Dr.

N Ditshego
Lecturer
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Botswana

Office No: 248/213

Ext: 4229
Email: [email protected]

EEB 341
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

CHAPTER 3
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
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 Boolean algebra
• There are only two possible values for any quantity and for any
arithmetic operation 1 or 0
• It does not matter how many or few terms we add together,
either.

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Addition in Boolean Algebra

• Is not same as real-number algebra

3
 Multiplication in Boolean Algebra
• Is same as in real-number algebra. Anything multiplied by 0
is 0, and anything multiplied by 1 remains unchanged

4
Axioms of Boolean Algebra

5
Single Variable Theorems

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Two- and Three-Variable Properties

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Proof of Demorgan’s Theorem (15a)

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Logic Functions

 A logic function can be described by a

 Truth table
 Boolean expression (i.e. equation)
 Circuit diagram (aka. Logic Circuit)
 Each can equally describe the logic function.

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Truth Tables

15
Truth Tables
A truth table defines the value of the output of a logic
function for each combination of the input variables.


Each row in the truth table corresponds to a unique

combination of the input variables.


 For n input variables, there are 2n rows.

Each row is assigned a numerical value, with the rows
listed in ascending order.


The order of the input variables defined in the logic

function is important.


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3-input Truth Table

# A B C F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1

3 variables → 23 = 8 rows

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4-input Truth Table
# A B C D F(A,B,C,D)
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
…
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 0
15 1 1 1 1
4 variables → 24 = 16 rows
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Truth Tables: Examples
F1 is completely defined by:
A B C F1(A,B,C) F2 is completely defined by:
0 0 0 0 A B C F2(A,B,C)
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Are F1 and F2 the same logic functions?

19
Boolean Expressions
 A Boolean expression is composed of
 Literals – variables and their complements
 Logical operators
 Examples
 F1 = A.B.C + A'.B'.C + A.B'.C' + A'.B.C'
 F2 = (A'+B+C).(A+B'+C).(A+B+C')
 F3 = A'.(B+C) + B.(A+C')

Literals highlighted in green

Logical operators highlighted in blue

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Boolean Expressions

 A Boolean expression is evaluated by

 Substituting a 0 or 1 for each literal
 Calculating the logical value of the expression
A truth table represents the evaluation of a
Boolean expression for all combinations of the


input variables.

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Boolean Expressions: Example #1
Simple AND and OR Functions

Using a truth table, evaluate the following Boolean

expressions:
An AND function = 1

F1(A,B,C) = A'.B.C'
when all literals = 1.

F2(A,B,C) = A + B' + C'

An OR function = 1
Literal = X or X'
when any literal = 1.
If X' = 1 then X = 0
If X' = 0 then X = 1 An OR function = 0
when all literals = 0.

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Boolean Expressions: Example #1
A B C A' B' C' F1 F2
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

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Boolean Expressions: Example #2
More Complex Functions of ANDs and ORs

Using a truth table, evaluate the following Boolean

expression:

F(A,B,C) = A'.C + B.C' + A.B'.C'

An AND term = 1
An OR function = 1 when all literals = 1.
when any term = 1.

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Boolean Expressions: Example #2
A B C A'C BC' AB'C' F(A,B,C)
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

25
Boolean Expressions: Example #3
More Complex Functions of ANDs and ORs

Using a truth table, evaluate the following Boolean

expression:

F(A,B,C) = (A+B').(A'+C).(A+B'+C')
An OR term = 1
An AND function = 1 when any literal = 1.
when all terms = 1.

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Boolean Expressions: Example #3
A B C A+B' A'+C A+B'+C' F(A,B,C)
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

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Logic Circuits
A Boolean expression is realized using a network of
logic gates, known as a logic circuit or a circuit


diagram, where
 Each logic gate represents a logical operator
 Each input to a logic gate represents a literal

A
B
literals logical operators
F

Circuit Diagram

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(Combinational) Logic Circuits
 Composed of an interconnected set of logic gates.
 Also known as Switching Circuits
 Logic circuits can be designed from
 Truth tables
 Boolean expressions
 Logic circuits are realized through
 Interconnection of discrete components
 Synthesis from a Hardware Description Language

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Logic Circuit: Example #1
Given the following truth table,

1. Derive a Boolean expression

2. Draw the corresponding circuit diagram

A B F(A,B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1

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Logic Circuit: Example #2
Given the following truth table,

1. Derive a Boolean expression

2. Draw the corresponding circuit diagram
A B C F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
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Equivalency of Boolean Expressions
Two Boolean expressions are equivalent if they have
the same value for each combination of the variables


in the Boolean expression.

How do you prove that two Boolean expressions are
equivalent?


 Truth table
 Boolean Algebra

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Equivalence: Example

Using a Truth table, prove that the following two

Boolean expressions are equivalent.

F1(A,B) = A'.B + A.B'

F2(A,B) = (A'.B' + A.B)'

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Equivalence: Example

A B A'B AB' A'B' AB F1 F2

0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

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Simplifying Boolean Expressions

Boolean algebra can be used in several ways to

simplify a Boolean expression:


 Combine terms
 Eliminate redundant or consensus terms
 Eliminate redundant literals
 Add redundant terms to be combined with or
allow the elimination of other terms

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Importance of Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is used to simplify Boolean
expressions.


 Simpler expressions leads to simpler logic circuits.

 Reduces cost
 Reduces area requirements
 Reduces power consumption
The objective of the digital circuit designer is to design
and realize optimal digital circuits.


 Thus, Boolean algebra is an important tool to the

digital circuit designer.

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Problem with Boolean Algebra
In general, there is no easy way to determine when a
Boolean expression has been simplified to a minimum


number of terms or a minimum number of literals.

Karnaugh Maps provide a better mechanism for the

simplification of Boolean expressions.


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 Circuit Design: Example

For the following Boolean expression:

F(A,B,C) = A.B.C + A'.B.C + A.B'.C + A.B.C'

1. Draw the circuit diagram

2. Simplify using Boolean algebra
3. Draw the simplified circuit diagram

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Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions

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Standard Forms

There are two standard forms in which all Boolean

expressions can be written:

1. Sum of Products (SOP)

2. Product of Sums (POS)

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Sum of Products (SOP)

 Product Term
 Logical product = AND operation
 A product term is the ANDing of literals
 Examples: A.B, A'.B.C, A.C', B.C'.D', A.B.C.D
 “Sum of”
 Logical sum = OR operation
 The sum of products is the ORing of product terms.

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 The distributive laws are used to multiply out a
general Boolean expression to obtain the sum of


products (SOP) form.

The distributive laws are also used to convert a
Boolean expression in POS form to one in SOP


form.
A SOP expression is realized using a set of AND
gates (one for each product term) driving a single


OR gate (for the sum).

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Product of Sums (POS)

 Sum Term
 Logical sum = OR operation
 A sum term is the ORing of literals
 Examples: A+B, A'+B+C, A+C', B+C'+D'
 “Product of”
 Logical product = AND operation
 The product of sums is the ANDing of sum terms.

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 The distributive laws are used to factor a general
Boolean expression to obtain the product of sums


(POS) form.
The distributive laws are also used to convert a
Boolean expression in SOP form to one in POS


form.
A POS expression is realized using a set of OR gates
(one for each sum term) driving a single AND gate


(for the product).

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SOP and POS: Examples
For each of the following Boolean expressions, identify
whether it is in SOP or POS form:

1. F(A,B,C) = (A+B).(A'+B'+C').(B+C')
2. F(A,B,C) = A.B.C + B'.C' + A.C' + A'.B.C'
3. F(A,B,C) = A + B.C + B'.C' + A'.B'.C
4. F(A,B,C) = (A'+B'+C).(B+C').(A+C').(B')
5. F(A,B,C) = A.B.C + A'.(B+C) + (A+C').B
6. F(A,B,C) = A + B + C

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Minterms and Maxterms

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Minterm
In general, a minterm of n variables is a product
(ANDing) of n literals in which each variable appears


exactly once in either true or complemented form, but

not both.
 A literal is a variable or its complement.
For a given row in the truth table, the corresponding
minterm is formed by


 Including the true form a variable if its value is 1.

 Including the complemented form of a variable if its
value is 0.

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Minterms

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Minterm Expansion
When a function f is written as a sum (ORing) of
minterms, it is referred to as a minterm expansion or a


standard sum of products.

 aka. “canonical sum of products”
 aka. “disjunctive normal form”
If f = 1 for row i of the truth table, then mi must be
present in the minterm expansion.


 The minterm expansion for a function f is unique.

 However, it is not necessarily the lowest cost.

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Minterm Expansion
The minterm expansion for a general function of 3
variables can be written as follows:


3 variables
Denotes the logical
sum operation

ai = 0 or 1.

This can be extended to n variables

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Maxterm
In general, a maxterm of n variables is a sum (ORing) of
n literals in which each variable appears exactly once in


either true or complemented form, but not both.

 A literal is a variable or its complement.
For a given row in the truth table, the corresponding
maxterm is formed by


 Including the true form a variable if its value is 0.

 Including the complemented form of a variable if its
value is 1.

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Maxterms

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Maxterm Expansion
When a function f is written as a product (ANDing) of
maxterms, it is referred to as a maxterm expansion or a


standard product of sums.

 aka. “canonical product of sums”
 aka. “conjunctive normal form”
If f = 0 for row i of the truth table, then Mi must be
present in the maxterm expansion.


 The maxterm expansion for a function f is unique.

 However, it is not necessarily the lowest cost.

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Maxterm Expansion
The maxterm expansion for a general function of 3
variables can be written as follows:


3 variables
Denotes the logical
product operation

ai = 0 or 1.

This can be extended to n variables

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Minterm and Maxterm Expansions

What is the relationship between the minterm

expansion and maxterm expansion for the same
function?

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Minterm and Maxterm Expansions

What is the relationship between the minterm

expansion for a function and that for the
complement of the function?

What about the maxterm expansion?

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Logic Circuits
A function f can be represented by either a minterm
expansion or a maxterm expansion.


Both forms of the function can be realized using logic

gates that implement the basic logic operations.


 Minterm Expansion (Standard SOP)

 Consists of the sum (OR) of product (AND) terms.
 Realized using an AND-OR circuit.
 Maxterm Expansion (Standard POS)
 Consists of the product (AND) of sum (OR) terms.
 Realized using an OR-AND circuit.

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Incompletely Specified Functions
A function f is completely specified when its output
is defined (i.e. either 0 or 1) for all combinations of


its inputs.
However, if the output of a function f is not defined
for all combinations of its inputs, then it is said to


be incompletely specified.
 Those combinations of the inputs for which the
output of function f is not defined are referred to
as “don't care” outputs.

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Incompletely Specified Functions
The truth table representing an incompletely specified
function includes an “x” (or a “d”) in each row


corresponding to an input combination for which the

output is not defined.
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 X “don't care” for ABC = 001
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 X “don't care” for ABC = 011
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 X “don't care” for ABC = 110
1 1 1 1

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Incompletely Specified Functions
A B C F
The minterm expansion is:
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 X
F(A,B,C) = m(2,4,7) + d(1,3,6)
0 1 0 1
“don't care” minterms
0 1 1 X
1 0 0 1 The maxterm expansion is:
F(A,B,C) = M(0,5) . D(1,3,6)
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 X
1 1 1 1
“don't care” maxterms

 A “don't care” can be either a 0 or 1.

 Select a value for each “don't care” that will help
simplify the function.

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Incompletely Specified Functions
Assume X1 = 0, X2 = 0, X3 = 0:
A B C F
F(A,B,C) = A'BC' + AB'C' + ABC
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 X1
0 1 0 1 Assume X1 = 1, X2 = 1, X3 = 1:
0 1 1 X2
1 0 0 1 F(A,B,C) = B + AC' + A'C
1 0 1 0

Assume X1 = 0, X2 = 1, X3 = 1:
1 1 0 X3
1 1 1 1

F(A,B,C) = B + AC'

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