BRANCHES OF EMBRYOLOGY.

1) Descriptive Embryology
This term is applied to the method of study concerned with the direct observation and description of
embryological development. Embryology in ancient times started as a branch of study based on the
direct observation and description by scientists like Aristotle (340B.C), Fabricus (1537-1619)
Harvey (1578-1657) and so on.
2) Experimental Embryology
In the experimental embryology experiments are used for studying the developmental stages, it helps
to understand the fundamental developmental mechanisms. In experimental embryology the various
parts of developing embryo are removed, transplanted, parts exchanged or the environmental
conditions altered, this helps to understand induction, gradient system, etc, Roux (1850-1924) is the
pioneer in the field of experimental embryology. Experimental embryology is also called casual
embryology of analytical embryology.
3) Comparative embryology
In experimental embryology, the embryological development of different animals and studied and
compared, Comparative embryology throws much light on the understanding of evolution and
phylogenetic significance. It also gives some ideas on the developmental stages of certain animals in
whose case the study of development is different.
4) Chemical embryology
Here the developmental stages are studied by biochemical biophysical and physiological techniques,
It is also called physiological of biochemical embryology; Needham (1931) is the pioneer in this
field.
5) Teratology
It is a branch of embryology concerned with the study of malformations.
6) Developmental biology
It includes not only embryonic development but also postnatal processes such as normal and
neoplastic growth, metamorphosis, regeneration and tissue repair.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EMBRYO AND FETUS

The embryo refers to the first stage of development of a baby from the moment of fertilization. It is
called a fetus from the eighth week of conception.

The embryo is the first thing you notice when you go for a pregnancy test. It is the size of a sesame
seed at the time you go for your first ultrasound. By the fifth week of development, the embryo will display
a heartbeat in the early ultrasounds. As time progresses, the tiny embryo will develop buds in its form that
develop into hands and legs. This is also the time when the neural tube starts developing. The neural tube
later develops into the brain and the spinal cord. During this time, the developing embryo gets all its
nourishment from the uterine tissue or the amnion. The placenta also starts developing at this stage. The
placenta is the lifeline through which your baby will get its oxygen and nourishment from your body.

The embryo starts developing into a fetus from the eighth week onwards. Once the embryo reaches
the stage of the fetus, the other organs like the liver, brain and kidneys start functioning inside the tiny body.
You can also see the tiny differentiation of the fingers and the toes. This is also the time when the external
genitalia are visible on an ultrasound.

Dr. Yogeshwar Deshpande, Assit. Proff. ,RTAM, AKOLA Page 1

 Structure of mature spermatozoon.

1) Spermatozoon has 4 parts-Head, Neck, Middle piece & principal piece.

2) The length of spermatozoon is 60µm.
3) Head is piriform in shape & 4µm in length. It is derived from nucleus & consists of 23 highly
condensed chromosomes. The head is covered by cap like structure called acrosome. Acrosome
consist enzymes.
4) Neck is narrow and contains funnel shaped basal body also called connecting piece. Because it helps
to establish intimate connection between head remaining spermatozoon.
5) Axial filament-It begins just behind the centriole. At the point where the middle piece joins the tail,
axial filament passes through ring like structure called ‘annulus’. In middle piece axial filament is
surrounded by the spiral sheath made of mitochondria.
6) There is a central pair of fibrils surrounded by nine other pairs.
7) Finally, the entire spermatozoon is enclosed in plasma membrane.

STRUCTURE OF MATURE OOCYTE.

1) The oogonia are surrounded by other cells of stroma. They form graffian follicles.
2) Some cells of the stroma become flattened & surround an oocyte. These are called as follicular cells.
3) The flattened cells become columnar. Follicles up to this stage of development called as primordial
follicle.
4) The homogenous membrane ‘Zona pellucida’ appears between follicular cells and oocyte.
5) The follicular cells proliferate to form several layers. These constitute the ‘membrena granulosa’.
The cells may now call as ‘granulosa cells’.
6) The cavity appears within the membrena granulosa.
7) This cavity rapidly increases. The oocyte now lies eccentrically in the follicle, surrounded by some
granulosa cells called as ‘cumulus oophoricus’. The cells that attach it to the wall of follicle called
‘discus proligerus’.
8) The stromal cells surrounding membrena granulosa cells become condensed to form covering called
‘theca interna’. Later they secrete hormone called oestrogen. At that time those cells are called as
‘thecal gland’.
9) Outside to the theca interna cells some fibrous tissue becomes condensed to form another covering
called as theca externa. This is fully developed graffian follicle.

Formation of germ layers.

FERTILIZATION-

1) After rupture of graffian follicle, the ovum enters into infundibulum of uterine tube & passes into
ampulla.
2) Fertilization of ovum occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube. Out of few hundred sperms, which
surround the ovum only one can pierces the zona pellucida & enters the ovum.
3) The nucleus of ovum becomes the ‘female pronucleus’.
4) The head of spermatozoon separates from middle piece & tail & it transforms itself into ‘male
pronucleus’.
5) The glycoprotein of zona pellucida is responsible for induction of acrosomal reaction.
6) When spermatozoon comes in contact with the oocyte, plasma membranes of the 2 cells fuse. This is
due to receptor sites. These are specific of species.

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 7) Alterations taking place in the plasma membrane of oocyte & zona pellucida. This is due to release
of lysosomal enzymes by plasma membrane. This is called as zona reaction.
8) Soon, thereafter the pro nuclei lose their nuclear membrane. 23 chromosomes of female pronucleus
& 23 chromosomes of male pronucleus get mixed up to form 23 pairs.
9) These 46 chromosomes undergo series of division which is typical mitotic division. Leading to
formation of 2 cell embryo.

CLEAVAGE

1) The process of further subdivision of embryo is called as cleavage.

2) As cleavage proceeds the ovum comes to have 16 cells. It now looks like mulberry & is called as
morula, it is still surrounded by zona pellucida.
3) The longitudinal section of morula shows inner cell mass that is that is completely surrounded by
outer layer of cells. The cells of outer layer will later give rise to structure called as trophoblast.
4) The inner cell mass give rise to embryo proper & is called as embryoblast.
5) Some fluid passes into morula from uterine cavity, & partially separates the cells of inner mass from
the trophoblast.
6) Now the morula acquires the shape of cyst & called as blastocyst.
7) Cavity of blastocyst is called blastocoele
8) The side of inner cell mass is called embryonic pole & opposite to embryonic pole is called
‘abembryonic pole’.

FUNCTIONS OF ZONA.

1) The trophoblast has capacity to eat up other cells. They can therefore invade & burrow into the tissue
with which they come into contact.
2) As embryo travels down the uterine tube & upper most part of uterine cavity it is prevented by
sticking to epithelium due to zona pellucida.
3) Zona pellucida soon disappears after morula reaches to uterine lumen.
4) Thus the function of zona is to prevent the implantation of blastocyst at abnormal site.
5) The developing embryo is generally different from mother. This may evoke immunological reactions
if embryonic & maternal tissue comes in contact.
6) Zona pellucida acts as a barrier separates the maternal tissue from embryo.
7) After disappearance of zona, various immunosuppressive cytokinase & proteins are produce by
implanting embryo. This blocks the reorganisation of embryo as foreign to mother.

FORMATION OF GERMINAL LAYERS.

1) At a very early stage of development, the embryo proper acquires the form of 3 layer disc. This is
called embryonic disc.
2) The 3 layers are-1.Endoderm 2.Ectoderm 3. Mesoderm. Endo=inside, ecto=outside, meso=in the
middle.

Further changes of blastocyst are as follows-

3) Some cells of inner cell mass differentiate into flattened cells, which come to line free surface. These
constitute the endoderm, which is thus the 1st germ layer to be formed.
4) The remaining cells of inner cell mass become columnar. These cells form the 2nd germ layer called
ectoderm. The embryo is now in the form of disc having 2 layers.

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 5) The space appears between ectoderm & trophoblast. This is the amniotic cavity, filled by amniotic
fluid. The roof of this cavity is formed by amniogenic cells, derived from the trophoblast.
6) Flattened cells arising from endoderm spread & line the inside of blastocystic cavity. This lining is
called as Heuser’s membrane.
7) Now a cavity forms, by the endodermal cells which is called as primary yolk sac.
8) The cells of trophoblast give rise to mass of cells called the extra embryonic mesoderm.
9) These cells separate the cells of primary yolk sac & amniotic cavity from trophoblastic cells.
10) Small cavity appears in extra embryonic mesoderm which gradually increases. Ultimately one large
cavity formed. This cavity is called as extra embryonic coelom or chorionic cavity.
11) Extra embryonic coelom splits the extra embryonic mesoderm into 2 layers.
12) The part lining the inside of trophoblast & outside the amniotic cavity is called parietal or
somatopleuric extra embryonic mesoderm.
13) The part lining outside the yolk sac called visceral or splanchnopleuric extra embryonic
mesoderm.
14) Now the parietal extra embryonic mesoderm forms layer inside which is in the form of membrane.
This is known as chorion.
15) Amniogenic cells from another membrane called amnion in amniotic cavity.
16) With appearance of extra embryonic mesoderm & extra embryonic coelom, the yolk sac becomes
much smaller & now called as secondary yolk sac. Now the cells of endoderm which form the yolk
sac become cubical.
17) At this stage embryo proper is circular disc, composed of 2 layers of cells, upper outer towards
amnion is ectoderm which is columnar.
18) The lower layer towards yolk sac is endoderm which is cubical.
19) Later on one circular area near the margin of the disc the cubical cells of endoderm become
columnar this area is called procordal plate.
20) This determines the central axis of embryo & also future head & tail end.
21) After formation of procordal plate some of the ectodermal cells lying along the central axis near tail
end begin to proliferate & forms an elevation. This is known as primitive streak.
22) The cells in the region of primitive streak pass sideways, pushing themselves into ectoderm &
endoderm. These cells form intra embryonic mesoderm or 3rd germinal layer.
23) The process of formation of intra embryonic mesoderm from primitive streak is called
‘gastrulation’.
24) Development of embryo from fertilization up to formation of bilaminar disc is called ‘pre-
organogenesis period’. Time table of this period is as follows-

AGE
in EVENT
DAYS
2 2 Cell stage embryo.
3 Morula formed.
4 Blastocyst is formed.
8 Bilaminar disc is formed.
14 Procordal plate & primitive streak are formed.
16 Intra embryonic mesoderm is formed.

LAWS OF HEREDITY.

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 The Laws of Heredity are few; their implications for life are vast. The simplest genetic characteristics
are those whose presence depends on the genotype at a single locus; i.e., one gene controls the expression of
one characteristic. Such characters are known as Mendelian, after their original discoverer, the Austrian
botanist Gregor Mendel. Over 10,000 Mendelian characters have been identified in humans. In sum,
Mendel's Laws of Heredity state that:

• Each physical characteristic corresponds to a single gene

• Genes come in pairs
• Only one gene of the pair is passed on to the next generation by each parent
• It is equally probable that either gene will be passed on
• Some characteristics are "dominant" while others are "recessive."

1) A trait (character) is dominant if it is expressed in the heterozygote (only one of the chromosome
pair carries the gene) and recessive if it is only expressed in a homozygote (both chromosomes carry
the gene).
2) Dominant and recessive are properties of traits, not of genes themselves.
3) These pedigree patterns are not always as evident in humans as in the pea plants that Mendel
originally studied to define these concepts. This is due to a number of confounding factors, chief
among them being incomplete penetrance.
4) The penetrance of a character is the probability that a person with the genotype will manifest the
dominant character. Other confounders include delayed onset of late-age genetic disorders, multi-
gene effects, and variable expression of genes (different features of a single genetic syndrome will
appear in similarly affected individuals).
5) In addition, spontaneous mutations can occur where no pedigree association exists.
6) Mendelian inheritance patterns were the first evidence to unlock the mysteries of heredity. While
10,000 traits are known to be Mendelian, at least as many traits are non-Mendelian.
7) Height, intelligence, personality, and a thousand more characteristics of creatures are multifactorial -
controlled by the interaction of numerous genes, each independently assorted.
8) Furthermore, the same confounders for simple Mendelian inheritance (incomplete penetrance,
environmental influences, and spontaneous mutations) also occur in characteristics determined by
multiple genes-but their effects are exponentially multiplied.
9) Still, the Laws of Heredity have taught us much. They form the basis from which we can begin to
understand dynamic interactions between genes within the genome and between the genome and the
environment.

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 Sexual differentiation in humans

The Human Y Chromosome showing the SRY gene which codes for a protein regulating sexual
differentiation.

Sexual differentiation in humans is the process of development of sex differences in humans. It is

defined as the development of phenotypic structures consequent to the action of hormones produced
following gonadal determination. Sexual differentiation includes development of different genitalia and the
internal genital tracts, breasts, body hair, and plays a role in gender identification.

The development of sexual differences begins with the XY sex-determination system that is present
in humans, and complex mechanisms are responsible for the development of the phenotypic differences
between male and female humans from an undifferentiated zygote.[3] Females have two X chromosomes,
and males have a Y chromosome and an X chromosome. At an early stage in embryonic development, both
sexes possess equivalent internal structures. These are the mesonephric ducts and paramesonephric ducts.
The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of the testes in males, and the
subsequent release of hormones which cause the paramesonephric ducts to regress. In females, the
mesonephric ducts regress.

Abnormal sexual development, and ambiguous genitalia, can be a result of genetic and hormonal
factors.

Sex determination.

A baby’s sex is determined at the time of conception. When the baby is conceived, a chromosome
from the sperm cell, either X or Y, fuses with the X chromosome in the egg cell, determining whether the
baby will be genetically female (XX) or male (XY). To be genetically female, one needs to be (XX),
whereas to be a genetic male, (XY) is needed. It is the Y chromosome that is essential for the development
of the male reproductive organs, and with no Y chromosome, an embryo will develop into a female. This is
because of the presence of the sex determining region of the Y chromosome, also known as the SRY gene.

A fetus doesn't develop its external sexual organs until -the fourth month of pregnancy —seven
weeks after conception. The fetus appears to be sexually indifferent, looking neither like a male or a female.
Over the next five weeks, the fetus begins producing hormones that cause its sex organs to grow into either
male or female organs. This process is called sexual differentiation. The precursor of the internal female sex
organs is called the Müllerian system.

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Reproductive system.

Differentiation between the sexes of the sex organs occurs throughout embryological, fetal and later
life. This includes both internal and external genital differentiation. In both males and females, the sex
organs consist of three structures: the gonads, the internal genitalia, and the external genitalia. In males, the
gonads are the testes and in females they are the ovaries. These are the organs that produce gametes (egg and
sperm), the reproductive cells that will eventually meet to form the fertilized egg (zygote).

As the zygote divides, it first becomes the embryo, typically between zero to eight weeks, then from
the eighth week until birth, it is considered the fetus. The internal genitalia are all the accessory glands and
ducts that connect the gonads to the outside environment. The external genitalia consist of all the external
reproductive structures. The sex of an early embryo cannot be determined because the reproductive
structures do not differentiate until the seventh week. Prior to this, the tissue is considered bipotential
because it cannot be identified as male or female.

Internal genital differentiation

The internal genitalia consist of two accessory ducts: mesonephric ducts (male) and paramesonephric
ducts (female). The mesonephric system is the precursor to the male genitalia and the paramesonephric to
the female reproductive system. As development proceeds, one of the pairs of ducts develops while the other
regresses. This depends on the presence or absence of the sex determining region of the Y chromosome, also
known as the SRY gene. In the presence of a functional SRY gene, the bipotential gonads develop into
testes. Gonads are histologically distinguishable by 6–8 weeks of gestation.

Subsequent development of one set and degeneration of the other depends on the presence or
absence of two testicular hormones: testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). Disruption of typical
development may result in the development of both, or neither, duct system, which may produce
morphologically intersex individuals.

Males: The SRY gene when transcribed and processed produces SRY protein that binds to DNA and
directs the development of the gonad into testes. Male development can only occur when the fetal testis
secretes key hormones at a critical period in early gestation. The testes begin to secrete three hormones that
influence the male internal and external genitalia: they secrete anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), testosterone,
and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Anti-Müllerian hormone causes the paramesonephric ducts to regress.
Testosterone converts the mesonephric ducts into male accessory structures, including the epididymis, vas
deferens, and seminal vesicle. Testosterone will also control the descending of the testes from the abdomen
into the scrotum. Many other genes found on other autosomes, includingWT-1, SOX9, SF-1 also play a role
in gonadal development.

Females: Without testosterone and AMH, the mesonephric ducts degenerate and disappear. The
paramesonephric ducts develop into a uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina.

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 External genital differentiation

By 7 weeks, a fetus has a genital tubercle, urogenital groove and sinus, and labioscrotal folds. In
females, without excess androgens, these become the clitoris, urethra and vagina, and labia.

Males become externally distinct between 8 and 12 weeks, as androgens enlarge the phallus and
cause the urogenital groove and sinus to fuse in the midline, producing an unambiguous penis with a phallic
urethra, and a thinned, rugated scrotum. Dihydrotestosterone will differentiate the remaining male
characteristics of the external genitalia.

A sufficient amount of any androgen can cause external masculinization. The most potent is
dihydrotestosterone (DHT), generated from testosterone in skin and genital tissue by the action of 5α-
reductase. A male fetus may be incompletely masculinized if this enzyme is deficient. In some diseases and
circumstances, other androgens may be present in high enough concentrations to cause partial or (rarely)
complete masculinization of the external genitalia of a genetically female fetus. The testes begin to secrete
three hormones that influence the male internal and external genitalia. They secrete anti-Müllerian hormone,
testosterone, and Dihydrotestosterone. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) causes the paramesonephric ducts to
regress. Testosterone, which is secreted and converts the mesonephric ducts into male accessory structures,
such as epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle. Testosterone will also control the descending of the
testes from the abdomen into the scrotom. Dihydrotestosterone, also known as (DHT) will differentiate the
remaining male characteristics of the external genitalia.

Further sex differentiation of the external genitalia occurs at puberty, when androgen levels again
become disparate. Male levels of testosterone directly induce growth of the penis and indirectly (via DHT)
the prostate.

Alfred Jost observed that while testosterone was required for mesonephric duct development, the
regression of the paramesonephric duct was due to another substance. This was later determined to be
paramesonephric inhibiting substance (MIS), a 140 kD dimeric glycoprotein that is produced by sertoli cells.
MIS blocks the development of paramesonephric ducts, promoting their regression.

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Defeminization and masculinization

Defeminization and masculinization are the differentiating processes that a fetus goes through to
become male. Although, it may seem that this would make the female brain the “default” brain, this is not
necessarily the case. Female brains still use hormones, such as estradiol, to undergo differentiation.

Biologically, this perspective is supported by the fact that there are neither female genes nor female
hormones that correspond to the hormones active in males only. Estrogen, for instance, is present in both the
male and female fetus.

Secondary sexual characteristics

Breast

Visible differentiation occurs at puberty, when estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to develop in
girls. However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast development by reducing the capacity
of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen.

Psychological and behavioral differentiation

Human adults and children show many psychological and behavioral sex differences, both dichotomous and
dimorphic. Some (e.g., dress) are learned and obviously cultural. Others are demonstrable across cultures
and have both biological and learned determinants. For example, girls are, on average, more verbally fluent
than boys, but boys are, on average, better at spatial calculation. Because people cannot explore hormonal
influences on human behavior experimentally, the relative contributions of biological factors and learning to
human psychological and behavioral sex differences (especially gender identity, role, and sexual orientation)
remain unsettled and controversial.

Current theories of mechanisms of sexual differentiation of brain and behaviors in humans are based
primarily on three sources of evidence: animal research involving manipulation of hormones in early life,
observation of outcomes of small numbers of individuals with disorders of sexual development (intersex
conditions or cases of early sex reassignment), and statistical distribution of traits in populations (e.g., rates
of homosexuality in twins). Many of these cases suggest some genetic or hormonal effect on sex
differentiation of behavior and mental traits.

In addition to affecting development, changing hormone levels affect certain behaviors or traits that are
gender dimorphic, such as superior verbal fluency among women.

MONTH-WISE DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO

Month 1: In first month of pregnancy baby will accomplish many things, first and foremost, conception,
fertilization, and implantation. After a woman ovulates, the egg is normally fertilized within 24-48 hours.
The single fertilized cell begins to rapidly divide and at this point in time is called a zygote. Many amazing
things happen at fertilization. Baby’s entire physical attributes are determined including gender, hair colour,
and eye colour. Between days 7-10 from fertilization implantation usually occurs. Implantation should occur
within the uterus if it does not this is considered an ectopic pregnancy. The amniotic sac, umbilical cord and

Dr. Yogeshwar Deshpande, Assit. Proff. ,RTAM, AKOLA Page 9

yolk sac are already beginning to form. By the end of this month baby is approximately 2mm long and
beginning early stages of development.

Month 2: baby is now considered a fetus. Her heart, neural tube, arms and legs, liver and other major organs
begin to form. By 6th week, her heart will be beating and visible via ultrasound. The placenta also begins to
form as well as the eyes, ears, mouth, and bones. In this month, baby's fingers and toes will become present;
however, they may still be webbed. Her brain and cranial nerves will also begin to form this month. Baby's
sex organs begin to become visible. Baby is approximately 1/2 inch - 3/4 inch long and weighs about 1-2
grams by the end of this month.

Month 3: If given an ultrasound now, you would be able to see baby's arms and legs moving. Baby's
heartbeat can be detected by doppler beginning in your third month. Development of the heart and all major
organs is complete by the end of the third month. Baby's sex organs continue to develop, but it is still too
difficult to differentiate gender. Baby's muscles in trunk, limbs, and head are developing. Baby's face is well
formed and your baby looks like a baby. By the end of your third month, your baby is 3-4 inches long and
weighs about 1 ounce.

Month 4: During fourth month baby's hair and teeth begin to form. Baby will be moving and active now
and one may begin to feel baby's movement this month, however, not feeling movements till next month is
perfectly normal as well. Baby's digestive system is forming and the intestines are present. Meconium,
baby's first stool, is present in the intestines as well. By the end of this month it may be possible to
determine baby's gender. Baby is approximately 5-6 inches long and weighs 5-8 ounces by the end of the
month.

Month 5: Baby is developing a fine hair, called lanugo, which covers the body. Likewise, her eyelashes and
eyebrows are developing. Her fingerprints and footprints are now developed. She begins to suck and
swallow and may even be found sucking her thumb. Vernix, a white lanolin-like covering, appears on baby
to protect her skin. Her ears are developed as well and she may be able to hear you now. Baby is
approximately 7-8 inches long and weighs 3/4-1 pound by the end of this month.

Month 6: Baby's immune system is developing and she is beginning to create her own antibodies. She has
developed a hand grip reflex and startle reflex. Her lungs are beginning to develop and alveoli are forming.
She is growing and filling out. She looks more and more like the person she will be when she is born. By the
end of this month, she is approximately 9-10 inches long and weigh in at about 1 1/2-2 1/4 pounds.

Month 7: Baby's eyes are open and she is able to cry. She may be very active now and others may be able to
see her movements. She may have hiccups which will feel like a jumpy movement. She is increasing in body
fat and her bones are fully developed now. By the end of this month, she is approximately 11 inches long
and weighs around 3-3 1/2 pounds.

Month 8: At this point of pregnancy, there is not a whole lot of new development. However, baby is
growing and maturing and preparing for life outside the womb. Baby sleeps most of the time now and has
periods of REM sleep. Baby is becoming increasingly cramped for space, but she is still very active. Your
baby is approximately 13 inches long and weighs around 5-6 pounds at the end of this month.

Month 9: In your 9th month, which actually extends a little further than 9 calendar months, Baby is
preparing for birth. She will spend a lot of time resting, but she should still have plenty of active periods.
She should be facing head down in preparation for birth. Baby’s weight and length vary considerably at
birth, but a typical range would be between 7-8 pounds and 19-21 inches in length.

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 Fetal circulation

The fetal circulation is the circulatory system of a human fetus, often encompassing the entire
fetoplacental circulation which includes the umbilical cord and the blood vessels within the placenta that
carry fetal blood.

The fetal circulation works differently from that of born humans, mainly because the lungs are not in use:
the fetus obtains oxygen and nutrients from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.

Placental role

The core concept behind fetal circulation is that fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than does
adult hemoglobin, which allows a diffusion of oxygen from the mother's circulatory system to the fetus. The
circulatory system of the mother is not directly connected to that of the fetus, so the placenta functions as the
respiratory center for the fetus as well as a site of filtration for plasma nutrients and wastes. Water, glucose,
amino acids, vitamins, and inorganic salts freely diffuse across the placenta along with oxygen. The
umbilical arteries carry blood to the placenta, and the blood permeates the sponge-like material there.
Oxygen then diffuses from the placenta to the chorionic villus, an alveolus-like structure, where it is then
carried to the umbilical vein.

Circuit

Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the umbilical vein. Less than a third of this enters the fetal
ductus venosus and is carried to the inferior vena cava, while the rest enters the liver proper from the inferior
border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with
the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening
between the right and left atrium (the foramen ovale), and most of the blood flows through this hole directly
into the left atrium from the right atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The continuation of this
blood flow is into the left ventricle, and from there it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the
blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the
placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the maternal
circulation.

Some of the blood entering the right atrium does not pass directly to the left atrium through the foramen
ovale, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the pulmonary artery. In the fetus, there is a special
connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ductus arteriosus, which directs most of
this blood away from the lungs (which are not being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is
suspended in amniotic fluid).

Blood pressure

It is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal blood pressure to drive its blood through
the fetal circulation.

Intracardiac pressure remains identical between the right and left ventricles of the human fetus.

The blood pressure in the fetal aorta is approximately 30 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation, and increases to ca
45 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation. The fetal pulse pressure is ca 20 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation,
increasing to ca 30 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation.

The blood pressure decreases when passing through the placenta. In the arteria umbilicalis, it is ca 50
mmHg. It falls to 30 mmHg in the capillaries in the villi. Subsequently, the pressure is 20 mm Hg in the
umbilical vein, returning to the heart.

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Flow

The blood flow through the umbilical cord is approximately 35 mL/min at 20 weeks, and 240 mL/min at 40
weeks of gestation. Adapted to the weight of the fetus, this corresponds to 115 mL/min/kg at 20 weeks and
64 mL/min/kg at 40 weeks. It corresponds to 17% of the combined cardiac output of the fetus at 10 weeks,
and 33% at 20 weeks of gestation.

Endothelin and prostanoids cause vasoconstriction in placental arteries, while nitric oxide causes
vasodilation. On the other hand, there is no neural vascular regulation, and catecholamines have only little
effect.

Monitoring

The dynamics of the fetal circulation can be visualized by obstetric ultrasonography, such as on this embryo
of 8 weeks.

The fetal heart rate can be monitored by cardiotocography, which includes registering heart contractions by
Doppler ultrasonography. Also, obstetric ultrasonography using Doppler technique on key vessels such as
the umbilical artery can detect abnormal flow.

At birth

At birth, when the infant breathes for the first time, there is a decrease in the resistance in the pulmonary
vasculature, which causes the pressure in the left atrium to increase relative to the pressure in the right
atrium. This leads to the closure of the foramen ovale, which is then referred to as the fossa ovalis.
Additionally, the increase in the concentration of oxygen in the blood leads to a decrease in prostaglandins,
causing closure of the ductus arteriosus. These closures prevent blood from bypassing pulmonary
circulation, and therefore allow the neonate's blood to become oxygenated in the newly operational lungs.

THE PLACENTA.

IMPLANTATION-

1) The cells lining the surface of the morula are called trophoblastic cells. They have the property of
attaching themselves to & invading any tissue it comes in contact with.
2) Once zona disappears, the cells of trophoblast stick to uterine endometrium. This is called
implantation.
3) In human beings implantation begins on the 6th day of fertilization.
4) The blastocyst burrows deeper & deeper into uterine mucosa till the whole of it come to lie within
the thickness of endometrium. This is called interstitial implantation.
5) After implantation of embryo, the uterine endometrium is called as decidua.
6) The portion of decidua where the placenta is formed is called decidua basalis.
7) The part of decidua that separates the embryo from uterine lumen is called decidua capsularis.
8) The part lining the rest of uterine cavity is called decidua parietalis.

FORMATION OF CHORIONIC VILLI.

1) The essential functional elements of placenta are very small finger like processes or villi.
2) The villi are formed as offshoots from the surface of trophoblast, along with underlying extra
embryonic mesoderm constitute the chorion. The villi arising from it is called chorionic villi.
3) The villi that grow into decidua basalis undergo considerable development. Along with the tissue of
decidua basalis, these villi form disc shaped mass called as ‘placenta’.

Dr. Yogeshwar Deshpande, Assit. Proff. ,RTAM, AKOLA Page 12

 4) The process of villi formation is as follows- the trophoblast is made up of single layer cell. As these
cells multiply,2 distinct layers are formed.
5) The cells nearest to the decidua lose their cell boundaries. Thus one continuous sheet of cytoplasm
containing many nuclei is formed. This is called syncytium or syncytiotrophoblast.
6) The trophoblast cells which retain their cell boundaries called as cytotrophoblast.
7) The syncytiotrophoblast grows rapidly & becomes thick. Small cavities or lacunae appear in this
layer. The lacunae are separated from one another by partitions of syncytium which are now called
as trabeculae
8) The lacunae gradually communicate with each other, so that eventually one large space is formed.
Each trabeculus is surrounded by this lacunar space all around.
9) As the endometrium erodes by syncytiotrophoblast, some of its blood vessels are opened up & blood
from them fills the lacunar space.
10) Each trabeculus is initially made up of entirely of syncytium. Now the cells of cytotrophoblast begin
to multiply & grow into each trabeculus. The trabeculus thus comes to have central core of
cytotrophoblast, covered by an outer layer of syncytium. It is surrounded by maternal blood filling
the lacunar space. The trabeculus is now called as primary villus & lacunar space is called as
intervillous space.
11) Further extra embryonic mesoderm invades the centre of each primary villus. The villus now has a
core of mesoderm, covered by cytotrophoblast,& syncytium. This structure is called as secondary
villus.
12) Thereafter, blood vessels can be seen in mesoderm forming the core of each villus. With their
appearance the villus is fully formed & called as tertiary villus.
13) At a later stage, however the cytotrophoblast emerges through the syncytium of each villus. The cells
of cytotrophoblast now spread out to form a layer that completely cuts off the syncytium from
decidua. This layer is called cytotrophoblastic shell.
14) The villi that are first formed are attached on the foetal side to the embryonic mesoderm & on
maternal side to the cytotrophoblastic shell. They are called anchoring villi.
15) Each anchoring villus consist of a stem i.e. truncus chorii. This divides into no of branches called
rami chorii, which turn divide into finger branches called ramulii chorii. The ramulii are attached to
cytotrophoblastic shell.
16) All anchoring villus form a disc shaped structure called placenta. The placenta has 15/20 lobes.
Diameter 6/8 inches weight about 500 gm.

FUNCTIONS OF PLACENTA.

1) Placenta enables the transport of oxygen, water, electrolytes, & nutrition from maternal blood, also
provides for excretion of CO2, urea, & other waste products produce by foetus into maternal blood.
2) Maternal antibodies IgG, gamma globulins or immunoglobulins reaching the foetus through placenta
give the foetus immunity against some infections.
3) It acts as a barrier & prevents many bacteria & viruses from reaching the foetus.
4) Placenta synthesizes progesterone which is essential for maintenance of pregnancy after 4 month.
Also it secrets oestrogens which promotes the uterine growth & development of mammary glands.

Development of the umbilical cord

The umbilical cord is formed when the body stalk and the ductus omphalo-entericus as well as
the umbilical coelom are enveloped by the spreading amnion between the 4th and 8th week.
Dr. Yogeshwar Deshpande, Assit. Proff. ,RTAM, AKOLA Page 13
Finally, when the membranes of the amniotic cavity come into contact with those of the
chorionic cavity and the two extra-embryonic mesoderm layers that cover both membranes,
fuse. With the flexing movements of the embryo, the amnion encircles the body stalk, the
ductus omphalo-entericus and the umbilical vessels, thus circumscribing the elements of the
umbilical cord.

Fig. 48 - Body stalk Fig. 49 - Formation of the Legend

umbilical cord

Fig. 48
Body stalk at
around the 3rd
week
Fig. 49
Formation of the
umbilical cord at
1 Amniotic cavity around the 3.5th
A Body stalk week
2 Umbilical vesicle
B Stem of umbilical vesicle
3 Chorionic cavity
4 Villous chorion
5 Allantois

Fig. 50 - Umbilical cord Fig. 51 - Umbilical vesicle in the Legend

chorionic cavity

Dr. Yogeshwar Deshpande, Assit. Proff. ,RTAM, AKOLA Page 14

 Fig. 50
The body stalk and
the yolk stalk are
now united and form
the umbilical cord.
Through increasing
secretion of
amniotic fluid the
chorionic cavity
1 Amniotic cavity becomes obliterated.
A Body stalk 2 Umbilical vesicle Here at around the
B Stem of umbilical vesicle 3 Chorionic cavity 4.5th week: The
chorionic cavity is
C Umbilical cord 4 Chorion laeve reduced in size

Fig. 51
Flexing of the
embryo at around
the 8th week with
expansion of the
amnion that
encircles the body
stalk and the ductus
omphalo-entericus,
the umbilical
coelom and the
umbilical vessels

In the early stage (at around the 8th week) the umbilical cord is in the form of a very thick and
short section with the following structures:

• The ductus omphalo-entericus which connects the primitive intestines with the
umbilical vesicle and two vitelline vessels (vasa omphalomesenterica, 2 arteries and 2
veins!). The umbilical vesicle is located in the chorionic cavity (exocoelom = extra-
embryonic coelom).
• The body stalk with the allantois, the umbilical vessels (2 arteries and 1 vein!). During
the development it gets shifted ventrally in order to finally fuse with the stem of the
umbilical vesicle.
• The umbilical coelom that connects the extra-embryonic coelom with the intra-
embryonic coelom

Fig. 52a - Development Fig. 52b - Development Legend

Dr. Yogeshwar Deshpande, Assit. Proff. ,RTAM, AKOLA Page 15

 Fig. 52a
Transversal section
of the primitive
umbilical cord after
approximately 8
weeks

Fig. 52b
Transversal section
of the primitive
umbilical cord with
1 Ductus omphalo-entericus 2 Extra-embryonic coelom physiologic
3 Allantois (umbilical coelom) umbilical hernia at
around the 3rd
4 Umbilical vein 7 Intestinal tube
month
5 Umbilical arteries (physiologic umbilical hernia)
6 Amnion 8 Vasa omphalomesenterica

Further development promotes both lengthening as well as the reduction

of some structures.

Lengthening:
The amniotic cavity forms a covering around the ductus omphalo-entericus and the body stalk,
which elongates. The newly formed umbilical cord continues to lengthen to allow for fetal
movements and coils in the amniotic cavity.

Reduction:
Numerous elements degenerate in the 3rd month.

• the omphalo-enteric duct (it can remain in the form of a Meckel's diverticulum)
• the umbilical vesicle of the allantois (it is obliterated in order to form the umbilical
ligament, lying medially in adults)
• The vitelline circulation system in the extra-embryonic region.
• The umbilical coelom, which clumps and disappears.

Finally, only the body stalk remains with its umbilical vessels (2 arteries, 1 vein), which are
surrounded by an amniotic epithelial layer. The connective tissue of the body stalk and the
amnion (that stems from the extra-embryonic mesoblast) go over into a common umbilical
cord connective tissue, the so-called "Wharton jelly", an elastic and resistant tissue that
protects the umbilical vessels from possible mechanical pressure and creasing.

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