Chapter S Lile Processes : (o) Nutrition

• The process of tronsfe"ing o source of energy (food) • Plants require some row materials other than water
from outside the body of on organism to mointoin e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium that
living structures is known os MfltrltJo.,. are token up from the soil.
• Nfltrlfflts ore the submnces required for pro~r • Nitrogen is on essential component for the synthesi
growth and mointeWJnce of o living body. of proteins ond other compounds. It is mainly u,Jce,i
up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites or in
I. Auttltropl,ic Node ol Nutrition organic form (prepared from N 2).
• Autotrophic nutrition is performed by the outotrophs.
They synthesise organic food in the form of Z. Heterfltropl,ic Hode ol Nutrition
corbol,ydrote~ from ~rbon dio'Xide and woter in the • Heterotrophic nutrition is performed by an organism
prese~e of sunlight and d,Jorophgll and convert that aJnnot m(Jke its own food and obtains it from
them into stored forms of energy. This process of other organisms. Thus, heterotrophs obtain a2rbon
food sgnth~s is known os pltotos~sls. ond energy from organic molecules already produced
Examples of outotrophs ore green plants (producers) by the outotrophs. e.g., Herbivores, aJrnivores,
and some bacteria. omnivores, S1Jprotrophs and parasites.
• General reaction involved in the process of • Heterotrophic mode of nutrition aJn be of foilowing
photosynthesis is three types
I

Sunlight (i) Holozolc JH/trltloM is the mode of nutrition in

6l02 + l2H 2 0 l6Ht2°6 which herbivores (plant-eaters), aJrnivores
C..rho,, dimtk "4>our Chloropltgll
C.r~r•u
(meat-eaters) and omnivores (both plant tJ,,,d
+ 602 + 6H20 meat-eaters) u,kes complex molecules and the
0~ "4>otn
breaks them down into simpler ond soluble
• Mojor events ocw"ing in photosynthesis ore molecules in body. e.g., Amoeba, cow, 9oat, dog
cat, humon being, etc.
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Soprotropl,/c ntltrltlon is the mode ol nutrition
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
in which soprotrophs feed on deod organic
(iii) Splitting of woter molecules into hgdrogen ond matter by breaking down ,omplex materials
oKggen. outside the bodg and then absorbing it. e.g.,
yeast and bocteria.
(iv) Reduction of carbon dioxide to corbohgdrotes.
• Leof in green plants hove structures known os (iii) Porosltlc Mlltrlt/011 is the mode of nutrition in
d,loroplosts (cont4ining chlorophyll) which are the wh~ch an organism (Parasite), that live either o
or into the body of another organism (Host),
main site for the pr«.ess of photosynthesis.
obtain their nutrition from them without ltil/i119
• In leaf, stomot4 (ting pores present on the surface of them. e.g., PlosmodiumI ticksI lice> leech,
the leaf) porticipote in gaseous exchange during tape-worm, flotworm, Cuscuto (omer-bel), eU.
photosgnthesis. They are also responsible for Jorge
omount of woter loss through transpiration. These J. Mltrlt/M Proceu l11 l>lfferent Orgo,,,snts
pores do~ when there Is no Med of carbon dio'Xide • A~ the food and the wag it is obtained is different l
for ~ s by guard cells wl,id, ore the different tgpes ol organisms there is variation in tJ,
man-shop«} cells that regulote the stomotlJI digestive system of different organism.
openings. • In sl"fl•-ulled or,-lsw,$, the food mag be t,ke'1
• Eodt polr of guord cell ls mHnt to control the
by t~ entire surface of organism, but in comp/et
opening ond dosing of the stomotlJ owl henu control
(multicellular) organisms, there ore specialised p,rtS
the rot. ol diffusion r,f go~ ond water vapour Into or organs for digestion.
ond out of the IMf.
y
\ ,,,,_, , beings, the digestive system constft (protein digestive enzyme) and mucus for the proce
ss
, #. "''"",/or struc ture called olimentoru co I utGabou
es a
t
,,./1/J l,&#l/fl' d d· . .,. no of digestion.
'"' i
)

,r,ettes Jong an ,g~st,ve glands associated

s digestive enzymes ~,or • Hydrochloric acid main ly provides an acidic
7,.:1-lt it, which secrete vanou
f . . environment for the protein digestion by pepsin.
;·complete process o d,gest,on.
h to the am., • The mucus protects the lining of the stomach from
. r,1:1),Y CDYIOI runs from mout
L
~Jj,r,t of d. . . s Wnere the action of the acid under normal conditions.
• entire process 1gest1on 1s accomplished.
tJlt complete process 1nge~,~•
of. • Food now moves to smal l intes tine (long co,1ed tube
The ..1on, digestion
like organ) by the help of a sphin cter muscle.
• ,1,s,r,aon, ossimilotlon and egestlon of fodd
• Small intestine (longest part of alime ntary cana l)
,r,oterilJI is done in alime ntary canal.
acts as a site of complete digestion of carbohydrates,
, ,.U, acts as the first part of the digestive system lipids and proteins. .
fro,11 where the food enters. l
• Herbivores (grass eating anim als) have longer smal
~:N>ction process start s tsin the mout h wfth the he/p
' ,,..-- mom . intestine_ for cellulose digestion.
,I some componen
• Pancreas provides pancreatic enzymes to make the
(i) Teeth that break down food from larger acidic nature of food alkaline in smal l intes tine. It
molecules to smal ler form by the process of also have trypsin and lipase enzyme for digestion of
grinding, chewing, crushing and cutting. proteins and lipids respectively.
(ii) This food in mout h ~s mixe 1 with a watery • lrrtestlnoljuice secreted from the gland prese nt in
substtmce called sal,va, wh,ch is secreted by wall of small intestine, finall y converts prote ins to
solivary glands. amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and
(iii) Saliva contains an enzyme called so/ivory • fats into fatty acid and glycerol.
nt in
amylase which breaks down starc h to simple • 'f>igested food is absorbed by blood vessels prese
sugars. the wall of finger like projections name d villi in
, This food moves from mout h to stomach through the intestine.
y,
poSStJge called oesopl,ogus(food pipe). • Absorbed food is utl1ised for obtai ning energ
building up of new tissues and repairing of
old
• Stomach is the most d,1ated part of the olimentlJry
tissues.
canal which is situated between the oesophagus and
the small intestine. • The unabsorbed food is taken to Jorge lntest/r,e
where water is absorbed and finall y the undig ested
• There are gastric glands present in the wall d by
material is removed from body via or,us (regu lated
stomach that release hydrochloric ocid, pepsin
anal sphincter).

Lile Processes: (b) Respiration

' The process of hi«ltemical oxidotion of nutrients breakdown of glucose (six-carbon molecule) into
(occumng in cytoplasm d the cell) in the presence pyruvate (three-carbon molecule).
of specific enzymes at optimum temperature in the • The conversion of pyruvate into anoth er substance
cells to release energy for metabolic activities is depends on the presence or absence of oxygen.
b7own as respiration • Aerobic respirotlon is described as the release of
• It is a cotoholic process in which exchan'ge of gases fairly large amou nt of energy from the breakdown of
~ s viz, oxygen and aJrbon dioxide, between the the food substances in presence of oxygen. The
--Y and the outside environment. energy released is furth er ut,1ised for other life
Carbon dioxide + 1,Joter processes.
I.e. Food + Oxggen ---+
+ Energg ~luco s e ~ Pyruvate
•::;enee, o~ganisms use oxygen, while_ some do not.
,n both the coses, the first step is the
( 6 carbon molecule) ( 3 carbon molecule)

+ Energy ~ Carbon diox ide+ ~ate r + 38AT P

• This process stQrts in the cgtoplosw, of o ceJJ ond • There is o strict mechonism in these orgoni
continues in the mltocl,0ttdrlo. movln9 the oir in ond out of the oreo where
• Ar,oerobic. respirotlo" is described os the reJeose of oxygen is absorbed.
smolJ ·omount of energy from the breokd<>Wn the food
substonces in the obsence of oxygen. It is oJso known 3. Respirotlon In Human Bel"gs
as hrw,entot lo,.. • Process of respiration (respiratory system) in
• This occurs in yeast, bocter,a ond ln the humon humon beings like other onimols, serves to
muscle. fresh oxygen to oil body cells and removes l?o
• Anaerobic respiration produces only two molecules of c.orbon dioxide from the bodg.
ATP for each glucose molecule. • This process of tolcing in of oxygen is lcnown os
• ATP SUJnd_s for Adenosine Tripnosphote, whid, is oJso i"spirotio,, ond giving out of corbon dioxide is
/mown as the ertfffg c11rre~, ol tlte c.ell. known os expirtJtJo".
• It is mainly broken down to provide lorge amount of
• Nostrils Air is token into the body through
energy which am drive the endothermic r~actioYJ toking
whid, f,1ters the oir by fine hoirs ond mucus
plou in the cell.
in it.
• ltt>P + P EMrg'I ➔ At>P - P == ATP • Nosol Possoge Air entering from nostrils led to
1,Jl?ere P = inorganic pnospnote nasal p<Jssoge whid, is responsible for condru··,w.
of oir.
I. Resplrotlon In Plonts
• E,cchonge of gases in plants occur through sto,nottJ owl • Pl,orpr It octs on tJ,e oir coming lrom the no
lorge interceJJulor spoces. c.ovity, filters it ond w,okes it worm ond moist.
of CJJrtiloge ore present ;,, throat tD prevent tJte
• Root, stem ond Jeof of o plant ore the ports involved in
colJopose of the oir possoge.
respiration. It is rapid in meristemotic tissue ond slower
in moture regions. • Tr«lteo (w/Nlplpe ) The oir then pt;sses from
fJhor!l"x ond goes into tr0<.heo wl?icl, is o ,y1·
• In roots of o plant exchange of goses tolces place by tube, that is supported bg urtiloge rings of (C)
the process of dilnslo". s ~ owl split into two brMchi.
• In woody pJonts, gaseous exchange occurs by diffusiOYJ • Bro,,,c.ltl OuWtk tM lu"9s, troc.ne/J divides inti>
througl, the smoll pores in the stems CJJlled lffltlcels. smaller tubes, these tubes ertend into lungs.
• In leaves, respirotlon tolces plou by drffusion of o-xygen • BrMdt~ s Brond,i is sub-divided int.o gno/Jer
through st....-. into the cells of the leof from where tubes UJlled bronchioles. Eodt bronchiole fiNJlg
e4rbo,,, dioxide is releosed into the atmosphere. terminates into olveoli.
2.. Resplrotltwl In AttiMOls • Alwoll ~ ore tM o;, socs t~t occur ;,, du
• Some twJin,ols respire (i.e., take in oxyger, owl give out The~ ore l,allon lib structure dtot pr<Nitk ~ -
e4rf:>tw, dioxide) tnrough ~ir slcin, wni~ ~ through for tM excho~ of go~. Eoch ~ of ~ is
the orgo,,s. ~ organs ore ~ os resplrtltorf surrounded by the network r,f u,poJJories.
.,,-s, wl,id, worlc together to constit:JJU o respiratory • l>lopltrog,r, It forms ~ hose r,f d,est cavitg
symm ol or, organism. ocu os a musculor port.ition between dtorox oJ
• 7),e ..,,_k .,,.,,_,S (sud, OS fishe$ etc) utJ1i~ ~ obdomen.
oxgge, dissolved w, water for respirotion. Sine~,~ If. Resplrotorg Pigment
amount ol dissolved oxgge,, is lowly kliNer than the
• Hoemogk>hi,, (whit.I, hos wery ltigl, ofr,wtg for
~ of 0'XWffl ;,, the oir.. Therefore, oqut,tic
organisms breothe ~ ropidfg (through mouth) oxggen) is tM respirotory pigment;,,, l,umor, •
to
It is momJg respo,,sible for CMTyir,g O'Xyge,t ,,_
occuw,ulou more oNI more ~ -
lungs to tissue$, ~ore releasing it. It is olso
• ,,, anutrNI .,,-,_,s atmospheric ~ is used respot,~ lorCOl tronspo,totjo,, owl tN r«I
for respirotk>II oNl this ~ is absorbed bg d;f/erent
colour flf bd Blood lorpusdes (R.Bu).
organs in different onimols.
 ~----

.'- proeesses : (c) Transportation

r,lt process in which a substance absorbed F,mctlon Theg collect the blood from different
1Ji'~ in 0r,e port of the body of an organism is organs and bring it back to the heart.
I~ to otJ,er ports of the body through the
(iii) toplllorles These ar~ formed when artery divides
:;ti"9 f!"ids like blood and lymph is a,1/ed as into smaller tubes. The walls of C1Jp11laries ore
~t,0 11. one cell thick.
1ltt tr01'Sf>"rt system of human beings consists of a F,mctlon Exchange of materials between blood
p,ti"9 /1tJid called blood, which is pumped by 0 and su"ounding cells takes ploce across the thin
_,., 0,go,, known as lteort and a system of walls of c.opillories.
;ttre#'necting tubes, i.e. blood vessels.
2. Hoir tUM~ e bf Plotelds : Blood tlottlr,g
,-rt Blood clotting Is a mechonism that prevents the loss of
11,t #,tort octs lilce a pumping machine in our body blood through the site of on injury or wound bg forming
d,,t pushes the blood into the blood vessels. a blood clot. This is doM with the help of platelets that
tis 11r1scula.r organ, which is as big as our fist. circulote around the bodg and forms o blood dot ot the
A, bwt is situated between the lungs towards the sites of injury or around an area from where the leolcoge
114 side of the chest. of blood occurs.
,._,,, heort is four chambered, i.e. two upper atria 3. L,w,ph
(,;,,gulor: atrium ) and two lower ventricles. • Apart from blood, lymph In our bodg is anoth er t~
n.s, different chambers are meant to prevent of fluid involved in transportation. This is also CJJlled
lliilg of oxygenated (pure) and deoxggenated tls.e Nd.
C.,,,) blood. • It a,"ies digested and absorbed lot from intestine
. ..., rid, blood from the lungs comes through and drains excess fluid from extracellular spou bode
.,,..lfOnO ,rg veins to thin walled upper chamber of
the into the blood.
'-t, t. ldt atrium, which relaxes while collecting • Lymph drains into lymphatic c.opillories from the
hlood, contracts and transfers the blood to left intercellular sp«es, which join to form Jorge lgmpl,
lllt1idt b«ause of its expansion then the left ve~ls that finally open into larger veins.
'-'iclt contracts and the blood is pumped to the
llltoll$ bodg f)dra through aorttJ.
If. TroMsportotltwt IM Plo,rts
• Simple compounds such os c.orbon dioxide and water
~ blood enters in right atrium through
COVO ontl when it contracts it transfers blood to
ore tlJ~n up bg the plants and stored in them os
la "9'tt ventricle, it then pump~ blood. to ~ lungs food In leoves.
a.-,;,, pulmonary arteries for oxygenation. • Roots absorb row materials such os woter and
minerals from so,1. •
~ hove thick wolls than atrium bee.au~ theg
~ to pump blood into various or94ns. • Plant transport system transports both food and
woter.
'-- ore three types of w~ls involved in blood
~ ; orteries veins and cop;llar~s • Xylem and phloem "'"Y substtJnces from one port ()f
~ > the plant body to the another.
~ rite arteries hove thick, muscular anti minerals obtained from
elost;c Walls, which "'"Y blood at high pressure. • Xylem transports woter and
the soil, whereas phloem ( vascular tissue) transports
1'-r do not hove volws. products ol photosynthesis from the leaves to the
~ TMg "'"Y blood oW<Jy from tM hetJrt other ports of the plant.
to Wlrlous organs ol the body.
"-, The veins how thin walls thon arteries S. Trtmsport ol &.later
~ carry blood at low pressun. ~ htlve • Xylem tissues ol plants hove interconnected I
~ to p,ewm : the bode flow of blood. and tro~i ds ol roots, stems ond leows thotW,;::,,,s
 conti nuous system 0 f wa ter conductm. g channels • In da!J time, transpiration pull is the major driving
.
wn,cn reo,nes to all ports of O plant. source in the movement of water in the xylem.
• There is a concentration gradient between roots and 7. Transport ol Food or,d Oth~r Substonc~1
soil, so water moves into roots from soil. This creates • Translocation is the phenomenon of transport or
a water column tnat is pushed upwards but this movement of soluble products (sugar) from the
pressure is not enough. leaves to the other parts of the plant btJ the help
• Transport of water occurs also due to tronspirationol phloem.
pull. • Su9ar like sucrose is trans{erred into phloem tisSU!
6. Transpiration with the help of ener9y (ATP).
• It increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue
• The loss of water in the form of vapour from the
causing water to move into it. This pressure moves
aerial fXJrl.s (i.e., stem, leaves) of the plant is called
material in the phloem to tissues which hove less
os transpiration. It takes place through the special
pores known os stomoto. pressure.
• Translocotion of substances tokes place in the siev,
• Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward
tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells
movement of water and mi1>erals dissolved in it from
in upward and downward directions (materials mm ~
roots to the leaves.
from hi9h pressure to low pressure).
• It also functions as o temperature regulator.

Lile Processes : (d) Excretion

o co,1ed tube of nephron co/led Bowman's capsule,
• The biologiCtJI process by which on organism removes
that collects the f,1terate.
the metabolic wastes from the bod!J is co/led
excretion. • The blood then passes through the tubular port
• The mode of excretion is completely d,fferent in nephron where important or useful subst.ances sud,
,m;,~lulor (consisting single cell) and multl,elhllor glucose, amino acids, ions and a mojor amount
(consisting mon!I cells) organisms. water are seleetivel!J reabsorbed as urine flows ol
the tube.
• Unicellular organisms excrete waste by simple process
like diffusion, whereas multicellular organisms use • The collecting duct finoll!J gathers all the moteriols
specialised orgons for the removal of waste products. that hove not returned to the blood through tne
tubular membranes.
I. Excrdion In HIIWlon h~ir,gs • The urine formed in each kidne!J then enters o long
• The moin orgons involved in the humon excretor!I tube, the urtter, which connects the kidneys with
sgstem ore o poir of kidney, a pair of ureters, o the urinary bladder.
urinorg bltJdder and o urethero. • Urine is stored in the urinor!J bladder, Unt,11 tht
• Kidneies ore situated in the abdomen, i.e. one on the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge
either side of the backbone. pass it out through the urethra.
• Each ltidneg hos thouStJnd of tiny tubules CtJlled • As the bladder is muscular, it is under the control of
•phrot1 /.e., filterotion unit ( which ore dosel!J pocked nervous system hence, we can usually control the
together). ur~ to urinate.
• The uriM is formed to F,1ter out waste products from
the blood. (i) co1 . Blood in tnt lu,,gs.
• TM basil filterotion unit in kidney is a duster of ver!J
thin walled blood C1Jp11/aries. Each C4pillory duster in (ii) Nitro9~r1ous waste Blood in tht kidYtlt·
(ur,o or uric acid).
the kidney is assoiaJted with the cup-shaped end of
If ~ ;,, Plant$
...1111 gi¥t r,H 94seous wa
ste
.s like UJrbon dioxit:k and oxyge,t throunh stomata and lenticels1 during ,~splrlltlM
,,,,,.~s,,,tltesls, respect,vely. :1

~ ~ rid of eiccess woter by the process of tronsplrotlM ond

.,J, ~s ,esw,s and gums•
,011 store waste substemas in oJd xylem

•s,,t ~ s stort waste ~bston ,es in the cell YOa#les ond get rid of them by dropping off their leo~s.
I ,dtd(Juous pk,nts. ""h,le s ~ plants also excr~e so~ solid wosu subston,es into ~ so,1 oround
tMm.
14

~r 6 Control and Cootdinotion

:.-:-- --
'r« w,rlcing together ol various organs ol living thing impul~ to dendrite of~ ~rve wl. Finollg
to
foJlow,r,g ~ process impul~ tro~ from na,ro,,
11 , sgsttmotit, controlled ond efficient wog to
,,,;,,c, proper response to the various stimuli is mu~s ulls or gkw,d.
_,,s uordiMtlon. • R.dla octlolt is O sudfkn «tion w, respon~ to
~ do not hove nervous system, but ,oordiWJu environfflffltlJI slwatkms Wfthout tl,i11ldng obout it
d,; btNNiour against environment41 cho~s by tM ond tW do not ~ ,Olftrol owr thfflt.
~ whereas animals haw nervous system owl e.g. cough mg~g , blinld,,g ol ~ etc.
~ to control and coordinate ~;, body • It Is ~nt ta protect ~ body
frow, ~ MKthout
ldMtits. inYolvti,g ong c.or,~ious thought.
i '1fifflols in<.luding humans, cor,trol owl coordinotion • ~ process of deud.in g tM signal or tN input owl
i flWided btJ NIWIIS s1stew1 which consists of responding to it btJ a,, output octitwl c.or,stit.uu o
-...s, nerves owJ neurol orgons. It Ii~, coordm1Jte ,onn«tion, commor,ly UJJl«J as rdla •c.
ad uwtrol tN octivities of diff~ent organs in tM • b/1~ ore. is form«J ;,,, tM spiw:I cord ~ olthoug/,,
-,,. It is the system of coNl"'tlr,g tlUIIU" the mformotk»t input oJso ~ o,, to reod, the brom.
It is the route of o,, electric d impul~ w, ore/la
....,s : Unit of Nervous Sgstem odioll.
II dte inlormotion from erwironment is tkt«:t«J btJ • Rdkx ore involves Sffl~ °'90", sa,~ (offeren t)
-- eels i.t. neuYMS (Jcnowt, OS tM st,ucturoJ owl neurons of o spino/ nerve, spinal cord, motor
~ uwt ol ~ MMJUS system), spec.iolis«l for (efferm t) neuro,,s of o spinal Mrw Md o,,, ellecttws
~ the inlormotion through ~ or muse.ks.
-,.Jst,s From one part to o"°~ port ol the body.
t~ _,.., consists of o ,ell,,_ , o r ~ . (o 2.. Bro/11
• The mom coordinating untre ol tJte bodg th«
..., rounded part of the neuron that hos c.entra,
~ cgtoplosm owJ vorious ,~ orgo,telles), enobks o,, organism to tltmlc owJ ~ eJedsiMs °"'
~i~.d MlrM (-,,ta , ,ea;.. oind die basis of that thinlti,,g, w#ticl, RlflflOlves -
• stimulus), ..., (o 1or,g r,1,re-lih cow,plex mechanisms owJ neural c.onnectio,,s is
tab.J__ -:· : - J , _ AUldU Jmow,, OS brow,.
•~ prouss that cowluds irrt--~ • - J
._. die c.1J bodg) and, ..._,, ., (FJ,,e b,o,td, • Tlwe ore twee mom regiM$ ;,, the brom, I.e.
.. ~ o1 neuro,uJ. .. l~br• , wtid-brom oNI hind-brow,.

• ..,____ from o u r ~ i s ~ bg (,) F•e-h, .,. is the mom thmldng f)Mt t>I the
.. ~ tt,s of WW eds.. Tl,;$ w , I ' ~ b,oi,, w t to reuiw SfflSOl"g impuls. lrow,
~ " Is tlte, trtwwtitt«l., u,. /o,w, o f ~ VMious reuptor s.. It is sp«Jt,MSMJ lor lrMctio,,,s
• L L...
- - u dte,tt/u,J ,.di#' ~ -• •,:..tu
..:..~-
~
_,.._.,... " " - ~ ,
lilce '--ia.A $...n:- s19nt.
rrwrwry, rr-•-r,y, ,,.,..,.,, ~
•._ tlectrbl.,,,.. e-.s ,,_, (ii) Hltl-11,_,,, I$ tlw CMlf«t JM ,_,__ tJw
ftl...., Md tlte,r • • _,,. to Its-'· ,.• .,._ Mtd IIW-lw -. It Cl'»lbllls dee
-"W., 11 . , .,_ ,.,,._, .,,_, ,..,• .,.,tt ol heod to l«dO SIIIMds Md ui,-J
tll. w •••• a••~ • dw _,.,. twllees iMloA,ed • loAsd-, °"' abiscts.
~
.. ,.,,. . . . C.,.wl ,., wtw~~ ,-,slffi t
_, ...... . ,,, - - ,.,aw .,,,,
 ~ n t . (For this types of movement plants
(iii) Hlnd-broi" is the brain stem that provides the
connectlon between the spinal cord ond rest of needs environmenttJI trlggers such os light or growtg
the brain. • The movement of the ports of the plant in respor,~
• Hind-broin consists of three ports which are given to light is co/led phototropic movement and the
below phenomenon involved is co/led p#H,totroplsm.
• If the shoot grows towards light, it is known os
(i) C.eh el"- controls and coordinates some vol<1nu»y
positlv~ phototroplsm. On the other h,nd growth ,1
octkwl, i.e. musculor actions thot maintains
er,uilibrium of the body during various activfties a root away from the light shows Mgat.Jw
sud, IJS ~/Icing, drin/dr,9, catching, etc. pltototropism.
(ii) Po"s lies above the medulla and toke port in • The movement of ports of plant in response to grOVi'
respirt:Jtion. is a1lled geotropic movement and the phenomenon
involved is a1/led gHtroplsm.
(;;,) Hed11ll0 •hlo,,goto is continuous with the spinol
cord ond controls involuntary actions ond • When the tip of the stem grows owoy from the
regulates reflex responses. It controls blood earth's grovitfJtionol force, it is lcnown os negot/w
gHtroplsm ond when the root tips grow t()W(Jrds ~
l pressure, salivotion and vomiting.
• Spinal cord is mode up of nervt!$ thot supply ond
redeve informotion to and from the broin.
grovitg, it ls known as posltlw gHtroplsm.
• The growth of the plant in response to water is coll«
• Centro/ nervous sgstem Is moinlg constituted ltgdrotropism. The growth of the plant in response t.
by two moin poru of the body. i.e. brain ond spinal the chemical stimulus is co/led ~"°"'1trop/sw,.
cord. S. ,hemicol or Hormo111JI ,ommunlcotlon
• The communiaJtion betwe en the Centra l Nervo us
l11 Plants 011d At1lmols
System (CNS) ond other ports of the body is
faa1it1Jted bg the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). • As cells cannot continuously create and transmit
electrical impulses so, most multicellulor organisms
3. Act/011 ol Nervous nssu e use another means of communiC1Jtion known as
• Nervous ti~ collects informotion from body, chemiCIJI communiC1Jtion that occurs bg means of
process it, makes decision and conveg th<Jt decision to IJormoMS.
muscles for action. So, muscl es do the finol work. • Hormones are syntheslsed ot places awag from ~
'I. ,oo,d iNtio M ltt Plllttts positlon they act and simplg diffuse to the area of
action.
• Unlike onimols pl1Jnts does not hove nervous system
and muscle tissue. lnste«J they use chem1l.OI metlns • Plant ltormoMs or pl,gtoltormoMs ore the chemicd
to convey the informotion from one cell to the other. subst4nces that ore noturollg produced in plant tJnd
Sensitivitg of o plant is the obt1itg ol a plant to ore aJpoble ol regulating process of plants.
detect change ond respond to th« change. • • Al/Kl,, Is synthesised in the young tip of roots ond
shoots helps in promoting cell elongation and divisiolt
• So~ plant cells CMnge their sh/Jpe bg changing the
ond olso ploys on lmportlJnt role for the fof'Yll(Jtion q(
l«ith,, t
root, and seedless fruits.
tog
• ,1bbffel//r,s help i~ the growth of the stem
• fl4,-.,

ond flower' ond in germination of seed.

• t,told wns ore mHn t to promote cell division ond
delog let1I o~ing.
amou,,t ol wow in thffll, resulti ng in ~It~ swelling
• Abu/sic ~Id acts os a growth-lnhibitor J,om,o tll
Of sJ,,rinltJ"9. that r~rse s ~ growth-promoting eff«t s ol (Jl#itlS
• ,,.,_,, dw stimulus ltd$ • po,tkuklr dir«tion and ond gibl»relllns.
'"°'- ••• ol plMt «an mdte directi on ol tJM
• Ethf l-. (E,. ._) Is a gaseous hormoM thdt.ets
stimulus (eldw tawords di. .stimulus or to th, ot troc• lw.ls throughout th. Ille ol u,. pla1't .,d ii
~ dlr«t/tw,), the fflCM!fflMt Is called os tropk esuntidl for r/ptlnlng o, fruits.
 ~ <klctle$5 g'4nds whld , pour their seaetlons (l,orw,OM$) Int.a ~
blood
~~ ,,,d.u#M glonds
0
~
l

:;"",,,or,dt ,,it,,it•!I gland, U.,,oid gland, -'«·--~r/,, . plllt .t tlw ,-ue os, odrffltAI glMNI, g«1ods, m.
. .~-~ 1- ~~ •
~ ~n s to tron sf,- . . ,:u:u uy t!nci OUIM
ort t'--
~ ,W,OtJo,, tn ~ or9on1sms and ore St!-U
,,,-J fN11r••--- •- -
L~ ~" lrTY'O

,,,-.
7 How do OrgaMisms Reproduce?
~
ess of produc.w,g l'll!W (iii) Re ~o tlM is fouwl in complttely
. • is o biologkol proc
......wrt
..
qr t~ some $pec ,e.s wy ex,stmg orgo,,isms
-~ L- •
~u •
d,lf~ mt.k Jud, simple orgonisms, lib Hydro ond
~s
Pl4nori4. In SlKn orgt1nism body spli u into
, ,-,,U· It ensures the continuity ol life. s~o l ports owl mos t of tJ,e ~ ports develop
lit pr,a.ss ol r~oel<K.tion Is not ~s.senaol to into com pkte or91J¥fisms. Tne prou ss of
•,,,,;,,,tlJill ~ life of on organism, lib ot>w /if~ ,~~ roti c,, inwJlws sp«.NJliSd t.tlp otef ft cells
,-ass,s, but it is vital for the survivol of o ~ $ . which p,ol ;fe,ote IJl'Jd d,ffe ~tilJ te to form tM
com p/~ body.
. ~ organisms c.reou new Individuals thot
WvtllJ mud, similor to the m~ . (iv) Bllddiltg is t~ woy of reproductior, found in
o"
or~n isms lib Hydr1J, ~u . It rod uus buds
• n.t bosic. event in reprodudkwt is the creotkwl ol
o
their b«lg surf oa wl?idt mtJtlwe into new
NIA u,,. Cells u~ chemk4I reoction-s to build individuol$ tJnd seporote out front tM pore.nt
apits of their T>NA whid , provkles mlormotion for body.
,-., synthesis.
( v) Spore lorwtOtJM is fouwJ in UWU ! SJmpl~
•1- process of T>NA coP':ing is not oaurou, resulting WMlltk.el/.ult:ar orgonisms Ii~ RJ,izopus.
• woriotkms on·sing duriY>g reproductkw, whid , is
tN
~ tmd , wol ~ spores ~ the cap
«it.g to
bosis for evolutiM.
dewlop into MW lndividlMIS on ~ owult:ab1itf of
• Viiriotions moy or moy not be bfflel',aol for ~ suitable. conditkwls.
itdiwduol, but help in the survival of tM sp«Jes
~ odver~ conditions. (Yi) Veg rillt lw propogothw, ~am YNJturollg;,,
ph»tts hfJ roou , st8" s or J«Ne S of por Mt plan
t
•7Jtt modes of reproduction moy be diff ~nt under oppropriou condition-s. For ~ tN
s.
'1,t,,d;r,g on the body design of tM living orgoni5m buds produced in t~ no t~ olrmg the IHI
It C4,, be broadly divided os oseJUIOI repr od« tlM and
morgin of Brgopl,yllum foll on tne soil arid
..,. , ,.,N fletl twt. tkw lop into MW plor,ts..
• ltrtH fdol ~ prO fMl« IM is perfon,te
d bg
l Htde ol Reproductlo" used bg Sl"gle k,geri,,g, cutting, groFting ond tissue culture.
0r, -,., $
• T M ~ ol vegt totiw p,opogof:!twt .,-e
' n., 'IOr/ous modes of asexual reproductitWI ore os .,
l"1ows (i) n,,e propogotiolt ol plon ts lib boN ,,o, or-
ro~ awJjtJsmiM can be doM. wl,i d, haw ltASt
(J) Flal M occurs in uniu llulo r orgonisms lilce the c.opoc.itg to prod uu Sftds.
bocterlo owl Protoz.oo through $imple ,ell MOU gl,
division. (ii) ltJI plants produced ore ge,, ,«ko llg slmihw
to the porent plo~t to how oll its
,,.,,> d/"f °"
the number of individuols formed, ,horocteristic.s.
zs.slon mo, be biMr!J or multiple fiU!°"'·
e.g.
"'-b a, Plomodium, «c. Sa11t1I 11.eproductlM
• It requires both mole awl femole Wtdividuo
ls to
Cl) F~. ,,,._ t«IM occurs In SOIN mul tiull ulor
°'fOn/,ms with simple bodg makeup, e.g., produce t - new offspring. It creotes • lorge ~
S,,rogg,a wl,os. bodg o,, w,oturotio11 £impl!I ol novel variotions~ Titus, the c ~ vonotiM$
up
brtalcs Into smaller frogrMnts; eoch ol whk h from two or more lndiwduols would creote ,__
dtvtlop1 Into NW lndlvlduol. combiNthwts of voriMts.
 ----- --- -•- -C~~

• In compon'son to the non-reproductive bodg cells, the • Some changes occuffing during puberty ore com~r,
germ cells cont/Jin onlg half the chromosome number. to bogs ond girls, whereas, some other changes ote
1,Jhen the offspring is produced bg the union of tne specific to boys ond girls.
mole and female germ cells, its specific chromosome • Changes such as oppearonce of pimples on fau,
number and l>NA content i's re-esttJblished. growth of thick hair in armpits ond genital areas
• In very simple organisms, the two germ cells ore not occur in both bogs ond girls.
very different from one another or mog even be
• In girls, increase in breast size, darkening of nipples
similar. But, in complex organisms, the germ cells ore and occurrence of menstruation are puberty related
specialised. In such cases, the mole gomete is smaller changes. In boys, facial hair growth, cracking of voice
4nd mot,1e, wneretJs, the female gamete is larger ond and occasional enlargement and erection of penis
stores food.
occur during puberty.
(I) ~,t11al ll.eprod~tlor, Ir, Flower/119 Plonts • C.honges associated w;tn puberty are slow and gradual
• In plants like angiosperms, flower is the site of sexual and does not occur uniformly in everyone.
reproduction. It consists of stOMM, the mole • The changes taking place during puberty si9nol the
productive part of flower mode up of anther ond occu"ence of sexual maturatio n in an individual to
filament and corpel, the femole reproductive part otner members of the StJme population.
composed of stigma, style and ovary. • Hole reproductive S!lstem in humans is composed of
• UnluXNI ~ s contain either st/Jmens or carpels a pair of testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles,
as reproductive organs, e.g. papaya and watermelon, prost/Jte gland, urethra and a penis.
while the bluxNl llowers contain botn stamens and • Testes are situated ouuide the abdominal cavity in
carpels, e.g. mustard and Hibiscus. scrotum, because sperm form1Jtion requires a lower
• Stamens produce pollen grains which are present in temperature (normallg 2-2.S°C) than the normal
the anther. The ovary cont4ins ovules and each ovule body temperature. The testes produce sperms ond
beors an egg cell inside embryo sac. secrete mole sex hormone known as testostero,,e,
• PolllMtlorl is the phenomenon of transfer of po/Jen • Sperm or spermatozoa has a small head containing
grains from anther to the stigma. It can be either the genetic material and a long tail, which helps in
ull-poll lMt#M or cross-polllNtlM. The transfer of • mot,1ity. Vos deferens and urethra ore the thin tubes
pollen grains from one flower to another is ca"ied out ~ through which sperms are transported from testes to
bg agents like wind, water or animals. outside. The sperms are nourished bg the fluid
• Pollen tube '°"ies the male gamete from stigma to secreted by the seminal vesicle and prost4te gland.
the female gamete In ovary. • Few,oM reprodc,ctlve S!ISUWI is mode up of ovaries,
• Fertlllut/or, of haploid male and female gametes fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vaglna.
produus the diploid zggote, which then forms the • Ovorles are responsible for the production of <Na/egg
embryo. Following fertJ1isation, the ovule develops into as well as for secreting the female sex hormones,
seed, whereos, the ovarg forms the fruit. oestrogen ond progesterone.
• The seed ,ontJJins the future plant or embryo which • The ovaries of a girl already contoin thousands of
develops into a se«Jling under suitlJble conditions. immature eggs before pubertg.
This process is called ,._,Nt# M.
• On reaching pubertg, one of the ovaries releases a
(/I) Reproduct/011 ,,, HIIINII Bel"9S mature egg everg month. This is called owlotlo.,, This
• ,,_,_s use a se,tuol mode t>f repr"'!uction. mature egg is CIJ"ied bg the fallopian tube.

• ""-tr Is the time between age of II to /q gears old • The sperms enter th~ough the vaginal passage into
wl,e,,UM bot.lg tlf a d,11d starts maturing sexually. the vagina of Females during sexual intercourse. ~
More puberty, ~ bodg resourus are used mainlg to travel upwards and reach the tNld1t1et or Foli.,,OII
grow owl dew/op ti. organism to Its adult size. Once, tllbe where theg mag encounter the egg, ,esultMg ;,,
hrtlllsotl,w,,
dlis Is och~, pubetg sets In.
 zygote gets implanted in the uterus and develops • The mechanical ba"ier methods, such as condom,
' ~ the embryo. prevents sperms from reaching the egg. It also
;rt, r,ta is a disc like structure which is embedded in prevents transmission of sexually transmitted
, pl4'~erine wall. The embryo gets nourishment and diseases.
the from the mother's blood with the help of • Oral contraceptive pills used by human females
~tJJ. Ito/so removes the waste materials being alter the hormonal balance, thereby preventing the
,,erated by the developing embryo. egg from being released.
~ development of child inside mother's body takes • Surgical blocking of vas deferens in males is known
' b()tJt nine months in humans. This is called gestotion as vasectomg and surgical blocking of oviducts
~ . A~er th~s, the child is born due to rngthmic (site of fertiliUJtion) in females is known as
,derine contractions. tubectomg. These procedures prevent pregnancy
, 1,, CASe fertilisation does not occur, the released egg permanently.
along with the thickened lining of the uterus is shed out • Abortions can be done to remove unwanted
through the vagina. This cycle occurs every month in pregnancies. But, this method is being misused in
l,uman females and is called menstruotion or our country to ca"y out female .foeticide. This is
,tttnstrual cycle. leading to an imbalance in female-male sex ratio.
Although this prenatal sex determination is baned
Reproductive Heoltl, ,n Indio. But due to reckless female foeticides this,
, The unprotected sexual act can cause pregnancy as well child sex ratio is declining ,n alarming rate.
as spreading of several Sexually Transmitted l>lseases • Contraceptive methods play an importfJnt role in
(STl>s) like gono"hoea, syphilis and All>S. ma,ntaimng the size of a human population. The
• There are several contraceptive methods to avoid expanding population makes it harder to improve
unwanted pregnancies. The major methods involve the standard of living. It is the main reason of poor
mechanical ba"iers, oral contraceptives, surgiaJI living standards of a country.
blocking, abortions, etc.

Chapter 8 Heredity
• Variations arising during the process of reproduction they show a great deal of variation from their
can be inherited. Even in asexual reproduction, a few parents~
variations can occur, but many more in sexual
• In humans, father and mother contribute equal
reproduction. amount of genetic material to the child. It means
• l>uring asexual reproduction, the minor variations that each trait can be influenced by both po_temal
occur by slight inaccuracies ,n l>NA copying. In sexual and maternal l>NA. Thus, for each·trait, humans have
• reproduction, variations are mainly caused by crossing two versions of genes, called olleles.
over process of cell division, i.e. meiosis and
recombination of genes of two different individuals, I. HeMdel's CowtrlbutioMs
i.e. parents. • ,,egor 3oltonn Hendel ca"ied out several
• l>ifferent individuals have different kind of experiments on pea plants. He ca"ied out large
advont4ges. Beneficial variations help the species to number of monohybrid and dihgbrid crosses using
survive better in the environment and forms the basis many contrasting characteristics ond put forward
of evolution on natural basis. several important conclusions.
• In monoltrbrld cross, with pure variety of plants, the
• Heredity rules determine the process by which traits
phenotypic ratio obtained in F2 -generation is 3:/.
and characteristics are inherited.
• In case of dihrbrld cross with two poirs of
• Reproduction produces offsprings of similar designs of contrasting characters, the phenotypic ratio obtained
the parents. However, they are not exactly identical, in F 2 -generation is 'l:3:3:I.
• From his experiments, Mendel concluded that out of norm<JI diploid number of chromosomes in t~ offspr11tg
any pair of contrasting c.haraders, one is dominant is restored.
and the otl?er one is recessive. The homozygous
dominant trait is denoted by two capital letters, i.e., Sex-l>etem,i,,otlo"
TT, whereas the homozygous rec.essive trait is • The proc.ess by which the sex of a newborn individual
denoted by two small letters, i.e., tt. is det.ermined is called UK-dderwtinotJoM. There are
• l>uring gamete formatior1, the genes controlling o different strategies by which sex is determined in
particular trait separate from eoc.h other. So, the different spec.ies.
gamete contains pure character as far os • In some spedes, e,wiroJtmentol loctors ore importtJnt
contrasting characters are cor,sidered. in determining the sex of d,e developing individual. In
• iJnen two or more traits are involved in crossing, few reptiles, the temperature at which the f erolised
their genes assort independently, i"espective of the eggs are kept, determines tM sex of the offspring.
combinations present in the parents. • In"-""" beings the determination of sex oaurs
• Each gene set is present os separate independent largely by genetic control. In human beings, there are
pieces, called as o ,1tromoso1N. Thus, each cell will 2 3 p<Jirs of chromosomes, out of which 22 pairs ore
have two copies of each chromosome, one each from outosome$ aYld or,e pair is $eK-cltromosow,u.,
the male and female parents. Every gem, cell will • Females have o perfect pair of sex d?romo.somes, i~. X
t4ke one chromosome from etJch pair aYld these WIIJY (homogometic). iJh,1e moles hove a mismotched pair
be either from mother or from ftJther. (heterogometic) in which one is X (normal sized) owJ
• '8,es carry the informtJtion for producing the other is V~chromosome (short in size).
proteins, which in tum control the various body • Hence, on egg fertilised by sperm ca"ging
chlJractenstics. X-chromosome results In a zygou with XX, wltid,
• The male and female germ cells combine .during belo~s o femtJle ond i~ on egg is fertJ1ised bg sperm,
fertiliZ1Jtion and produce o diploid zrgote. Thus, the '°"Y'YJ9 Y-chromosome it results in a XY zygote thtJt
becomes mtJle.