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Writing a Report How to 7th Edition John Digital Instant
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Author(s): John, John Bowden, J. Bowden
ISBN(s): 9781857039221, 185703922X
Edition: 7th
File Details: PDF, 2.89 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
Writing a
Report
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Writing a
Report
How to prepare, write and present
effective reports
JOHN BOWDEN
7th edition
howtobooks
For Paula, Forever.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or stored in an information retrieval
system (other than for purposes of review) without the express permission of the publisher in
writing.
The right of John Bowden to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good faith for general guidance and no
liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of relying in particular
circumstances on statements made in the book. The laws and regulations are complex and
liable to change, and readers should check the current position with the relevant authorities
before making personal arrangements.
Contents
List of illustrations 9
Acknowledgements 13
Pre-writing 60
Drafting the main body and appendixes 61
Reviewing the main body and appendixes 61
Drafting the conclusions, recommendations, introduction
and summary 62
5
6 Writing a Report
Glossary 183
Resources 194
Index 197
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List of Illustrations
9
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Preface
to the seventh edition
Report writing can be described as a career skill. Not only is it a task that
forms part of an increasing number of business jobs, but also it can make
a huge difference to how you are perceived and even how well you get
on in your career. Today, good communication skills and the ability to
write effective reports are essential competencies for every successful
businessperson.
Now in its seventh edition, this extensively revised and updated hand-
book explains how you can write reports that will be:
To achieve these aims you must do more than present all the relevant
facts accurately; you must communicate in a way that is both acceptable
and intelligible to your readers.
The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 describes the systematic
approach needed to produce an effective report, regardless of the sub-
ject-matter. It takes you step-by-step all the way from being asked to
write a report to issuing a tailor-made product which meets the needs of
all your readers.
In Part 2 we turn to the creative side of writing. Producing a profes-
sional report today requires the merging of the technologies of commu-
nication, computers and graphic design. What you say is important. But
how you say it and how it looks are vital in creating a high-impact report
that stands out from the deluge of material your audience inevitably
receives.
Part 3 describes some common types of report in more detail. This
section complements Parts 1 and 2 by highlighting the particular
emphases associated with each report type.
11
12 Writing a Report
13
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Part One
1
Preparation and Planning
enabling you to rise above the detail and obtain an overview of the
entire report at any time.
15
16 Writing a Report
The next stage is to identify and assess your readership. In many cases,
you know who will be reading your report and the detailed content, style
and structure can then be matched to their level of knowledge and exper-
tise:
Concentrate on points they will care about.
Explain things they do not know.
Address questions and concerns they would be likely to raise.
Often, however, you do not know your readers personally. Try to find out
something about them. The following questions will prove useful:
Are the readers alike or mixed?
Are they used to reading and understanding reports?
How much time will they spend on this report?
What do they already know?
What else will they need to know?
Obviously there are many other questions you may wish to ask.
However, finding the answers to these five will always provide an excel-
lent start to your target audience research. It is essential that you have a
clear understanding of your readership while creating the report so as to
focus on their needs and expectations. A report which is perceived as
reader-friendly will always go down better than one that is introspective.
18 Writing a Report
For some reports, you will need to collect very little information, while
for others you will require a great deal. You will need to think this
through carefully, either on your own or with other people.
It is often useful to discuss this with the person who commissioned
the report and with prospective readers, particularly any key decision
makers. Are there any specific areas they would like covered? The very
fact that people have been consulted at this early stage will involve them
and, psychologically, this will greatly increase the likelihood of them
accepting your conclusions and any recommendations you subsequently
may make.
You have already written down your specific objective. Take another
look at it and see what it tells you. For example, if you were asked to
investigate the circumstances surrounding an accident in a canteen
kitchen, your objective could be agreed to be: To investigate how an
employee received injuries from a food mixer whilst working in the can-
teen. You will now draw up a general list of areas you will need to
cover:
What happened?
What were the consequences?
Was the employee properly trained?
Was the machine properly maintained?
Was it avoidable?
You can draw up your lists of general areas to be covered and specific
questions that will need to be asked in any way you like. There are no
rules. Use whatever method suits you best. Many writers mind map the
information they will need to obtain.
Preparation and Planning 19
Rather than starting at the top of the page and working down in sen-
tences, lists or words, you begin at the centre with the overall topic of
your report - and branch out as your information requirements become
readily apparent (see Figure 1).
Mind mapping your total research needs has a number of significant
advantages over relying on experience, random thoughts, or, worst of all,
good fortune:
The open-ended nature of a mind map will enable your brain to make
new connections far more readily. Expect to be surprised.
You are now in a position to think about the overall plan of your report.
This is known as the skeletal framework. It is like drawing up the plans
for a new house. Not only will it show its overall structure, it will also
remind you of the materials (information) you will need to gather
before the process of construction can begin.
A number of significant benefits will accrue in constructing a skeletal
framework. In particular, it will enable the writer:
The first step then is to write a working title, which defines the subject
matter of the document. The title must accurately describe what the text
is all about. For the planning phase, use a functional title rather than a
creative, attention-grabbing title. For example, use Why ABC should
build a factory in Anytown, rather than Anytown: A Town of Growth.
A functional working title is helpful in continually reminding you of
the document's objective. Save the more creative title for the final, pub-
lished version of the report, possibly adding the working title as the sub-
title.
The second step is to consider the overall structure. Reports come in
a variety of shapes and sizes and are made up of a variety of sections, or
components. If you can design a suitable framework everything else
will then fall into place. Always remember this adage: tell them what
you are going to say, then say it, then tell them what you said. This may
sound trite; it isn't, because it gives you the opportunity to highlight the
most important parts of your report. Also, people tend to remember what
they read first and last far more than what they read in the middle of any
document (this phenomenon is known as the effect of primacy and
recency).
So give them a beginning, a middle and an end. It is your task to select
the most appropriate components to build up each of these main sections.
What options are available to you? All reports have a number of
commonly recognised components, including:
The beginning
Title page
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents page
Summary or Abstract
Introduction
The middle
Main body, including substructures
The end
Conclusions
Recommendations
Appendixes
22 Writing a Report
References
Bibliography
Glossary
Index.
You can then choose the ones best suited to your report, and
You may be asked to include one or more of them.
Let us take a look at each of these components. We'll consider the begin-
ning and end first before going on to the middle, the main body of the
report.
Title page
Every report should have a title page. This tells the reader (and any
potential reader) what the report is about. A good title page will include
the following information:
The title.
The name and position of the person who authorised the report.
A reference number.
Title
The title should be clear, concise and relevant; restate your terms of ref-
erence in your own words. Do not choose a title which is similar to any
other report title. Providing a subtitle is a good way of keeping the title
crisp while also providing more detail about its content. Make sure the
title is more prominent than any headings that appear in the report.
Authorisation
Then say who commissioned the report (for example, 'Produced at the
request of. . .').
Reference number
The reference number given to the report will depend on company
practice. Some organisations number all reports sequentially; others do
so by department and yet others add some personal reference (perhaps
the initials of the author).
Copyright
The decision whether to refer to copyright depends on the nature of the
report. For the report writer the main interest in the English law of copy-
right is its intention to prevent the copying of a 'substantial part' of any
literary work without permission. The word 'literary' covers any work
expressed in printing or writing, provided it is substantial enough to have
involved some literary skill and labour of composition. If you wish to
know more about this, refer to the current edition of the Writers' and
Artists' Yearbook at your local reference library.
24 Writing a Report
Confidentiality
You may decide to stamp your report 'Secret' or 'Confidential'. The
latter is a particularly useful marking when the report is about a member
of staff, as it would be a strong defence against any subsequent charge
of libel. Again you may wish to refer to the current edition of the
Writers' and Artists' Yearbook for further information. However, do not
overdo it. The most routine reports arouse exceptional interest when
marked 'Secret'. Conversely a report giving a foolproof method of how
to become a Lotto Millionaire would probably go unnoticed as long as
it was not given a security marking.
Distribution
Finally, the title page should include the distribution list of the report.
Ask the person who requested the report to tell you who should see it.
Their names will generally be listed in order of seniority. However if you
foresee any problems or disputes, perhaps because of internal politics, or
if the report is to be sent outside your organisation, list the recipients
alphabetically or by geographical location. Also remember to include at
least one copy for file. Record this at the foot of the list.
Foreword
This component is rarely used in a report. When it is included it is gen-
erally not written by the report writer but by some (other) acknowledged
expert in the field - perhaps the person who commissioned the report. A
foreword should be concise.
Preface
This is another uncommon component. It is used when a writer wishes to
convey some personal background details behind the report's production.
Acknowledgements
This section is used to convey your thanks to people and/or organisations
who helped during the preparation of the report. For example they may
have provided information, help, finance, or granted permission for you
to use some copyright material. Do not go over the top with your thanks
and try to keep it balanced and in perspective. For example, you may
'wish to record (your) thanks to Mr X' (who assisted you for an hour)
and later 'to convey (your) special thanks to Mrs Y' (who helped for a
week).
If a large number of people assisted you it may not be possible, or
even desirable, to name them all. One way of getting round this is 'to
Preparation and Planning 25
thank the management and staff of ABC Ltd'. Alternatively, you could
record a blanket acknowledgement such as: 'I also wish to thank every-
one else who assisted during the preparation of this report'. In this way
you are covered if you have forgotten to mention somebody by name.
As a general rule it is unnecessary to express your gratitude to peo-
ple who would have been expected to help you (such as your staff),
unless they made some special effort on your behalf. Read acknowl-
edgements in books - including this one - to see how they should be
written. Sometimes this section is placed at the end of the report.
Contents page
A contents page is essential for any report exceeding three pages. It
should be on a separate sheet of paper and it should list the various sec-
tions of the report in the order in which they appear. The headings on the
contents page must be identical to those used in the text, with the appro-
priate page (and/or paragraph) number alongside them. If you have used
more than just one or two illustrations then provide a separate list of
these below the section headings. Your page numbering and paragraph
numbering systems should be simple and consistent.
An average manager's reading speed is between 200 and 250 words per
minute, and he or she comprehends only 75 per cent of this. It is there-
fore extremely important to highlight the salient facts and the main
conclusions and recommendations, if any. Obviously it cannot be writ-
ten until after the other components of the report. Keep it concise; it
should never exceed one page. Do not introduce any matter which is not
covered within the text of the report.
Main findings
Main conclusions
As a general rule, the more senior the reader, the less detail he or she will
require. For this reason a reader is sometimes sent a summary instead of
the entire report. When this is done the covering letter should offer a
copy of the full report, if required.
Introduction
This section sets the scene. While the title page gives a broad indication
of the subject, the introduction tells the reader what it is all about. A
good introduction will engage the readers' interest and include every-
thing that they will need to know before moving on to the main body of
the report. It will contain certain essential preliminaries which would not
be weighty enough individually to justify headings of their own. These
might include:
Why was the report written? Who requested it, and when?
What resources were available to you? (For example, staff, time and
equipment.)
What limitations, if any, did you work under? What were the
reasons for this? (For example, 'The report does not analyse
departmental expenditure in June because the figures were not
available.')
What sources of information did you use? How did you obtain this
information?
How is the report structured? Why did you choose this method of
presentation? This explanation helps your readers find their way
around the report and shows the logic of the layout.
In some reports the first two of these preliminaries are called aims and
the others are known collectively as scope.
Reports should not be anonymous documents, so it is usual for the
name and signature of the author to appear immediately below the intro-
duction. Some organisations prefer the signature to appear under the
writer's name on the title page. Either way, it is best to sign every copy
rather than simply sign and photocopy the master copy. In the case of pro-
fessional firms preparing reports for clients, it is customary for only the
name of the practice to be given. This indicates the joint responsibility of
the partnership. The identity of the author is denoted by the reference.
Conclusions
Your conclusions should link your terms of reference (what you were
trying to do, as stated in your introduction) with your findings (what you
found out, as presented in your main body). They should flow naturally
from your evidence and arguments; there must be no surprises.
Conclusions should always be:
Recommendations
Do not make any recommendations unless your terms of reference
empower you to do so. While conclusions refer to the past and/or the
present, recommendations look to the future. Any comment not con-
cerned with the future has no place as a recommendation. Your recom-
mendations should follow logically from your conclusions. Therefore,
once again, there should be no surprises.
Effective recommendations are concise and to the point. They are
also specific. For example, management may need to know what should
be done by whom to overcome a specific problem; it will not want to be
told that some undefined action should be taken by some unidentified
individual for no apparent reason.
Your recommendations must also be realistic. Perhaps the security at
a warehouse should be improved. If so, do not risk the rejection of a
28 Writing a Report
Appendixes
The purpose of an appendix is to supplement the information contained
in the main body of the report. It is a way of providing adequate detail
for readers who require it without breaking the thread of the main body.
But how do you know what information to put in appendixes, what to
include in the main body and what to exclude from the report altogeth-
er? Figure 2 is an example of an algorithm that will help you decide the
answer. Start at the top left.
Fig. 2. An algorithm.
References
This section provides full details of the books or journals which have
been specifically mentioned in the text, or from which extracts have
been quoted. They should be listed in the same order as referred to in the
report. Details of books should follow this style:
Bibliography
A bibliography also gives full details of every publication referred to in
the text. However, unlike a reference section, it may also include books
30 Writing a Report
and journals not referred to. A bibliography is useful when you have a
diverse readership since you can provide separate lists for background
reading, further reading and recommended reading. Details of pub-
lications are given in the same format as are references, but it is cus-
tomary to list them alphabetically by the surname of the author or by the
title of the book.
Glossary
A glossary is necessary when you have used a good deal of specialised
or technical vocabulary. It is another useful device to help meet the
needs of a diverse readership, some of whom will be familiar with the
terminology and some of whom will not be. Make sure your definitions
are authoritative, precise and up-to-date (words come and go and some
change their meaning over time). For this reason it is important that your
dictionary or reference book is a current edition.
List the words alphabetically and place the section towards the end of
the report. However, if a large number of readers will need to familiarise
themselves with the vocabulary before reading the report, it is better to
place the glossary at the beginning.
Index
An index is necessary only for a large report. It should contain more
entries than a contents page and it is perfectly acceptable for it to be pre-
sented in two or three columns. List items alphabetically and place the
index at the end of the report.
Facilities for providing at least a basic index should be found in most
word processors. However, always check any computer-generated index
very carefully or the silliest mistakes can go undetected. In particular
think about:
Some words are spelt the same way but have different meanings, such as
bank (an establishment where money is deposited) and bank (the slop-
ing ground on each side of a river). Make sure your index reflects the
true meaning of a word. Some indexes do not. This excerpt is taken from
page 19 of a report on local sports and recreational amenities:
The Leader of the Council stated: 'The proposal to extend the sports
centre will, of course, be considered'.
Preparation and Planning 31
Course,
golf-, 11
of, 19
race-, 13
Equally importantly, watch out for the context. The following example
comes from a law report:
Mr Justice Straw said that he had a great mind to commit the man
for trial.
Main body
The final step is to consider how information should be presented with-
in the main body of the report. If you have already mind mapped the
information you will need to obtain (page 19), you can now re-shape this
material into a structure that your readers will find both acceptable and
intelligible.
The report on the accident in the canteen would be confusing if it sim-
ply recorded the supervisor's, doctor's and engineer's comments in turn.
An improvement would be to extract the related parts of their respective
evidence and to record them together within appropriate sections, or cat-
egories of the report.
Different levels of category must be organised into a hierarchy, with
the title at the top of the hierarchy. Level 1 categories are based on the
broad areas that are to be covered; Level 2 categories relate to the more
detailed findings which collectively cover each of these broad areas:
Once these three stages have been completed (working title; overall
Preparation and Planning 33
At this stage, conduct the first test on each component and the other tests
on each module, or group of categories within the main body, starting
34 Writing a Report
Inclusion test: Given the heading of the module, are all appropriate
items included? If not, restrict the scope of the heading to fit the
items that are present, or add the missing items.
Exclusion test: Given the heading of the module, are all inappro-
priate items excluded? If not, delete the inappropriate items, or
expand the heading to fit all the items in the module.
SUMMARY
>It is essential to prepare and plan your report very carefully. This
process will greatly reduce the time and effort subsequently on writ-
ing and re-writing the report by:
providing you with clear guidelines as you collect and handle the
information, and then write the report.
Be crystal clear about your objective. Why are you writing this
report? What effect do you want it to have on your readers? The sta-
tus quo is not an option, or there would be no need for the report to
be written.
Find out as much about your audience as possible. You will say dif-
ferent things, and in different ways, to help achieve your objective
when addressing different people.
Think carefully about the information you will need. Talk to the
person who asked you to write the report and speak to any key read-
ers. What would they like to see included? Don't include anything
unless it is relevant and it helps you achieve your objective. Good
36 Writing a Report
report writing is often more about what to leave out than what to put
in.
Once you have carefully planned your report, it is time to carry out all
the work that will be necessary before you can actually write it. In other
words, you are now ready to undertake your project or investigation.
Your task is to collect and handle enough relevant information to enable
you to put flesh on the bones of your skeletal framework. These are the
stages your research should follow:
It is quite possible to write a bad report even after doing good research,
but it is impossible to write a good report after doing poor research. The
moral is clear: good research is essential.
By now you will have identified the information you require, bearing in
mind:
37
38 Writing a Report
your objective(s)
your resources
People
Books and other publications
Information technology
Events and places.
The information you will need may be found under any or all of these
categories, so you might consider each in turn.
People
You may be able to obtain the information you require from the local,
national, or even the international community. Here are some possibili-
ties:
your colleagues
members of the public
politicians
producers
manufacturers
retailers
federations
unions
pressure groups
international organisations.
encyclopaedias
reference books
text books
guides
handbooks
journals and magazines
newspapers
maps and charts
previous reports
correspondence
minutes.
Information technology
The information that a computer can put at your fingertips is almost
limitless. You can often have free on-line access to a veritable cornu-
copia of information, providing you are prepared to put some time and
effort into tracking down the facts and figures you really want.
Information has a time value. Real-time stock prices from the London
Stock Exchange, for instance, are worth more than prices that are
an hour old, which, in turn, are worth more than those at the
previous evening's close of business. Information also has a value that
depends on how specialised and detailed it is. A CD-Rom that contains
comprehensive details of British Case Law in a searchable form will
be very expensive because only a small number of customers would buy
it.
Fortunately, for most report writers, plenty of useful information is
available at realistically low prices. You just have to set your course
through the mountain of data that is available. For example, if you were
looking for stock market prices, there are several possible routes, each
40 Writing a Report
libraries
learning resources centres
research institutions
exhibitions
museums
galleries
laboratories
theatres
concerts
talks.
Libraries
In addition to local, university and college libraries, many government
departments and business organisations run libraries that are open to
Collecting and Handling Information 41
experimentation
reading
listening
observation
42 Writing a Report
interview
letter
telephone call
questionnaire
research on the Internet.
Experimentation
An experiment should be carried out by a trained scientist who will
design and perform it in an acceptable way. The experiment should be
written up as follows:
Give a clear and full account of how the experiment was carried
out. It is usually necessary to provide a diagram of the apparatus
used.
Reading
The way you read should vary according to the complexity of the mate-
rial and the reasons for reading it. If you are reading to understand,
absorb or master a topic you must read it slowly. If you are reading a
novel for entertainment you can read it quickly.
Try the SQ3R method of reading:
Collecting and Handling Information 43
S Survey
Q Question
R Read
R Recall
R Review.
Survey
This is the preliminary review of the book or article. It involves skim-
ming (glancing over the material and getting the feel of it) and scanning
(looking at specific aspects of the publication - the title, the author, the
date, the preface, the introduction, the contents, any chapter summaries
and the index). In the case of a book, it is also a good idea to read the
first and last paragraphs of potentially relevant chapters and the first and
last sentences of a sample of paragraphs within these chapters. This
scanning should give you an overall impression of the publication, such
as:
Is it up to date?
Question
Then ask yourself these questions:
Read
Once you have decided to read some or all of a publication, divide your
reading into manageable segments, probably chapters or sections. Read
any summaries or conclusions first. Next read the chapter or section
quickly to get a grasp of the material. Finally, read it again, more slow-
ly, and ensure you understand it.
44 Writing a Report
Recall
Think about the main ideas and facts you have been reading about and
make notes of them.
Review
Are you satisfied that you have gained what you expected through your
reading? Have you gathered the information you will need to help put
the flesh on your skeletal framework?
Listening
Some researchers suggest that we function at only twenty-five per cent
efficiency and rarely remember what we have heard. In one investigation
the proportion of information which was correctly transmitted from a
senior director through middle and line management to operative staff
was as low as twenty per cent. Such ineffective listening can be respon-
sible for the following:
Accidents at work.
Production breakdowns.
Poor morale.
Personality clashes.
Inaccurate communication.
Do not:
Persepolis.
Hautoja Shiratsissa.
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