.
Andrews, St. 1l. to 1l. 15s. each room. About 8¼ per cent.
Ayr About 30l. 1l. 10s. to 4l. About 8¼ per cent.
Carluke Tenement for 2 ½ per One room and closet, 50s.; From 5 to 12½ per
families, 60l. to cent. one room and kitchen, cent.
70l. 70s. to 80s.
Coldstream 40l. 2l. 10s. to 3l. About 10 per cent.
Cupar, Fife, 30l. 1l. 10s. to 2l. 10s. About 10 per cent.
&c.
Douglas 1l. 10s. to 2l.
Dundee 60l. to 80l. 5 per cent. One room, 2l. to 2l. 10s.; From 6¼ to 21¼ per
two rooms, 3l. 10s. to 5l. cent.
Dunfermline 80l. to 90l. 1l. 10s. to 6l. From 10 to 11 per cent.
Earls Ferry 15l. to 30l. 1l. to 2l. About 5 per cent.
Elgin 1l. to 5l. From 12½ to 14 per
cent.
Cowgate 2l. to 4l.
Edinburgh 1l. to 5l. 4s.; 2l. to 4l. for From 6 to 25 per cent.
one apartment; one
room and kitchen, 3l. to
5l.
Forfar 70l. to 110l. 1 per cent. Two rooms, 2l. 10s.; ditto From 12½ to 14 per
and closet, 3l. 15s. cent.
Forres 1l. 10s. to 5l. About 12½ per cent.
Fraizerburgh 2l. to 3l. From 16½ to 20 per
cent.
Glasgow Tenements for 16 One room, 2l.; room and From 7½ to 33 per
families, 800l. to kitchen, 3l. to 7l. two cent.
1200l., room and rooms and kitchen, 6l. to
kitchen for each. 9l.
Haddington 1l. to 4l. 10s. About 5 per cent.
Hoddon 10l. to 25l. 2½ to 6 About 2l. From 8 to 10 per cent.
per cent.
Inverary 10s. to 5l. From 10 to 20 per
cent.
Inverkeithing 2l. to 3l. From 6½ to 14 per
cent.
Inverness 30l. to 80l. From 1l. to 3l. a room. About 10 per cent.
Irvine 30l. to 40l. 2l. to 3l. About 10 per cent.
Kirkcaldy Two rooms, 40l. One room, 30s. to 40s.; From 6 to 10 per cent.
two rooms, 3l.
Kirkwall 50l. to 60l. 1l. to 2l. for one room. From 6 to 16 per cent.
Lanark 40l. to 50l., for two 2l. each apartment. About 10 per cent.
families.
Leith 2l. 10s. to 6l.
Lesmahagow 50l. to 60l. 1 per cent. 2l. to 3l.; attics, from 26s. From 14 to 16½ per
to 32s. 6d. cent.
Lillisheaf 1l. to 3l. About 10 per cent.
Lochmaben 20l. to 50l. 1l. 10s. to 3l. From 8 to 16½ per
cent.
Melrose 60l. to 80l. 4l. About 16½ per cent.
Montrose 30l. to 40l. 1l. 10s. to 2l. About 10 per cent.
Portobello 2l. 12s. for a room. About 10 per cent.
Queensferry 30l. 1¾ per 1l. to 1l. 10s. From 4 to 5 per cent.
cent.
Renfrew Tenement of four per cent. 6l.; 2l. to 3l. 10s. About 14 per cent.
houses, 300l.
Selkirk 60l. to 70l., two 2l. 10s. From 10 to 12½ per
apartments. cent.
Stewarton House for two or 2l. to 3l. From 6½ to 7½ per
three labourers, cent.
100l. to 120l.
Tain 10l. to 20l. 10s. to 3l. About 5 per cent.
Wigtown 15l. 1l. 10s. to 2l. About 7½ per cent.
PLANS OF COTTAGES ERECTED AT EGERTON FOR H. & E.
ASHWORTH.
ELEVATION AND PLANS OF HOUSES IN GREAT RUSSELL
STREET,

BIRMINGHAM
GROUND PLAN OF TWO NEW COURTS OF HOUSES IN
BRADFORD STREET, BIRMINGHAM
ELEVATIONS OF HOUSES, IN BRADFORD STREET, BIRMINGHAM.
 12.—Examination of the Rev. Thomas Whateley, Cookham, Berks,
on Cottage Allotments, and the keeping of Pigs by Cottagers.
It appears that a great part of the land of your parish is common, and that a portion of the population
borders upon the common. What is the state of that population as compared with that which is too far
removed from the commons to enjoy any of their privileges?—The persons who live in the immediate
neighbourhood of the commons are evidently much poorer than those who live at a distance.
To what do you attribute this?—I attribute it to their depending upon a precarious and uncertain
income; and I am sure, from all the observation I have been able to make, that a poor man’s best
subsistence will always depend upon constant work and good wages, and that he never works for so bad
a master as when he works for himself. And all employments, such as attending sheep, geese, &c.,
besides the precarious nature of the return made by them, usually impair his habits of steady and patient
industry, and frequently give him a turn for poaching and pilfering, and engender other irregular and
demoralizing habits.
But may not the children of the cottager, while he is engaged in steady and patient industry, be
usefully and profitably employed in taking care of a pig or geese on the common?—No. The reason which
applies against the father doing so, namely, the bad desultory habits engendered, applies with greater
force against the children doing so. If they are old enough to be able to attend to these things, they are
usually old enough to be employed in some rural occupation for which wages would be earned. Many
mistakes are prevalent with respect to the profits from keeping cows, sheep, geese, pigs, &c., for I do not
believe that any of these are really profitable; and though I am glad to see a pig as an appendage to a
cottage (if the cottager’s employer has no reason to be sorry), because the pig serves as a sort of savings
bank to the labourer; for if the labourer had not the animal, he would not put by, and out of his reach,
from day to day, the money which the pig costs him in fatting; yet it is notorious that a labouring man
pays more dearly for his bacon than he would do if he purchased it ready prepared to his hand.[54] Nor
would he be the better clothed or cheaper shod if he took the operation of the Manchester weaver or the
Nottingham shoemaker into his own hands.
But may not a labourer attend to the management of pigs or cows after the hours of work?—I think
not, because a good labourer usually works by the great, and has done as much as his strength will allow
when he returns home; and because nothing is gained by feeding cattle upon commons, where the cattle
have nothing else to depend upon. The very worst master a poor man can work for is himself.
You say that the reason which applies against the father attending to pigs, geese, &c., on commons,
applies equally against the children being so, i. e., the idle habits engendered; and that if they are old
enough to be able to attend to these things, they are usually old enough to be employed in some rural
occupation, for which wages would be earned. Now would not the children be employed by farmers in
the same sort of labour, namely, in looking after cattle; and if so, why is it that the care of cattle on the
common for the other is worse or more demoralizing than the care of the same sort of things for the
farmer?—I conceive that I have answered this question before. If a farmer sends his pigs or other cattle
into open fields or commons, and requires the assistance of a child to watch them, they are turned out
only for a change, but are never in this part of the country kept upon the commons.
Do you think allotments of land to the labourer beneficial; and if so, what quantity may be usefully
occupied by him?—I do not think allotments of land to the poor beneficial. I had rather see the
allotments gathered into one large one, a farm, and the labouring man employed at good wages, by a
superintendent managing the whole at his own risk and for his own interest, in the share to which his
undivided and greater attention and anxiety justly entitle him, that is, by a thriving farmer. The poor
man must be a poor master, and he had better serve a rich one.
What do you believe would be the consequence of too large allotments of land being made to the
labourers?—That the poor man could not cultivate it. The wealth of his employer is the poor man’s
safeguard against want. I approve of the practice of a benevolent farmer in my parish, who is
accustomed to give to his labourers a headland of his field as a bonus to industry. He says he will make it
worth the while of his labourers to be honest and diligent towards him, by letting them feel that they will
have a suitable return from him. If what are called “ample allotments” are given, it appears to me to be a
sort of wholesale almsgiving, attended with more than the usual mischiefs attendant upon most
almsgiving. The orchard and garden before me might, if cut up into allotments, serve for six families of
young labourers. It may be all very well to say, “Take these, my good men, and be happy;” but when, in
the progress of population, there arises four times six families to be fed from the same soil, where will
then be the happiness of the allotments? What, I submit, are small farms but ample allotments, and
what, when stripped of romance, is found by experience to be the superior condition and power of
production of the small farmers? Are they not, even where they farm their own lands, almost universally
failing (like the small manufacturers against the large ones) in competition before the more scientific
management, economy of labour, and more powerful application of capital of the large farmer. What is
all Ireland but a country of cottage allotments; and what is there in that theatre of disorder and
wretchedness that should induce the benevolent (or those who may have in their eyes the immediate
temptation of Irish rents) to make trial of any such system in England? Are the cottiers who possess the
fee-simple, the small freeholders of Ireland, in a superior condition by virtue of their allotments?—Many
of the promoters of allotments doubtless intend well, and act upon the evidence of immediate benefits
and satisfaction derived from them; so, probably, did the original promoters of the bread-money, scales,
and the allowance system, labour rates, and the train of corrupting palliatives?
Have you had an opportunity of observing experiments in what is termed spade husbandry?—I have
never seen spade husbandry; but I should wish to see it universally adopted, if the adoption of it would
add wealth to the farmer, for in that case it could not fail to benefit the labourer.
It is said that farmers ought to take the single agricultural labourers into their houses, and preside at
the labourers’ tables as formerly; what is your opinion as to the practicability of recurring to the old
system?—Those who say so are very ill formed upon the subject. Farmers, who were (in manners,
wealth, and education) but very little better than their own labourers, might formerly, with comfort to
themselves and advantage to their men, receive their carters into their family, and dine at their table
with them; but the habits of those times are gone for ever.
Do you think the enclosures of such parishes as Cookham beneficial to the poor?—Yes I do, inasmuch
as they extend the demand for the poor man’s only marketable commodity—his labour.
[Every position stated in this examination with relation to the practical operation of the theory of
small farm allotments, and of the pig and cow theories, was corroborated by a large mass of evidence
from every part of the country, where they had been, for any length of time, in operation.—E. C.]
 13.—Arrangement of Public Walks in Towns; Plan of the Arboretum
at Derby, laid out by J. C. Loudon, Esq.
When it appeared that a general botanic garden would be too expensive, both to create and to keep up;
that a mere composition of trees and shrubs with turf, in the manner of a common pleasure-ground,
would become insipid after being seen two or three times; and, in short, that the most suitable kind of
public garden, for all the circumstances included in the above data, was an arboretum, or collection of
trees and shrubs, foreign and indigenous, which would endure the open air in the climate of Derby, with
the names placed to each. Such a collection will have all the ordinary beauties of a pleasure-ground
viewed as a whole; and yet, from no tree or shrub occurring twice in the whole collection, and from the
name of every tree and shrub being placed against it, an inducement is held out for those who walk in
the garden to take an interest in the name and history of each species, its uses in this country or in other
countries, its appearance at different seasons of the year, and the various associations connected with it.
 A similar interest might no doubt have been created by a collection of herbaceous plants; but this
collection, to be effective in such a space of ground, must have amounted to at least 5000 species; and to
form such a collection, and keep it up, would have been much more expensive than forming the most
complete collection of trees and shrubs that can at present be made in Britain. It is further to be
observed respecting a collection of herbaceous plants, that it would have presented no beauty or interest
whatever during the winter season; whereas, among trees and shrubs, there are all the evergreen kinds,
which are more beautiful in winter than in summer; while the deciduous kinds, at that season, show an
endless variety in the ramification of their branches and spray, the colour of their bark, and the colour
and form of their buds. Add also, that trees and shrubs, and especially evergreens, give shelter and
encouragement to singing-birds, to which herbaceous plants offer little or no shelter or food.
There are yet other arguments in favour of trees and shrubs for a garden of recreation, which are
worth notice. Herbaceous plants are low, small, and to have any effect must be numerous; while to
acquire their names, and look into their beauties, persons walking in the garden must stand still, and
stoop down, which, when repeated several times, would soon, instead of a recreation, become very
fatiguing. Now trees and shrubs are large objects, and there is scarcely one of them the beauty of which
may not be seen and enjoyed by the spectator while he is walking past it, and without standing still at all.
A glance at the plan, fig. 2, in p. 6, will show that I have provided as great an extent of gravel-walk as
the space would admit of; the total length, including the walk round the flower-garden, exceeding a mile.
There is a straight broad walk in the centre, as a main feature from the principal entrance; an
intersecting broad and straight walk to form a centre to the garden, and to constitute a point of radiation
to all the other walks; and there is a winding walk surrounding the whole. As a straight walk without a
terminating object is felt to be deficient in meaning, a statute on a pedestal is proposed for the radiating
centre i. in fig. 2; a pedestal with a vase, urn, or other object, for the second circle in the straight walk,
fig. 2, k; while the pavilions fig. 3, form terminating objects to the broad cross walk.
As a terminal object gives meaning to a straight walk leading to it, so it is only by creating artificial
obstructions that meaning can be given to a winding walk over a flat surface. These obstructions may
either be inequalities in the ground, or the occurrence of trees or shrubs in the line which the walk would
otherwise have taken, so as to force it to bend out of that line. Both these resources have been employed
in laying down the direction of the surrounding walk, though its deviation from a straight line has chiefly
been made in conformity with the varying position of the trees in the belt already existing. This belt, and
also the trees in the flower-garden, and in other parts of the plan, which were there previously to
commencing operations, and which are left conformably to Mr. Strutt’s instructions, are shown in the
plan, fig. 4, p. 75. The point of junction of one walk with another is always noticeable in an artistical
point of view, and affords an excuse for putting down sculptural or other ornamental objects at these
points.
 14.—Boards of Health:—Report on the labours of the “Conseil de
Salubrité” of Paris, from 1829 to 1839. By M. Trebuchet.
Before the revolution of 1789, M. Lenoir, one of the last lieutenants of police of that period, and one of
those who most particularly occupied themselves with the health of the city of Paris, consulted on
questions of health and salubrity two men, Pia and Cadet de Vaux, both of them apothecaries; the last
had the title of inspector-general: it was to him that all matters of health were habitually referred. Later,
on the institution of the prefect of police, in whose hands was vested all that related to salubrity and the
public health, this magistrate consulted sometimes a physician, sometimes a chemist, sometimes a
veterinary surgeon, according to the nature of the case upon which he had to determine.
This state of things presented inconveniences so much the more serious that the number of affairs
increasing every day, demanded more unity in the reports, and more activity in the labours. It was then
that the necessity was felt of establishing a permanent council. Such was the origin of the “Conseil de
Salubrité,” instituted by the prefect of police, Dubois, the 6th of July, 1802. It was composed of four
members,—Deyeux, Parmentier, Huzard, senior, and Cadet-Gassicourt. In 1803, M. Thouret was called
to the council; afterwards, in 1807, Leroux and Dupuytren; in 1810, M. Pariset replaced M. Thouret, and
it was at the same period that the nomination of Doctor Petit took place. From that time the men of the
greatest consideration sought to have a part in the labours of the “Conseil de Salubrité.” Thus we see
enter successively M. d’Arcet in 1813; M. Marc in 1815; M. Berard in 1817; the engineer Girard, and
Huzard, junior, in 1819; Pelletier and Juge in 1821; M. Gautier de Claubry and M. Parent Duchâtelet in
1825; MM. Adelon, Andral, junior, Barruel, and Labarraque, in 1828; Doctor Esquirol in 1829. The
greater part of these men no longer exist. Deyeux, Parmentier, Huzard, senior, Cadet-Gassicourt,
Thouret. Leroux, Dupuytren, Marc, Girard, Parent-Duchâtelet, Barruel, Esquirol, are no longer there to
direct the labours of the council, to contribute their long experience and indefatigable activity; but their
labours remain to us, and we can at least draw from them useful instructions, and still enlighten
ourselves by their valuable opinions.
Thus, and with the view to preserve these precious traditions, which maintain in the council an unity
of design so remarkable, the administration decided from the commencement that their general reports
should be printed.
This publication, which stopped in 1828, and of which the continuance was greatly desired, has just
been resumed by the orders of M. Gabriel Delessert, prefect of police.
This collection, which is of such general interest, embraces therefore a period of nearly forty years.
Perhaps we are to congratulate ourselves on the delay which has taken place in the publication of
these reports. In going over these ten years it becomes more easy to follow the council in the progressive
march of their labours, to perceive that they were all based upon a uniform and constant jurisprudence;
that they had no other end than the preservation of the public health, the well-devised interest of
property and industry. On this account we have always thought that besides the annual reports,
extremely useful in other respects, but confined within too narrow a circle, it would be well to publish
every ten years a summary, which, retracing what had been done in that long period, should offer a wide
field of study both to governors and governed.
Since 1829 the reports addressed to the administration, on the numerous questions which it
submitted to the council, amount to 4431. But that of which there remains no trace are the experiments,
often even the preliminary reports, the trips, and sometimes the journeys, which each of these reports
rendered necessary; labours of which the report is only a summary, and which impart such great
authority to the decisions of the council.
These decisions relate to three great divisions,—health, salubrity, and industry. Under health are
classed, among other things, the researches on the adulteration of food, on the vessels used in its
preparation, on the precautions to be taken with respect to the vessels and utensils of copper, regard
being had to the uses for which they are employed; the experiments on the adulteration of salts, on the
adulteration of bread and of flour by different substances, on the poisonous substances employed to
colour bonbons, liqueurs, &c.; the examination of the methods employed in preparing pork; the
examination of the water used for drink; the adulteration of the flours of linseed and mustard; the use of
meat of animals who had died of disease; the researches into the salubrity of dwellings. The head of
salubrity comprises the anatomical theatres, their construction, the means of remedying the causes of
the unhealthiness which these establishments present; the discharge of sulphurous waters from the
public baths, the utility of street fountains, the inspection of barracks, and the sanitary measures to
which they should be subject; the improvements to be made in the fires of the establishments which
employ coals; the arrangements to be made for the deposit of filth in the rural districts; the purification
of sewers; the supply of water for domestic and industrial purposes; the steps to be taken in
exhumations; the examination of different contrivances to empty privies, the ameliorations to be
introduced into this portion of service; the wholesomeness of the markets, the inspection of prisons. The
reports which relate to industry principally treat of the construction of slaughter-houses; the
condensation of the gas and vapours resulting from the refining of metals; the fabrication, preservation,
and sale of fulminating and lucifer matches; the precautions to be taken in the construction of
fulminating powder-mills, and in the manipulation of the substances employed there; the measures to
be taken for the conveyance of the fulminate of mercury; the researches into the employment of
bitumens, and the conditions to be prescribed to the makers; the making wax-candles; the conditions to
be imposed on cat-gut factories; the researches on the fires of wash-houses, and on the necessity of
decomposing the soapy water to prevent putrefaction; the sanitary measures applicable to white lead
manufactories, and the researches on the diseases of the workmen; the propositions of classification for
different trades, such as the silk-hat factories, the forges, the places for making and keeping ether; and
the beating of carpets.
Thus health, salubrity, industry, offer to the “Conseil de Salubrité” a vast field of researches and
investigations, and we may affirm that there is no question relating to these three great departments of
the administration which they have not profoundly meditated, and in part resolved. If now we turn to
other subjects we still find important labours which touch in several points on the different matters of
which we have just spoken, but which have not, like them, a special and clearly-defined character: such
are the reports on epidemics and small-pox; the measures to be taken to prevent or combat them; the
epizooties that have prevailed at different epochs among several species of animals, and particularly
among milking-cows; the sale of horses with glanders, and the regulations to which they should be
subject, as well as other animals seized with contagious diseases; the measures to be taken against mad
dogs, and the precautions in case of bites from these animals; the modelling, examination, and
embalming of corpses; the aids to be afforded to the drowned and suffocated; the measures to be taken
to ascertain the number of these accidents as well as of suicides; the compilation of a new nosographic
table of the diseases which cause death; the measures to be taken to prevent fires in theatres, &c. &c.
Such is a general view of the subjects upon which the council has been called to give their opinions. It
now remains to describe the circumstances which demanded them, and the results they have produced.
One of the objects which more especially engaged the care of the council was that of bread. It is the
thing, it is true, which most directly interests the people. The quality of bread may be deteriorated by
various ingredients, but no one could have foreseen that noxious substances would be employed with the
view, ostensibly at least, of improving it. Nevertheless the correctional tribunal of Brussels was called
upon some years since to try some bakers brought before it under a charge of selling bread adulterated
with noxious substances. On the occasion of this trial the prefect of police inquired of the council if, as
these bakers alleged in their defence, a small quantity of a substance which they called blue alum, put
into the yeast, had the property of rendering the bread whiter and less heavy.
In order to give their opinion, the council first examined what was the substance called by the name of
blue alum. Some designate by this name the sulphate of copper, but most people mean by blue alum the
rock alum, (sulphate of alumina and potass,) because this salt in the lump has a bluish tinge, and, as
with all the sulphates, the sulphate of which the base is alumina is the only one which bears the name of
alum, it is to be presumed that it is this salt, or rock alum, which goes under the name of blue alum, and
not the sulphate of copper which is known in commerce by the name of blue vitriol.
It had been long known that alum, by the action of heat equal to that of a baker’s oven, swells,
increases in volume, and becomes a porous mass, light and very white, which is no longer alum, but a
mixture of a great deal of insoluble sub-sulphate with a small quantity of alum, a substance astringent,
and not poisonous. It is probable that this property, known to some bakers, determined them to add to
bread made of certain flour a little of this alum, which, without being injurious to the health, really made
the bread whiter, at the same time that the crust became brown at a less heat.
As to the employment of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), it is only by a gross error that it could be
supposed capable of making bread white. Nevertheless a baker of the town of Gand was prosecuted for
putting this poisonous salt into his bread. The commission appointed to examine the bread not having
been able to discover any trace of copper, mixed a kilogram of flour, to which was added twenty-four
grains of sulphate of copper, and they affirmed that it was impossible to detect in the bread the least
trace of the salt they had introduced.
After such an assertion it became interesting to make some researches on the subject. In consequence,
the delegates of the council who were entrusted with the inquiry, had four loaves of a kilogram of flour
made under their eyes: in one of these loaves was put twelve grains of sulphate of copper, in another
eight grains, in a third four grains, and but two grains in the fourth. These loaves rose ill, and although
the flour with which they were made produced bread very beautiful and white, the four loaves were so
heavy as scarcely to present any cavities. The loaf No. 1 had a green disagreeable colour; the loaf No. 2
was in like manner green, but of a less deep colour than the preceding; No. 3 was also greenish; and No.
4, though colourless, could not support a comparison with the bread made from the same flour pure.
All these loaves were burnt separately in porcelain crucibles to complete ashes. Those of the loaf No. 1
were a beautiful azure blue; those of No. 2 a clearer sky-blue; those of No. 3 had a blue tint of a lighter
hue; and those of No. 4 were so slightly coloured that it would have been impossible to infer that they
contained copper. But all these ashes, when submitted to the action of sulphuric acid diluted with water,
were dissolved, and when tested separately by hydrosulphuric acid, produced black precipitates of
sulphuret of copper, which precipitates, tested separately in their turn by concentrated nitric acid,
furnished each a quantity of nitrate of copper, equal, within a few fractions, to the sulphate added to
each of the four loaves.
It results, therefore, from the preceding experiments which have been made with the greatest care,
1. That the sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) cannot be used in making bread for the purpose of
rendering it lighter or whiter, because it prevents its rising, and gives it a disagreeable colour;
2. That by reducing it to ashes, and employing suitable means, almost all the salt of copper added to
the bread may be collected again.
We should exceed the bounds of this Article if we were to re-produce the numerous reports on the
bread or flour submitted to the analysis of the council, and especially on the bread and flour destined for
the use of prisons, on mixed flour, and on the quality of bread prepared from flour mixed with starch.
The council after examining this bread remarked, that it was not disagreeable to the taste, nor liable to
injure the health. However, they were not able to pronounce on its nutritive qualities. It has therefore
been recommended that if bread made of flour so mixed was offered for sale, it should have a peculiar
form, in order that the public should know what is the nature of the food which is sold to them. The
same conclusions have been come to with respect to the sale of bread made of flour mixed with a seventh
of the flour of rice. This bread is, according to the council, savoury and it keeps well, and does not
become hard so soon as the bread prepared in the ordinary way. As to its nutritive qualities, the council
cannot determine on this particular, the question being one of those which, in the actual state of science,
is the most difficult, and which can only be solved by a prolonged use of the bread. To complete the
series of reports on all that concerns this species of food, we must speak of the leaden reservoirs made
use of by bakers. It was of moment to know whether the employment by the bakers of Paris of leaden
reservoirs to keep the water used in making bread could give rise to accidents; whether these reservoirs
should be prohibited, or whether they might be allowed with certain modifications?
The council have studied this important question, which is become among chemists an object of
controversy. Some have affirmed that the water gets charged with oxide of lead by remaining in
reservoirs formed of this metal. Other chemists, of no less repute, and among others Guyton de
Morveaux, have established, on the contrary, that the presence of a neutral salt, like sulphate, nitrate or
muriate, in whatever quantity, as 000·2, suffices to prevent the water from dissolving the lead; and they
explain in this way the use that is made, without any ill effects, of the water of the Seine, and of wells,
preserved in leaden vessels, with or without exposure to the air.
This diversity of opinion rendered necessary numerous experiments, which have been made with the
greatest exactness by a commission of the council. It results from these experiments:—
1. That distilled water put into a reservoir gives rise at the end of some minutes to the formation of a
salt of white-lead, but that this salt does not dissolve in the water, and is precipitated, on the contrary, to
the bottom of the reservoir.
2. That the waters of the Seine, and of wells, placed in leaden reservoirs, have given rise, at the point
of contact of the water and air, to the formation of a white saline matter, which does not dissolve in
water but is precipitated to the bottom of the vessel.
3. That the gaseous Seltz water acts the same on the leaden reservoirs as the water of the Seine, and of
wells. Before affirming what precedes, the commission left some water for several weeks in four leaden
reservoirs. The liquid was almost entirely evaporated, and the remainder of the water, when filtered,
showed no trace of lead on the application of the most delicate tests, such as the chromate of potash,
hydrosulphuric acid, and hydriodate of potash.
Water which had remained in a bucket, spread over at the moment, and throughout its whole extent,
with a saline matter composed of carbonate of lead and of lime, of sulphate of lime and organic
substances, did not leave the slightest trace of lead by the action on the water of the most powerful tests.
In consequence of these experiments, the council pronounced a formal opinion, that the bakers might
be permitted the use of leaden reservoirs on condition that they put a cock three inches from the bottom
of the reservoir, in order that if the insoluble carbonate formed it might be deposited in the water below
the cock, and with the further condition that the reservoir should be cleaned once a-month. For greater
security, the council thought that it should be required of bakers to cover over the lead which lines these
reservoirs with a thin coat of wax, which would prevent the contact of the water with the metal, and stop
the formation of the insoluble carbonate of lead. To apply this wax it is only necessary to heat slightly the
lead, and rub it rapidly and several times with a piece of wool done over with wax.
Besides these questions which relate to the quality of the bread, the council examined what mischief
could arise from the use of copper scales to weigh the dough of which the bread is made. It is known that
the dishes of these scales are copper, and that instead of being cleaned with cloths they are cleaned with
the chains by which they are suspended, and which, for this purpose, are heaped together and act like a
brush. This state of things seriously engaged the attention of the council with respect to the danger it
presents. The dough, composed of water and flour, and containing in addition a certain quantity of
marine salt, sticks to the dishes of the scales, and exercises on the metal a chemical action, of which the
result is the oxide of copper. The oxide, or salts of copper, which is formed, next penetrates into the
portion of the dough which is afterwards detached by the friction of the chains.
We may suppose that in this case some of the oxide of copper would be introduced into the bread, and
that it is important for the public health to take measures to prevent, from negligence or imprudence,
bread which contained even very small quantities of salts of copper, from being offered for consumption.
The council thought that all danger would be prevented.
1. By compelling the bakers to use no scales but those of which the dishes were of tinned iron.
2. In prescribing to them to clean the dishes of the scales by means of chains of tinned iron, which
should only be used for this purpose.
3. By obliging them to wash the chains, and the pan in which they are kept, with warm water.
4. By prohibiting the bakers to employ in their bakehouses utensils of zinc, or red and yellow copper.
5. By ordering the bakers, if it is not found expedient to impose the execution of the measures
indicated in the first and third articles, to tin substantially the chains and dishes of their scales, and any
utensils of zinc, or red and yellow copper.
The council have been occupied at different periods with the adulterations of salt, and they have not
ceased to lend active assistance to the measures of surveillance prescribed by the Government.
Unhappily its efforts were long unsuccessful. Even now the analysis which has been made of more than
6000 samples of salt, proves that fraud always exists, although of a kind less detrimental to the public
health. In 1829 the council proposed to forbid the sale of salt which contained from five to six per cent.
of salts with a potash base, and to oppose, in addition, the sale of salt mixed with sea-weed, even in small
quantities. The council has since renewed their investigations. More than 3000 samples of salt, taken
from the shops, were analysed by M. Chevalier, who discovered that 309 samples were adulterated by
ground plaster, or salts of potash, or sulphate of soda, or by the iodines. These adulterations were found
chiefly in the grey salts. The later experiments of the council have confirmed these results. They have,
moreover, shown that the salt derived from the mines of the south is more pure than the salt of the west.
It contains less water, and less of the insoluble matter foreign to sea-salt.
We wish we could follow the council in their numerous observations on the filtering of water—on the
use of vessels and utensils of copper—on the dangers they present according to the circumstances in
which they are employed—and on the regulations of which they ought to be the object; but there still
remains much to be extracted, to show their solicitude for everything which concerns the well-being of
the people, and the preservation of the public health.
The council, in an article entitled, “Necessity to submit the Construction of Houses to Sanitary Rules,”
inserted in its General Report for 1827 (p. 39), expressed the wish to see established in the centre of
every quarter of the town a spacious square, railed in, and planted with trees, in which the children of all
classes might, without, apprehension, and without the special superintendence of their parents, give
themselves up to the exercise suitable to their years, and in which the inhabitants of all ages might enjoy
the solar influence, and breathe a purer air than in their dwellings. It is, they said, so much the more
needful to come to this determination, that nearly all the gardens have given place to houses, to streets,
or to passages, and that the greater part of those which have been preserved are surrounded by houses
so lofty that vegetation languishes for want of air and light, which renders their existence more hurtful
than beneficial to health. To these reasons, which have lost nothing of their force, we will add that which
results from the advantages the quarter would receive from the presence of such squares in respect to
the healthiness produced by favouring the ventilation of the streets; because a square is to all the streets
which open into it a true fourneau d’appel with a double current, acting by night as well as by day, at the
same time that it is a powerful means by which to facilitate the action of the winds in the interior of the
town.
By placing the charity schools in the vicinity of these squares an advantage would be offered to the
children of the poor which can rarely be procured for them, that of experiencing the salutary action of
the sun, breathing a pure air, and taking their exercise safe from all danger during vacations and play-
hours.
These powerful considerations naturally lead the council to speak of the construction of houses under
the double relation of public and private health.
“There are,” they say, “in the march of civilization, as in that of sciences, epochs of progress which
should be marked by the creation of new laws. With all nations the monuments which attest their pride
have preceded the monuments which testify to their true glory; the first, sterile, so to speak, in their
existence, fix the attention by the beauty of their form, by the elegance and grandeur of their
proportions; the second, created for the wealth or happiness of nations, attract our notice to the utility or
wisdom of their establishment. This epoch of true glory has arrived for France. Enough of sterile
monuments cover her soil, still unfruitful in so many respects. Works of public utility, laws which
conduce to the common happiness, these are the monuments that it is proposed to raise at the present
day.
“It is a monument of this last kind of which the council ventures to suggest the erection, in demanding
a law to regulate the construction of towns, villages, and houses, under the double relation of public and
private health; a monumental law, if ever there was one, since it will embrace France in its conceptions;
all the citizens will enjoy its benefits with a perfect equality; and the poor man, even more than the rich,
will find himself protected by it in his health, in his life, in his happiness; because health is life—it is
more, it is happiness.
“A similar law has never existed among any ancient people, although we find among several of them
no equivocal proofs of the solicitude of their legislators to introduce into the laws some precepts of
health, applicable to the people they governed.
“We certainly find among the greater part of modern nations some ordinances, and regulations,
relative to the salubrity of towns and houses; but their operation does not extend beyond the localities
for which they were made, and little, or not at all, known out of these localities, they are still very
imperfect, and altogether insufficient for the localities themselves.
“Nevertheless, can any one doubt the immense influence which the salubrity of towns, of villages, and
of the dwelling, even when it is isolated in the midst of fields, exercises on the health and life of the
people. All statistics, general and individual, attest this extreme influence; and there is no physician, a
little observing, who has not had frequent occasions to verify it at the bed-side of his patients.
“We must be like the men, so well painted by the Psalmist, to reject such evidence—eyes have they
and see not. How shall we explain, or rather, to what shall we attribute the difference that is remarked
between the mortality of one quarter and that of another quarter of the same town; of one street and that
of another street of the same quarter or of the same village; or, lastly, the difference that is observed in
this respect between the houses of the same street, and those houses which are completely isolated.
Misery, it is replied to us, is the cause. Yes, without doubt, misery is a powerful cause; but it is so
especially when it is driven back into the most insalubrious quarters, streets, and houses; when it lives
habitually in the midst of filth and dirt, that is to say, in the midst of an infected atmosphere; and when
there is no misery, or when it exists in the same degree in the quarters, in the villages, in the streets, and
in the houses with which the comparison is made, and, stronger still, when poverty is met with precisely
there where there is the least mortality, in what is to be found the cause of this difference, if it is not in
the insalubrity of the dwelling-places?
 “If you had not seen yourself, Monsieur le Prefet, in one of the most beautiful streets of Paris, and in
the vicinity of the most frequented promenade of the capital, the influence which the construction of the
houses we inhabit has on the health, we would seek by some facts to convince you of this truth; but we
are happy to need only to refer you to your own experience. This great fact, which naturally results from
the comparison you have drawn, in a report addressed to the Minister of Commerce, the 31st of June,
1832, between the mortality of the quarter of the Hôtel-de-Ville, and that of the quarter of the Chaussée-
d’Antin, has not escaped you. Yet, in the striking difference which is found between the mortality of
these two quarters, you have not taken into account the poor who died in the hospitals, and who were,
undeniably, more numerous from the quarter of the Hôtel-de-Ville than from that of the Chaussée-
d’Antin. What calculation has demonstrated to you for one quarter of Paris exists in all in different
degrees; and the same calculation applied to other localities, very distant from the capital, in which the
condition, the habits, the mode of living, and the nature of the labour which the inhabitants perform are
nearly the same, has given analogous results, presenting the same extremes, without the possibility of
assigning any other cause than the insalubrity of the dwellings understood in its widest acceptation.
“The council might accumulate facts, calculations, and quotations, to support the opinion they have
formed of the necessity of a law to regulate the construction of towns, villages, and houses, under the
double relation of public and private health; but they have no need to be at this pains to induce you to
share their conviction, and they are fully persuaded that, in proposing to you to promote a law so
important, they are only anticipating your desire to co-operate for the well-being: of your fellow-citizens,
and to aid the enlightened zeal of the Minister of the Interior for all that is great and useful.”
Under certain points of view, salubrity confounds itself with health; on another side, it governs health;
because, without it no good rules of health can be established. Thus it has engaged the special attention
of the council. We see them to shrink from no difficulty, from no mission, however painful, however
dangerous even, it may be. Nothing escapes their vigilant attention, and the administration is always
sure to have their aid in all the amendments that it wishes to introduce into this important branch of
public service. It is thus that they pass in review all which appertains to the wholesomeness of sewers, to
the improvement of the paving, to the establishment of street-fountains, to the flow of water for
domestic or manufacturing purposes, to the cleansing of wells, and of waste-water wells. The
construction of the receptacles of privies, those incessant causes of insalubrity and inconvenience,
occupies them above all. Here is what they say upon this point:—
“The emptying of the privies in the city of Paris has become a very heavy expense to the proprietors,
and the expense is always on the increase, in consequence of the modifications in the construction of the
receptacles, and the more abundant use of water; a use rendered necessary by the actual form of the
seats, and still more by the introduction of private baths.
“It is evident that the first condition for obtaining a result at once economical and salubrious, is to
separate, on the spot, the solid matter from the liquid, to preserve what has an intrinsic value, and to
reject what is only cumbersome.
“For more than half a century some men, animated by love for the public good, and several
speculators, have directed their researches to discover a method of making this separation. At the head
of these are Girard and Gourlier, Casaneuve, Sanson, Derosne, Chaumet, the authors of the article in the
Mémorial de l’Officier du Génie, and, lastly, the architects Payen and Dalmont.
“The system of Gourlier is seducing: if it has not yet been submitted to all the trials it requires, we are
able to predict before hand that it will succeed, and that it will be productive of advantage.
“The benefits of the project of Gourlier are found in a higher degree in that which has been adopted in
barracks.[55]
“The system of movable receptacles has the sanction of time, is applicable everywhere, facilitates the
removal of the contents, and enables it to be done without smell or dirt: it preserves the workmen from
the dangers of asphyxy, prevents the decay of our houses, and contributes to augment the disposable
mass of manure.
“To prevent the gravest consequences, it is essential not to conduct the liquid from the privies into
waste-water wells, and put them in communication with the upper layer of the soil in which our wells are
sunk. Prudence requires that the liquid should not be directed into the second layer, which in many
parts of Paris furnishes very good water. If it is possible, without great inconvenience, to conduct it into
channels altogether lower, it is still the opinion of many experienced persons that it ought not to be done
under Paris for any very considerable quantities of water, and that it is necessary to reserve this resource
for localities badly situated, and which are rarely met with.
 “All the proofs show that the liquid of the privies may be discharged into the Seine without
inconvenience. An investigation conducted formerly by Hallé and Fourcroy, on the sweepings of Paris,
adds great weight to this opinion. The ancient and recent gaugings, as well as the daily observation of
facts, demonstrate that the quantity of dirty water sent into the Seine would be so small compared to the
water of the river, that it would always remain unperceived, and could in no way be injurious to health.
“To convey these waters to the Seine, the first idea which presents itself is to cast them into one of the
three great sewers which surround Paris on the north.
“A mass of facts and observations prove that the discharge into the sewers of the liquid from the
privies will not infect the sewers, nor cause danger to those who work in them; that this infection will be
so much the less to be apprehended with the apparatus of Gourlier, with that which has been adopted in
barracks, and with the movable receptacles, that, by these different methods, the separation taking place
slowly and successively, the liquid carries along with it but very little of solid matter.
“Everything seems to show that by mixing the liquid from the privies with a sufficient quantity of
water it might, without inconvenience, be thrown upon the public way, and got rid of in this manner; but
prudence requires that before any innovations of this kind the project should be submitted to minute
and multiplied experiments. These experiments are the more important, that the result would be to
increase the revenues of the city by the sale of a considerable quantity of water which it has for disposal.
“If the drying of the solid contents of the privies has hitherto been considered as one of the most
infectious and inconvenient trades, it may be affirmed that it can now be made one of the less
disagreeable, a circumstance which we owe to the means of disinfection recently discovered, or which,
formerly known, have not been put in practice till lately on a large scale.[56]
“To favour the employment of these means, and to arrive thereby at results of high importance, it is
not sufficient for the administration to be animated by praiseworthy intentions. It must obtain, by its
interposition with the supreme authority, a modification in the classification of the establishments in
which the fecal substances are prepared, and, above all, must use the means at its disposal to disabuse
the public of the prejudices it entertains against these sort of places. The administration will meet at first
with very great obstacles, but, with time and perseverance, may rest confident of success.
“The changes proposed are of such importance, they will be attended by consequences so useful, and
extensive, that they will be sufficient to render illustrious to future generations, and to recommend to
their gratitude, the name of the ministers who shall effect them.”
Since their institution, the “Conseil de Salubrité” have been charged to visit all the parts of France in
which epidemic sicknesses have appeared. Thus we find them in 1807 investigating the autumnal
disorders which broke out at Créteil, at Maisons, at Charenton, &c., and proposing the creation of a
travelling hospital to render aid to the country districts during the prevalence of epidemics. Some years
later, in 1810, they went to Montreuil, to Montmartre, and other communes in which the small-pox had
assumed an epidemic character; to Pantin where there reigned an epidemic fever; to Fontenay-sur-Bois,
Rosny, &c., where some ravages had been made by the dysentery. In 1812 they set forth the causes of the
epidemic maladies which had declared themselves in the communes of Charonne, and Clicky, and by
this means prevented their recurrence. In 1818 they stopped the progress of an endemic fever in the
commune of Chevilly, and of the croup in the commune of Montreuil. In 1825 the small-pox committed
great ravages among the inhabitants of Paris, and of the rural communes of the department of the Seine.
Brought by a mass of workmen who flocked from the country to partake of the high wages produced by a
glut of employment, it was rapidly propagated among a population who, through carelessness, or
prejudice, had rejected the blessing of vaccination. The small-pox, favoured in its development by the
high temperature of the atmosphere, gave rise for a moment to a doubt of the preservative property of
the vaccine. An eruptive malady, the varioloïde, confounded with the small-pox by people in general,
and by inattentive and inexperienced medical men, originated this idea, which some cases—rare
certainly, but distinctly marked—of small-pox in persons who had had the true cow-pox, appeared to
confirm. It was then feared that the vaccine had lost with time the advantages which rendered it so
precious; that, weakened in its nature, by passing from one individual to another through a long course
of years, it was no more susceptible of modifying the organization in a manner to render it inaccessible
to the small-pox. It became therefore important to examine with care this interesting point of practice.
The difficult task was performed by the council, and the administration, enlightened by their reports,
was able both to re-assure the people justly alarmed, and to take the proper measures to arrest an evil of
which no one could foresee the consequences.
It is by such labours that the council prepared themselves for the noble and grand mission which was
reserved for them by the appearance in the capital of the cholera morbus,—a mission which they fulfilled
with so much courage and devotion. In the midst of this public calamity, the “Conseil de Salubrité,” we
do not hesitate to say, surpassed all expectation. This same zeal was manifested in 1837, when the
epidemic catarrh made some ravages in the capital. Since then, with the exception of local maladies of
little importance, the “Conseil de Salubrité” have not been called upon to occupy themselves with
epidemics.
The épizooties are in many respects less serious than the epidemics. Nevertheless, as they often affect
the animals which serve for the nutriment of man, and that, apart from this consideration, they may
have grave consequences for the public health, they have constantly engaged the care of the council. In
1834 an épizootie was reported to the administration, which prevailed among the cows of the communes
round Paris, and which caused a great mortality. The researches of the council established that this
épizootie was only a chronic disease, a true pulmonary phthisis to which has been given the name of
pommeliere, and by which the greater part of the cows had been attacked which fill the stables of the
milkmen of Paris and its environs. According to the council, the principal cause of the evil was to be
attributed to the vicious regimen to which this species of animal is subjected. “It is known that they pass
a part of the year in stables perfectly closed, in which the space is not proportioned to the number of
inmates, in which the vitiated air renews itself with extreme difficulty, and in which the heat is
sometimes suffocating. It is known also that they pass suddenly from the food of the stable to pasture,
and that in this change they go from the hot and humid atmosphere of the stable, to a sudden exposure
to the continual variations of the external air. This alternation of food, and of heat and cold, operates as
a powerful cause of disease. But as the evil does not announce itself in a violent manner, as its progress
is not very rapid, as there is even a period in the disease in which the animal is disposed to get flesh, the
cow-feeder, who knows to what point to keep her, sells her when she is ready to calve. It is in a radius of
thirty leagues from the capital that cows of this kind are purchased by the jobbers who supply the
milkmen of Paris. With these last they still hold out a certain number of years, if they are properly cared
for; but in general they are kept in stables which are neither sufficiently large, nor sufficiently airy,
where they are exposed to the same causes which gave birth to the malady. The phthisis arrives
insensibly at its last stage, and carries off every year from Paris, and its neighbourhood, a great number
of these cows.
“As to the question, whether the sale of the flesh of oxen that have died from the diseases just
described should be allowed, the council have already shown that, from time immemorial, the meat of
cows attacked by pulmonary phthisis in a slight degree, has been consumed at Paris as good cow-beef.
Often even cows which have reached the last stage of this disease are consigned to the butcher, who
offers their flesh for sale as meat of the second quality, after taking the precaution to cut away the lungs,
the pericardium, the mediastin, and those parts of the sides and diaphragm, which present a state of
disorganization more or less advanced. This commerce has always taken place in the environs of Paris,
and in Paris itself before the establishment of the abattoirs; and if we are not able to affirm that food of
this nature is not bad, there is at least no example of its use having given rise to accidents. It is to be
presumed that in this case, as in many others, the cooking destroys the vicious properties of the flesh,
and deprives it of all the qualities injurious to the health of the consumer.
“The council have, however, been far from drawing from all these facts the conclusion that it is
unnecessary to watch over the sale of butchers’ meat. They think, on the contrary, that this
superintendence cannot be too active, in order that the low price of such meat may not lead poor
families to make it habitually their principal sustenance. It is known that a bad diet which is not
injurious when used casually, may become, by its continual employment, a source of disease. Numerous
observations have equally taught us, that the flesh of animals in which putrefaction had commenced, has
produced in persons who touched it the most serious consequences. The council, building upon such
data, believe that it is indispensable to watch with the greatest care the sale of meat, to have destroyed
all the bad meat which is exposed in the shops, and to forbid the butchers to sell the flesh of any animal
that has died from disease, or been killed in consequence of disease, unless a veterinary surgeon and
physician, appointed by authority, have decided that the meat could be eaten without inconvenience.”
Some considerations of a kind still more general are developed in the important report made by the
commission, charged in 1839 with the investigation of the disease called cocotte, which attacked the
milking-cows, and deeply occupied the public attention.
We stated at the commencement of this article, that the number of reports made by the “Conseil de
Salubrité,” during the years comprised in this account, amounts to 4431. This number greatly surpasses
in its proportions that of the preceding years, that is to say, of the twenty years which form the first
period of their labours, dating from their institution, and which only presents a total of 5008 reports.
This arises from the fact that Paris for a long time has been only a city of produce, and that the labours of
the council have necessarily increased with the progress of trade, and the character, altogether
manufacturing, assumed by the department of the Seine since 1815. It is necessary, moreover, to remark
that the provisions of the decree of 1810 on insalubrious establishments, by submitting certain classes of
manufactories to special authorizations, rendered more frequent the intervention of the council, who
were the first to demonstrate the necessity of these new measures. “It is a great satisfaction to the
council,” say the reporters of their labours for the year 1810, “that every year the observations and
reports lead to general measures which simplify your administration, by giving certain rules of which the
application becomes every day more easy. The public health was long since compromised by the
existence of certain manufactures, and in the general accounts we have rendered we have never ceased
to demand the removal of insalubrious establishments. The National Institute, consulted on this
important point, shared our opinion, and a regulatory law has just designated the manufactures which
may be established in the interior of towns, and those which are not to be tolerated there.”
In the year 1811 we find 118 reports on classed establishments. This number increased in 1812, and so
from year to year, till in 1813, 313 reports were made on establishments of this kind. The use of steam-
engines increased the labours of the council. In 1813, for instance, there was but one report on these
engines; in 1822, the number had risen already to fifteen. The examination of these machines led the
council to examine their different systems, the dangers and inconveniences they presented to the public
health or safety, and we foresee, in reading their important observations on this subject, all the
improvements which experience introduced in the sequel into this new branch of industry. If we pass
from the year 1822 to the year 1839, we find there has been read ninety-six reports on engines of this
description: but they are no longer simple considerations on machines of which the use is not well
understood; they are views of an elevated order, both on the application of these engines, and on their
dangers and inconveniences. We see that the council have profoundly studied these important
questions.
“We have united under one head,” says M. Busy, the reporter, “all the establishments on which reports
have been made relative to steam-engines. Each of these establishments doubtless offers by itself some
inconveniences inherent in the kind of trade carried on; but in general these inconveniences are trifling.
The greater part of the manufactories about which there is a question are for the construction of engines,
and other analogous things, which can only affect the neighbourhood by the noise and activity which
reign there. Out of sixty-three reports made to the council on steam-engines, eleven were on sawing-
machines, nine on shops for the construction of engines, six on fulminating powder-mills, four on
factories for printing and preparing stuffs, three on mechanical printing presses. The other reports are
divided in the following manner:
“On machines for flattening metal, for bruising colours, for pulverizing, for mixing mortar, for
extracting stone, seven; for sugar refining, for the making of sugar of starch, three; for spinning, two; for
turning, two; for optical glasses, two; for polishing steel, one; for cleaning grain, for the preservation of
provisions, three; for perfumery, two: for soap-making, two; for bleaching, for making candles, hats, and
delf-ware, for ironfounding, for scouring ashes, six; total 63.
“There has been made besides on simple steam-boilers 33 reports, divided among different trades in
the following manner, viz:—

For printing and preparing of stuffs and woollens 12

Hat manufactories 7
Wax and tallow candle manufactories 3
The shops of mechanicians 2
Refining 2
Soap-making 2
Extraction of the colouring matter from dye-woods 2
Baths 2
Dyeing 1

“If we add these 33 reports to the 63 preceding, we have a total of 96 reports on steam-engines, or
simple boilers. We join them together in consequence of the identity of the inconveniences to which
these machines give rise. These inconveniences can only proceed from the chance of explosion of
compressed steam, or from the chance of fire, and from the presence of smoke, which accompany the
establishment of every furnace, whatever may be its use. It is true, however, that among the complaints
or objections which have reached the council, several have turned upon the noise and shaking
occasioned by the steam-engines, a shaking which is particularly felt in houses a little shut in, and
connected with the neighbouring houses. This occurred with the printing presses, and some other
mechanical applications of steam.
“But these results are altogether independent of the steam itself, are inherent in the imperfection of
the mechanism employed, and would be produced with much greater intensity by substituting for steam
a horse, a fall of water, the action of the wind, or any other mechanical motor.
“If we consider the steam-engines and boilers with respect to the explosions to which they may give
birth, we see that no accident has happened during the current year from a total or partial explosion of
an engine, and yet there is no complaint or opposition which is not swelled by the fear of these dangers.
If the accidents of this nature may with justice, by their seriousness and sphere of action, provoke the
fears of the neighbours, the wise measures prescribed by the rules are of a nature to render them
impossible, when they are faithfully executed. Thus, Monsieur le Prefect, the council have always
vigorously insisted on the maintenance of the precautions with which the law surrounds the steam-
engines, not only to shield the responsibility of your administration, but also because they are persuaded
that it is impossible in the actual state of things to neglect these prescriptions without exposing those
who make use of steam-engines to eminent dangers.
“The true and the most serious inconvenience of steam-engines is the smoke. It is against this that
most of the well-founded complaints are raised.
“This inconvenience is not only felt at the present moment, but it excites, above all, apprehensions for
the future.
“When we consider that in the single year 1839, there have been granted 82 authorizations for steam-
engines, and that we are yet but at the beginning of the applications of this mechanical agent,—when we
follow the increasing progression of petitions addressed to the administration, we are not able to
suppress a certain fear against the ulterior invasions of the smoke from these establishments.
“The council have applied themselves for a long time to the solution of this difficulty, which is met at
every turn in the petitions addressed to you, not only for steam-engines, but for all the trades in which
furnaces are employed.
“Various systems have been proposed: that which first presents itself is the use of smoke-consuming
furnaces, which appears in fact the most rational and appropriate. Nevertheless, although it is very easy
to assign the theoretical conditions for complete combustion of coal, the difficulties of application have
not permitted this kind of furnace to become general. Hitherto the smoke-consuming furnaces require
great precision in the execution, great regularity in the distribution of the fuel,—things difficult to realize
in ordinary labour. On the other hand, the great excess of air necessary to obtain complete combustion
often diminishes the efficacy of the coal, and renders these furnaces more expensive, in certain cases,
than the ordinary furnaces, in spite of the loss of fuel which the latter involve.
“The mechanical distributors to regulate the supply of fuel, and the activity of the combustion, have
been also proposed and employed with success; but they are a considerable expense at the outset, and
can be but little adopted except in great concerns, and where there is a very constant application of
steam.
“It remains to modify the nature of the fuel; and it is this which the council have generally done. They
commonly prescribe the use of coke, or some variety of prepared coal, which gives no smoke—leaving it
however to the proprietors to make use of whichever method suits them best, whether smoke-
consuming furnaces, mechanical distributors, or fuel which yields no smoke.
“These regulations, Monsieur le Prefect, have been adopted in principle by the “Conseil de Salubrité,”
and are, in the majority of cases, the condition to which they think it their duty to submit the
authorizations they have the honour to propose to you.
“Doubtless their rigorous application may cramp certain establishments. The council are not ignorant
that for some particular purposes the use of coke presents great obstacles, considering the construction
of the furnaces; but the absence of smoke in the combustion of coal is not so very difficult to obtain, as to
shake the intimate conviction of the council that this constriction will be but momentary, and that it will
end by turning to the profit of the manufacturer.
“The problem of which the council seek the solution, is able to be resolved; it is so already in great
part, but there yet remains one step to arrive at the goal, and they will reach it by persevering in the
course they have adopted. In their efforts they have been sustained, we repeat, by the conviction that
they labour not only for the advantage of the health and cleanliness of the capital, by seeking to
guarantee its inhabitants from the nuisance of smoke, but also for the advantage of the manufacturer
himself, by forcing him to a better employment of his fuel, and by putting him into such a condition that
he may be able to select the localities which suit him, without being exposed to those continual
complaints, to those recriminations, often well-founded, which have not always been foreseen, and
which sometimes become the cause of the greatest embarrassments to the manufacturing
establishments.
“An important progress in the path we indicate was made in 1839, by the contrivance of M. Beslay, a
mechanician, for steam-boilers—a contrivance which has been pointed out in several reports on this
subject, and which proposes to prevent explosions and avoid smoke by means of a general use of coke. It
is only to be regretted that it has not yet been able to be applied to all the purposes for which steam-
boilers are employed.”
The improvements introduced by the council into the different branches of industry with which they
have had to deal, and on which their reports enter into details at once useful and interesting, are
numerous. Thus the refining of gold and silver, the factories for fulminating powder, for gilding, for
chemical products, for bitumen, for melting tallow, and a mass of other trades, owe to them notable
improvements, both in the methods of fabrication, and in the conditions for public health and safety
under which they are to be carried on. The white-lead manufactories have excited their earnest
solicitude. It is known that the workmen who labour in these places are subject to serious and frequent
maladies. In consulting the earlier labours of the council, we see them unceasingly occupied with this
question; but the frequency of the accidents, and their seriousness, have more particularly attracted
their attention in these latter times, and have engaged them to compile a set of instructions which set
forth the best rules of health to be observed in these manufactories. (The rules have already been
quoted.)
Later, the council have anew examined deeply this branch of trade. They have visited the
manufactories of white-lead existing in the department of the Seine; they have obtained the experience
of other departments, and they have shown the necessity of commissioning one of their members to
follow the results of the rules quoted above. They have required, moreover, that the administration
should furnish some statistics on the state of workers in white-lead admitted into the hospital. The
administration has hastened to defer to this wish, and there is no doubt that there will result a sensible
improvement in the health of the workmen.
(After giving several other minor instances of the labours of the Conseil, the report thus concludes:—)
And now that we have detailed the principal labours of the council, it would be a necessary
supplement to this article to show the results that have followed from them,—the reforms they have
introduced into the public service. But here we are no more dealing with the labours of the council, but
with the labours of the administration. Thus independently of the decisions on classed establishments,
and which amount to about 300 a-year, it would be necessary to describe the measures for the public
health executed by the administration. But to confine ourselves only to acts which interest the generality
of the citizens, we may cite the ordinances of police which relate to coloured sugar-plums; to horses
attacked with the glanders, or contagious maladies; to vessels and utensils of copper; to the adulteration
of salt; to the aid to be given to the drowned and asphyxied; to the depôts for refuse in the rural
communes; to the dissection, modelling, and embalming of corpses; to the cleaning of wells and waste-
water wells; to the adulteration and sale of fulminating powder; to the classification of new trades, the
amphitheatres of anatomy, the establishments of pork-butchers, &c. &c.
Certainly there are few institutions that can show such results; there are few that receive an impulse so
enlightened and constant. Bound in an intimate manner with the administration of which they form
part, the “Conseil de Salubrité” has at all times, found in it a just appreciator of their labours. They know
the credit accorded to their reports, and the duties imposed on them by a confidence so honourable for
the administration that gives it, and so justly merited by the body that receives it.
 16.—Qualifications of Officers of Public Health: Statement by M.
Duchâtelet.
It is generally thought in the world that the medical knowledge acquired in the schools is all that is
necessary to become a useful member of the council. The greater part of medical men themselves share
this opinion; and on the strength of some precepts which they have collected from books on health and
professions, they think themselves sufficiently instructed to decide on the instant the gravest questions,
which can only be resolved by special studies.
A man may have exhausted medical literature; he may be an excellent practician at the sick-bed, a
learned physician, a clever and eloquent professor; but all these acquirements, taken in themselves, are
nearly useless in a Conseil de Salubrité like that of Paris; and if an occasion presents itself to make use of
them, a very small number of persons suffice to apply them. To be really useful in the council, it is
necessary to have an extended knowledge of natural philosophy, of the constitution of the soil on which
Paris stands, and of the geology of neighbouring countries; it is necessary, above all, to know with
exactness the action which trades may have on the health of those who exercise them, and the much
more important action of manufactories of every species on plants, on men congregated in towns, and
on animals. This knowledge, so important, of the action of manufactories and trades, is not to be
acquired by ordinary study, or in the silence of the cabinet. It is not to be obtained without positive
notions on the arts, and on the greater part of the processes peculiar to each trade. It requires habit and
the frequenting of the places of work. In this particular, more even than with medicine, books are not a
substitute for practice; and if there exist works on the subject, they are more likely to mislead than
enlighten.
From what has been said, the necessity will be evident to introduce into the council those physicians
who have made health, and particularly the public health, a special study; and to join with them
chemists, and, above all, manufacturing chemists, because what would many of those persons, whose life
has been passed in hospitals and the exclusive study of medicine, be before a steam engine? It is clear
that they would often be deceived by those adroit and skilful manufacturers who would have an interest
in concealing the truth.
 17.—Instance by MM. Duchâtelet and D’Arcet of the erroneous
Medical Inferences as to the insalubrity of particular Trades.
Ramazzini is, as far as we know, the first who has treated professedly of the maladies produced by the
fumes of tobacco. In his great work, De Morbis Artificum, he states that the workmen employed in the
manufacture of tobacco are seized with great pains in the head, with vertigo, nausea, and perpetual
sneezing; and that so great is the subtilty of this substance, that all the neighbourhood, particularly in
summer, experience nausea. He adds, that those who work on tobacco lose their appetite, and that their
breath is insupportable.
Fourcroy, after repeating in his translation of Ramazzini all the passages from this author, adds, in a
note, several observations to prove the dangers of tobacco; such as, that a lady died from a cancer in the
nose in consequence of taking too much snuff; another from a polypus in the œsophagus, which
prevented her swallowing; another from frightful convulsions produced by sleeping in a room in which
tobacco had been rasped. Fourcroy states, however, that there are some privileged persons who become
accustomed to the action of tobacco, and experience no inconvenience from it.
Cadet-Gassicourt, in a memoir addressed to the prefect of police on the maladies incident to the trades
carried on in Paris, says that the workmen occupied in the preparation of tobacco are subject to
vomitings, colics, and acute and chronic affections of the chest; that they have often vertigo, bloody
fluxes, and are addicted to drink.
Tourtelle, in his Elémens d’Hygiène, affirms that it is very dangerous to sleep in warehouses of
tobacco; and he quotes a case, mentioned by Buchoz, of a young girl of five, who died in a short time
from dreadful vomitings, occasioned by this sole cause.
Percy, in the article Chapeau, in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales, mentions, that some
soldiers, exercising in the Champ-de-Mars in very warm weather, were overcome by syncope, which he
attributes to some tobacco that these men had put in their caps.
In a new edition of Ramazzini and Fourcroy, by Patissier, we find the opinions of these authors
without observation or comment. The editor is content to add, that those who have to do with tobacco
are, in general, wasted, discoloured, yellow, and asthmatical.
Finally, Merat, in the article Tabac, in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales, says, that men
engaged in the preparation of this substance are wasted, discoloured, yellow, asthmatic, subject to colic,
diarrhœa, the bloody flux, but, above all, to vertigo, cephalalgia, muscular tremor, to true narcotism, and
to diseases, more or less acute, of the chest. “All these assertions,” he continues, “are the fruit of my
observations in the hospitals of Paris. Tobacco causes not only evils without number, but even death to
those who prepare it. It deranges the memory of all who inhale it, and renders it less clear and entire; it
weakens the tissues, especially the nervous tissues; it causes trembling of the limbs; diminishes strength;
it produces emaciation, and even consumption, particularly among females; and sometimes begets
entire imbecility.”
“We might multiply these quotations. The just celebrity of the authors who have furnished them gives
to their opinion a force which imposes belief, and makes us reject every species of doubt. Let us recall,
however, the maxim of Descartes; let us cease to believe the words of a master; let us dare to doubt for
an instant, and, observing for ourselves, let us learn to form an opinion, based on what our own senses
and judgment have taught us.”
Acting in this spirit, Parent Duchâtelet and D’Arcet carried on a minute investigation, in a vast
manufactory of tobacco at Paris, containing 1,054 workmen. Not content with the results afforded by a
single establishment, they directed questions to the nine other great manufactories of tobacco which
France contains, and the answers were prepared by the physicians, surgeons, and officers of each
establishment in conjunction. “The observations,” say MM. Duchâtelet and D’Arcet, “which compose
this memoir, have been collected from a sum total of 4518 workmen. They appear to us so much the
more valuable and conclusive, that they have been made simultaneously in the most opposite parts of
France, by men who had not, and could not have, any connexion. There is thus no possibility to suspect
the influence of a preconceived opinion; and if those to whom our inquiries were addressed are
unanimous in their replies, and if these replies agree with our own observations, we shall be sure that we
have arrived at the truth.”
 The conclusions which followed from these widely extended researches were—
1. That in the greater part of the factories there was never known an example of an individual who
could not accustom himself to the emanations of tobacco, and that in the rare cases where it proved
injurious, it was always in a particular part of the process, which merely obliged the workman to be
transferred to another department of the factory.
2. That all which has been said on the frequency of nausea, of vomitings, of diarrhœa, of colic, and of
haemorrhages, is pure supposition. That it is so no less with respect to the headaches, sneezings, loss of
appetite, foulness of breath, acute and chronic affections of the chest, cancers, and other similar
diseases. What the same authors say on the discolouration of the skin of the workmen engaged in the
preparation of tobacco, on the yellow hue of their complexion, their leanness, and emaciation, proves
that they have not observed for themselves, or have only seen the exceptions to the rule, or have not
compared this class of people with other workmen of the same town, who were engaged in occupations
of a totally different kind.
3. That tobacco, far from producing, in those who prepare it, death and narcotism, does not even
influence their nervous system; and that vertigo, syncope, muscular tremor, convulsions, and other like
evils, which have been charged against it, have never existed in the manufactories, though the men sleep
in the midst of the most subtil preparations, or, at least, are not to be attributed to that cause.
4. Not only is the tobacco without any effect on the health during the first years devoted to its
preparation, it has not the least ill consequences in more advanced life. Feebleness and great age, or
causes altogether accidental, have been the sole ground for dismissing the workmen.
5. There are some professions which, without destroying health in an evident manner, abridge life; but
a great number of those who work on tobacco reach, and even surpass, the ordinary limit of human
existence.
6. It is proved by innumerable facts, that the manufactories of tobacco are not in anywise injurious to
the men, animals, or plants, which may exist in their vicinity.
It thus turns out, upon examination, that this much maligned substance is perfectly innocuous. “Yet
what practitioner,” say MM. Parent Duchâtelet and D’Arcet, “who had not had occasion to visit the
workshops and study their influence, would not be forced into belief by the imposing authorities we have
quoted above; who of them would hesitate to regard as demonstrated opinions on which Ramazzini,
Fourcroy, Cadet Gassicourt, Tourtelle, Percy, Patissier, Merat and others are unanimous, without a
single person having uttered a contrary assertion? There are found among these authorities two
members of the Royal Academy of Medicine, three members of the Academy of Sciences, two professors
of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, one professor of the Faculty of Medicine of Strasbourg, two chemists,
and two celebrated physicians—one French, the other Italian; in a word, six physicians and an
apothecary, who held, and still hold, the most eminent places in the learned world. It is therefore evident
that it is of the highest importance that trades and professions should be investigated differently from
what they have hitherto been; and this importance daily increases, because of the progress and
extension of arts and manufactures.”
 18.—On the Habitations of the Lower Orders of Paris.
No. 1.
The labouring classes are obliged to live in houses almost always dilapidated, insufficient, or
unhealthy. Such is the lot of the poor man in all countries: the force of circumstances, the hard law of
necessity, compel it. Yet, if it is impossible to remedy completely this state of things, may we not
approximate to it, by building houses for every grade of the lower orders—not only of the honest poor,
but of the debased and depraved? It appears to me that these houses would have a double advantage;—
they would diminish the causes of public insalubrity, and offer to the honest and economical workman
the means to procure a residence equal to his necessities, and capable of producing in him the taste for
retirement and domestic peace so favourable to morals. It is especially in this last point of view that the
amelioration of the dwellings of the poor and laborious class is to be ranked among the preservatives
against vicious habits.
Rent being one of the most important and indispensable domestic expenses, the father of a family,
pressed by other wants of the first necessity, naturally seeks the least costly habitation. Now, these
habitations exist only in certain quarters, and in certain streets of those quarters: they are old, ruined,
and filthy. The proprietors, in order to tenant them, let the lodgings very low, and thus attract the poorer
families. If these lodgings were healthy, if they were sufficient for all the members of the family, there
would be no room for censure; but they are foul, badly lighted, and neither air-tight nor water-tight.
They are small, and as parents and children live and sleep in the same room, the overcrowding is both a
cause of unhealthiness, and an offence against good morals. Moreover, the bad state and filth of the
passages, privies, and sinks, give rise to infectious exhalations, which vitiate the air of these humble
abodes, and affect the health of their inhabitants in a manner so much more mischievous that the
greater part of them work all the day in crowded and ill-ventilated shops.
It would be worthy of a wise administration to remedy this dangerous complication. The task is
doubtless difficult; but why not grapple with it boldly, instead of allowing to subsist in Paris, without any
effort to destroy them, so many centres of infection which reduce to the level of the lowest animals the
unfortunate beings who seek in them a retreat for the night.
Although the lodgings are not all repulsive, they are all alike open to criticism. Some offend by
overcrowding, others by the mode of sleeping; others, lastly, by the absence of all ventilation, and even
by a total want of air. Overcrowding is an evil which prevails in all the lodgings of the lowest class, and
which aggravates the mischief resulting from the other inconveniences to which they are subject. The
twenty-five or thirty thousand workmen employed in house-building, who flock to Paris every year from
certain departments, congregate in chambers, and sleep there during the season. Many of these places
are kept by countrymen of their own, who attract them by their known probity, and the kindness they
entertain for them. These chambers abound principally in the quarter of the Hôtel-de-Ville for the
masons, and in the Faubourg Saint-Martin for the carpenters. These excellent workmen, by an exception
more peculiar to them than to any others, look only to economy. They bargain with the lodging-house
keeper, so as to obtain for six francs a month, besides the room, the washing of a shirt a-week, and a
mess of soup every day, for which they themselves provide the bread. All that is not devoted to their
slender wants is laid by for the support of their family, or the increase of their little patrimony. The
police unanimously testify to the order and concord which reign in their chambers, as well as to their
good conduct abroad. Is it not mournful that these fine fellows should sleep thus piled up in little
garrets? Accustomed to work in the open air, the smallness of their rooms is more trying to them than to
any others. Thus typhus fever is common among them, and sometimes attacks a whole chamber.
The overcrowding and deficient ventilation are still more injurious to workmen employed in
manufactures. They pass every day from an infected lodging into a shop which is usually as
unwholesome, and they are thus predisposed to contract readily contagious maladies.
Of all the lower orders, the chiffonniers inhabit the most infected and disgusting lodgings. It is vain to
expect to descend into the lowest ranks of society,—inequality always appears somewhere. Even the
chiffonniers have their notables. There are some a little more economical, a little more raised than the
mass, and who enjoy a certain comfort. Those the most elevated occupy one or two small rooms, which
they hire for themselves and their families; others possess a pallet, which serves them to sleep on, in the
chamber of which they are one occupant among many. But this possession is more often collective than
personal; and although shared, it does not fail to excite the envy of the poor wretches who lie in a species
of trough, on rags, or on handsful of straw, with which the room is strewed. The police charged with the
surveillance of the lodgings inhabited by the chiffonniers give an incredible picture of them. Each
occupant keeps by him his basket, sometimes full of filth—and what filth! These savages do not hesitate
to comprise dead animals in their gleanings, and pass the night by the side of this stinking prey. When
the police go to these places, they experience a suffocating feeling, bordering on asphyxy. They order the
windows to be opened when they can be opened, and the severe representations they address to the
lodging-house keepers on this horrible mixture of human beings with decayed animal matter does not
move them. They answer, that their lodgers are accustomed to it as well as themselves. A trait of
manners peculiar to the chiffonniers, and which might be called their pastime, consists in rat-catching in
the courts of the houses which they frequent. They entice the rats by the aid of certain substances
attached to the rags they gather in the streets. With this view they put heaps of rags near the holes in the
walls, and when they think that the rats are buried in the rags, they let loose into the court dogs trained
for the purpose, and, in the twinkling of an eye, they make themselves masters of the rats, of which they
eat the flesh and sell the skin.
The lodgings which receive at night the scum of society are thorough pest-houses. Those even which
are not frequented by chiffonniers become, by the crowding of the inhabitants and their filthy habits,
dangerous centres of infection. There are some chambers which contain as many as nine beds, separated
by small passages hardly wide enough to get through, and these beds are often occupied by two persons
who do not know each other, and have never seen one another. Difference of sex is no obstacle to these
nocturnal and fortuitous cohabitations, although the police neglect nothing to prevent disorders. Among
the female apartments there is one which is famous for the picture of decrepitude and abjectness which
it presents. The women who occupy it are old drunkards, of whom several are suspected of theft. The
spectacle of these animated mummies has something sepulchral.
One must bring to social anatomy a serious spirit of investigation, to form a just idea of the population
which lives in the concealed recesses of society. The imagination, however fertile and daring, could never
reach, in this matter, to the height of the reality: there is a character, a physiognomy, a strangeness,
which it is necessary to have seen in order to assume the responsibility of an historian. Let no one tax
with romance the traits of manners nor the description of places contained in this chapter. However
softened by the reserve I have imposed on myself, they are not less true at bottom. I have sacrificed the
coarseness of the outline and colouring out of respect to decency. It is the only infidelity of which I
accuse myself. It is impossible not to feel the necessity to provide an efficacious remedy for a state of
things so contrary to the rights of humanity and civilization.[57]
 19.—On the Habitations and Lodgings of the Lower Orders of Paris.
No. 2.
There exist in Paris some thousands of individuals who have no domicile—who sleep to-day in one
place, the next day in another—and who have recourse every evening to those houses where, for a
payment usually very moderate, they can at least obtain a place to lie in, and a covering for their heads.
It is not only strangers living temporarily in Paris who lodge in this manner; a mass of workmen, mostly
single men, who have not stirred from the capital for ten, fifteen, and twenty years, prefer this kind of
life to the occupation of a separate chamber. It may be affirmed, without fear of contradiction, that this
population comprises all that is most drunken and debased in society. It is composed of people without
foresight, and without a home, living from day to day, and trusting to the hospitals in the case of
sickness or infirmity. It is in the lowest places in these disgusting haunts in which a person is lodged for
six, four, and even for two sous, that the greater part of the prostitutes reside, who can scarcely, after
purchasing food, lay aside from their daily gains the trifling sum necessary to avert sleeping in the open
air. I have visited some of these lodgings, and it was not without a feeling of pain that I have seen human
creatures reduced to live in such places, and that in the capital of France. To give a just idea of these
abodes, I will extract some passages from the remarkable report which the inspector-general of
furnished lodgings addressed to the prefect of police at the time of the cholera. It tells of nothing but
houses in ruin, of straw for beds in a state of putrefaction, of darkness, of infectious smells, of filth
without example. These are some of the passages:—
“Rue ——, No. —. This house is remarkable for its excessive dirt. It is a genuine centre of infection. It is
inhabited solely by thieves, smugglers, beggars, and prostitutes. It is impossible to enter without being
suffocated.
“Rue ——, No. —. This house fixes the attention by its construction and filth. There are no beds, except
some loathsome pallets; animal remains, intestines, and the refuse of meals, are rotting in the court; all
the chambers look on a corridor completely deprived of air and light; the sinks and the privies of every
story are loathsome from ordure and fecal matter. It is the hideous abode of vice and misery.
“Rue ——, No. —. The court of this house is four feet square, and is full of dung; the chambers,
crowded with occupants, open on it; the privies, dilapidated to the fifth floor, let the fecal matter fall
upon the staircase, which is covered with it to the bottom. Many of the rooms have no other aperture
than the door which opens upon this staircase. The house is the resort of sharpers, of thieves, of the most
filthy prostitutes, and of everything that is most abject both of men and women.
“Rue du Faubourg ——, No. —. A house occupied from top to bottom by chiffonniers, mendicants,
street-organists, street-walkers, and Italian boys, who go about with animals. All these sleep upon rags
picked from the street, and of which there is a depôt on the ground-floor. More complete abjectness it is
impossible to witness.
“Rue ——, No. —. This house is the resort of all that is most abased. It is exclusively inhabited by
thieves, prostitutes, discharged criminals, beggars, vagabonds, gamesters, and every species of rogues.
The greatest filth reigns everywhere; the windows are made of oiled paper instead of glass; the rooms are
infected; at each story the ordure of the privies flows upon the staircase.”[58]
Another French writer, M. Frégier, has given the following description of the external appearance of
these abodes:—“The streets, not, at farthest, more than eight feet wide, are dirty, and flanked by lofty
houses, four stories high, which are blackened by time. The height of the houses renders the streets
gloomy and damp, and the houses themselves are dark, particularly on the ground-floor. Spirit shops,
beer shops, and low eating houses abound. The gloom of these shops, joined to the repulsive
physiognomy of the streets, infuse a secret horror into the visitor who is led there by the spirit of
observation, and who knows that the greater part of the shops are the habitual resort of the lowest
prostitutes, and of rogues that live in the neighbourhood. The lodgings and places of dissipation
frequented by this part of the population are worthy, from their filth, of the streets and quarters in which
they are situated.”[59]
 20.-Extract from the Report of the Commission appointed by the
Central Board of Public Health to ascertain the Condition of the
Dwellings of the Working Classes in Brussels, and to suggest Means
for their Improvement.
Our inquiries have led us more particularly into the most populous and miserable districts into which
the working classes are continually crowding, in proportion as new and elegant buildings have
encroached upon the districts within the heart of the capital, formerly almost exclusively occupied by
those classes. We have visited successively, in the district of Minimes, the rue des Pignons, and de la
Samaritane, the cul-de-sac des Minimes, the alley des Prêtres, les rues de l’Epris, du Bourreau, de la
Oventail, &c.; in the district de la Chapelle, les rues des Ménages, du Radro, de la Rasière, des Rats, du
Renard, &c.; in the district de la rue d’Anderlecht, la rue des Navets, and the alley au Lait. We entered
into a great number of the dwellings. We not only inquired, but also inspected, in order that we might
ascertain the truth of the statements which were made to us. In now presenting the results of this
inquiry, we do not hesitate to call your attention to the very important facts which have been gathered, at
the same time that we ask your indulgence for the imperfect manner in which we have been able to
perform the duties committed to our zeal and exertions.
The misery of the localities we have visited struck us immediately, from their appearance of uniform
poverty. The streets and alleys, at all times dirty and ill-paved, in times of rain or thaw had the
appearance of a pestilential mire; the water had no means of running off, and the smallness of the
passages, the absence of courts or gardens, the crowding of families, and the detestable modes of
building, rendered all circulation of air or ventilation quite impossible. The most indispensable
conveniences were entirely wanting in most of the houses. They had no pumps, nor privies, nor sewers,
except one in common. Indeed, we saw seventy houses that were provided with only one pump or one
privy for the whole of that number.
If you enter the houses, the spectacle which is there presented to your view is, if anything, still more
wretched. If the arrangement and order to be seen in some of the rooms recall the proverbial neatness of
the Flemish, on the other hand, the houses occupied by large families, the alleys, the passages, and the
stairs, are generally disgustingly filthy; the brush of the whitewasher never passes along them, or if they
are ever cleaned, it is only to attract new tenants, who soon restore them to their primitive dirtiness. The
steepness of the stairs, which, indeed, are often more like ladders, must be a perpetual cause of
accidents, especially to the young children. The space occupied by a family is generally much too
confined for each of the members to receive the quantity of fresh air necessary for the preservation of
health. Hence their appearance is generally that of suffering and of bad condition. The children are pale
and emaciated, and bear all the visible signs of premature suffering. The number of those who are
rickety and scrofulous is considerable, and the mortality amongst the children and the aged exceeds all
the most unfavourable averages. As we pass along these receptacles of misery, we feel astonished to see
so few old people; an early death has carried them beyond their wretchedness: and if inquiries are made
of parents, there are few who have not lost one or more children. It would be important to compare the
proportion of deaths in the families of the rich and of the indigent. There is little doubt that this
comparison would prove that misery, the want of proper air and space, the occupations of these people,
and privations of every sort, sensibly diminish the period of life of the working classes.
In these wretched habitations everything is sacrificed generally to the rapacity of the proprietor. Every
repair which affects the health or the comfort of the tenant merely, and that is not necessary to prevent
the total ruin of the dwelling, is entirely neglected. What is the use of cleaning the walls for people whose
habits are filthy? Why make windows for the entrance of air and light, or repair a sewer, or cleanse an
alley covered with stagnant water, for people who are accustomed to pestilential smells? It is what a
proprietor can never understand. Do not believe, however, that these dreadful abodes are rented at their
proper value. On the contrary, the unfortunate people obliged to live in these houses, because all better
ones are closed against them, in reality pay a higher rent than for a wholesome room in a good house.
 21. Principles of Sanitary Police in Germany. Extracts from
Professor Mohl.
It is one important duty of a State to provide abundant supplies of water for its people; and this duty is
based on the impossibility, in many cases, for individuals by their own exertions to procure even the
barest necessary quantity of water, and also that it requires much skill to distinguish that which is of a
good quality from that which is injurious. The State ought, therefore, to provide water of the best quality
in sufficient abundance, and to arrange also for its most extensive distribution: this is often attended
with great difficulties and with much expense, if the district is naturally ill-supplied with springs of
water; or where a town, being large, requires more water than its own surface springs, or those of the
immediate neighbourhood, can supply. Without maintaining that the example given us by ancient
nations, of munificent expenditure in the laying out of aqueducts, &c., is one which we, therefore, are
obliged to follow, yet it may be demanded of the State, that it should provide water, at least so far as the
absolute wants of life require, by aqueducts or pipes, or at least by cisterns, laid down at the public
expense. For the sake of the poorer classes, it does not seem advisable that this duty should be handed
over to a private company.[60]
An injudicious economy on this point affects most injuriously the habits of cleanliness, and
consequently the health of the lower classes. Water is properly distributed when every district is
provided with an abundance of springs or wells. Loss of time, danger of fire, difficulties in the time of
contagious diseases, are the consequences of the wells being few in number, even though each one
should furnish a large stream of water.
It is a well-known fact, that locality has a great effect on the life and health of the inhabitants, and
especially according as it offers the means of proper circulation of air or not. Thus, elevated situations
are generally more healthy than places shut in by hills. In towns, those parts which are traversed by
broad streets, are always more healthy than those which are so closely covered with houses as never to
be properly ventilated, or where the sun can never penetrate to dry up the moisture; but an ill-drained
situation is the most injurious to health.
The healthiness of a whole town is often essentially improved by the formation of a single sewer or
drain: in other places, it requires very extended operations to produce the same effect. We may include
amongst the various influences, the ditches surrounding the cities filled with stagnant water; by draining
these, not only a purer air is gained, but also a fertile piece of land. It ought to be remarked here,
however, that this work of draining water, and the removal of the mud, ought to be done in the cold
season; if not, dangerous fevers will in all probability be the consequence.
The foul air arising from marshy land, when that is necessary, as in the cultivation of rice, is an evil for
which there is no remedy.[61]
Another means of improving the healthiness of a town, is by proper attention to the breadth, and to
the direction of the streets in all the new quarters of the town. The streets ought to intersect, each other
at right angles, and not at too great distances: the direction of the streets, also, should not run due north
and south, as in that case the streets lying parallel in one direction, would be scorched by the sun, and
without any shade during mid-day; whilst the streets running at right angles to these, would never be
warmed by a ray of sunshine.
The health of towns would also be much improved by the prohibition of all cellars as dwelling-houses,
by legislative enactments as to the elevation of the ground-floor of dwelling-houses above the level of the
streets, also as to the construction of proper conveniences attached to dwelling-houses; and by
regulations with regard to the proper size of windows: also by regulations regarding the strictest
cleanliness of the streets, as this is more important in its effects on the health generally, than even the
situation of a town, or attention to its mode of building. By attention to it, Holland is inhabitable; by the
neglect of it, Cairo and Constantinople are the very hot-beds of the plague.
The first means to attain this cleanliness is by a proper paving of all the streets, in order to lay the
district dry. Without this, the streets are either a stream of mud, or a sea of dust; in both cases equally
injurious to the health. It is often expensive to get a hard material for the purpose of pavement; but
when obtained, the expense of keeping it in repair is much less. When it is possible, the streets should be
kept clean, by turning on them a stream of water,—the drains being always kept well open to receive it
afterwards. Every inhabitant should be obliged to keep the portion of the street clean before his own
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